Electricity

ELECTRIC CURRENT Current is defined as the amount of charge flowing in unit time. In other words, it is the rate of flow of electric charges. Mathematically, Current I = Q/t Where, Q is the net charge flowing in time t. The current does not flow, the charge does. Conventional Current: Conventionally, in an electric circuit the direction of electric current is taken as opposite to the direction of the flow of electrons, which are negative charges. Unit of Current: Coulomb: The SI unit of electric charge is Coulomb (C). One Coulomb is equivalent to the charge contained in nearly 6 10 18 electrons or protons. An electron possesses a negative charge of 1.6 10 19 C. Ampere: The electric current is expressed by a unit called ampere (A), One ampere is constituted by the flow of one coulomb of charge per second. That is, 1 A = 1 C/1 s = 6 1018 electrons or protons/second 1 milliampere = 103 Ampere (1 mA = 103 A) 1 microampere = 106 Ampere (1 A = 106 A) Ammeter: An instrument to measure electric current in a circuit. An Ammeter is always connected in series in a circuit through which the current is to be measured.

Relation of conventional current to other important electrical quantities

+
Conventional Current

Flow of positive charge

Flow of negative charge

Electric Field

Decrease in Potential energy of + charge

Decrease in Potential energy of - charge

Decrease in Potential

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE The electric potential at a point is the work done in bringing a unit test charge from infinity to that point. The electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit carrying some current is defined as the work done to move a unit charge from one point to the other. Mathematically, Potential difference between two points V = W/Q Where, W is the Work done and Q the amount Charge. Unit of Potential Difference: Volt: The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V), One volt is the potential difference between two points in a current carrying conductor when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to the other. Therefore, 1 volt =1 joule/1 coulomb Voltmeter: An instrument to measure potential difference. The voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which the potential difference is to be measured.

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit. The electric current flows in the circuit from the positive terminal of the cell to the negative terminal of the cell. OHMS LAW Statement: The electric current flowing through a metallic wire is directly proportional to the potential difference V, across its ends provided its temperature remains the same. In other words

VI
or or V/I = constant = R V = IR

Where, R is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature and is called its resistance. The VI graph is a straight line that passes through the origin of the graph, RESISTANCE: It is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it.

According to Ohms law,

R = V/I

or

I= V/R

That is, the current through a resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance. If the resistance is doubled the current gets halved. Unit of Resistance: SI unit is ohm, (). Ohm: If the potential difference across the two ends of a conductor is 1 V and the current through it is 1 A, then the resistance R, of the conductor is 1 . That is, 1 ohm = 1 volt/ 1 ampere

Variable resistance: A component used to regulate current without changing the voltage source is called variable resistance. Rheostat: In an electric circuit, a device called rheostat is often used to change the resistance in the circuit. Certain components offer an easy path for the flow of electric current while the others resist the flow. Why? Motion of electrons in an electric circuit constitutes an electric current. The electrons, however, are not completely free to move within a conductor. They are restrained by the attraction of the atoms among which they move. Thus, motion of electrons through a conductor is retarded by its resistance. Good Conductor, Resistor, Poor Conductor & Insulators: A component of a given size that offers a low resistance to the flow of electric current is a good conductor. A conductor having some appreciable resistance is called a resistor. A component of identical size that offers a higher resistance is a poor conductor. An insulator of the same size offers even higher resistance. FACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS A. The Resistance of the conductor depends (i) (ii) (iii) B. on its length, on its area of cross-section, and on the nature of its material.

Resistance of a uniform metallic conductor is directly proportional to its length (l) and inversely proportional to the area of cross-section (A). That is, R l and R 1/A Combining these two, we get or, R l/A R = (l/A),

where (rho) is a constant of proportionality and is called the electrical RESISTIVITY of the material of the conductor. Unit of Resistivity: The SI unit of resistivity is m. C. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Resistivity: It is a characteristic property of the material. The metals and alloys have very low resistivity in the range of 10 8 m to 106 m. They are good conductors of electricity. Insulators like rubber and glass have resistivity of the order of 1012 to 1017m. Both the resistance and resistivity of a material vary with temperature. resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than that of its constituent metals. Alloys do not oxidise (burn) readily at high temperatures. For this reason, they are commonly used in electrical heating devices, like electric iron, toasters etc. (vi) Tungsten is used almost exclusively for filaments of electric bulbs, whereas copper and aluminum are generally used for electrical transmission lines.

