KHULNA UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY

ECE 2100

PROJECT ON Pulse Amplitude Modulator and 2nd Order 4th Order Low Pass Filter With High Performance

Date of submission: 12-07-2011

Submitted by
Krishna Chandra Roy Roll : 0909011 Dept : ECE Year : 2nd Term: 1st

INTRODUCTION:
The abbreviation of pulse amplitude modulator is PAM. In pulse amplitude modulation the amplitude of individual pulses in the pulse train is varied from its default value in accordance with instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal of the sampling intervals. The width and position of the pulses kept constant. An electric filer is often a frequency selective circuit that passes a specified band of frequencies higher then the cut off frequency. So a filter circuit is designed to pass a required frequency.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this project are,

To design pulse amplitude modulator circuit, To design 2nd order 4th order filter circuit, To ensure the high performance of the filter circuit.

EQUIPMENTS: Function generator

DC power supply Oscilloscope

For PAM: Transistor Q2N2222A (1 piece) NE555P Timer IC (1 piece) UA741 IC (1 piece) Diode D1N4007 (2 pieces) Capacitor 10uF (1 piece) , 5nF (1 piece) Resistor 3.7k ( 2 pieces) , 330 ohm (1 piece) , 10k (1 piece),2k POT

For 2nd order low pass filter: UA741 IC (1 piece) Resistor 33k (2 pieces),27k (1 piece),15k (1 piece),1k (1 piece) Capacitor 0.0047uF (2 pieces) For 4th order low pass filter: UA741 IC (2 pieces) Resistor 33k (4 piece), 15k (2 pieces), 27k(2 