RESISTANCE OF A SYSTEM OF RESISTORS Resistors in Series Three Resistors R1, R2 & R3 are connected in series. The potential difference V produces a current I in the resistors. Since they are connected in series the current in each resistor is the same, equal to I. the potential difference V is equal to the sum of potential differences V1, V2, and V3 across the individual resistors. V = V1 + V2 + V3 (1)

Applying Ohms Law to each resistor, Potential difference across R1 = V1 = IR1 Potential difference across R2 = V2 = IR2 Potential difference across R3 = V3 = IR3 (2) (3) (4)

If the three registers are now replaced by an equivalent single resistor of resistance R s, such that the potential difference V across it, and the current I through the circuit remains the same. Applying the Ohms law to the entire circuit, we have V = I Req Hence From eqns (1), (2), (3), (4) & (5) we have, IR eq= IR1 + IR2 + IR3 or R eq= R1 + R2 + R3 (7) (6) (5)

Conclusion: When several resistors are joined in series, the resistance of the combination Rs equals the sum of their individual resistances, R1, R2, R3, and is thus greater than any individual resistance.

Resistors in Parallel Three Resistors R1, R2 & R3 are connected in PARALLEL. The potential difference V produces a current I in the resistors. Since they are connected in parallel the current I is divided in to I1, I2, and I3 at X. The total current I is equal to the sum of separate currents through each branch of the combination. I = I1 + I2 + I3 (1)

Applying Ohms Law to each resistor, Current across R1 = I1 = V/R1 Current across R2 = I2 = V/R2 Current across R3 = I3 = V R3 (2) (3) (4)

Let Rp be the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of resistors. By applying Ohms law to the parallel combination of resistors, we have I = V/Req Hence From eqns (1), (2), (3), (4) & (5) we have, or V/Req = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 (5)

Conclusion: The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistances joined in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.

Advantages of Parallel combination over series combination i. In a series circuit the current is constant throughout the electric circuit. Thus it is obviously impracticable to connect an electric bulb and an electric heater in series, because they need currents of widely different values to operate properly. ii. iii. iv. v. Another major disadvantage of a series circuit is that when one component fails the circuit is broken and none of the components works. On the other hand, a parallel circuit divides the current through the electrical gadgets. The total resistance in a parallel circuit is decreased as per Eq. 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 This is helpful particularly when each gadget has different resistance and requires different current to operate properly.

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HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT If the electric circuit is purely resistive, that is, a configuration of resistors only connected to a battery; the source energy continually gets dissipated entirely in the form of heat. This is known as the heating effect of electric current. This effect is utilised in devices such as electric heater, electric iron etc. Joules law of heating Consider a current I flowing through a resistor of resistance R. Let the potential difference across it be V. Let t be the time during which a charge Q flows across. The work done in moving the charge Q through a potential difference V isW = VQ. Therefore, the source must supply energy equal to VQ in time t. Hence the power input to the circuit by the source is

The energy supplied to the circuit by the source in time t = P.t = VIt. This energy gets dissipated in the resistor as heat. Thus for a steady current I, the amount of heat H produced in time t is Applying Ohms law, we get H = VIt H = I2Rt Joules law of heating Conclusion: The law implies that heat produced in a resistor is(i) directly proportional to the square of current for a given resistance, (ii) directly proportional to resistance for a given current, and (iii) directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the resistor

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Practical Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current (i) (ii) The electric laundry iron, electric toaster, electric oven, electric kettle and electric heater are some of the familiar devices based on Joules heating. The electric heating is also used to produce light, as in an electric bulb. Here, the filament must retain as much of the heat generated as is possible, so that it gets very hot and emits light. It must not melt at such high temperature. A strong metal with high melting point such as tungsten (melting point 3380C) is used for making bulb filaments. (iii) Another common application of Joules heating is the fuse used in electric circuits. It protects circuits and appliances by stopping the flow of any unduly high electric current. (iv) FUSE: It consists of a piece of wire made of a metal or an alloy of appropriate melting point, for example aluminium, copper, iron, lead etc. If a current larger than the specified value flows through the circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse wire and breaks the circuit. The fuse wire is usually encased in a cartridge of porcelain or similar material with metal ends. The fuses used for domestic purposes are rated as 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A, etc.

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ELECTRIC POWER The rate of doing work is power. This is also the rate of consumption of energy. The power P is given by Or Unit of Power: Power = Current X voltage P = VI P = I2R = V2/R

The SI unit of electric power is watt (W). Watt: It is the power consumed by a device that carries 1 A of current when operated at a potential difference of 1 V. Thus 1 W = 1 volt x 1 ampere = 1 V A 1kilowatt=1000 watts. Electrical Energy: Electrical energy is the work done in moving the charge Q through a potential difference V. W = VQ. = VIt = I2Rt Electrical energy = power x time = Pt = VIt = I2Rt Unit of electric energy: Watt hour (W h). Watt hour (W h): One watt hour is the energy consumed when 1 watt of power is used for 1 hour. Unit: The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kW h), commonly known as unit. 1 kW h = 1000 watt 3600 second = 3.6 106 watt second = 3.6 106 joule (J)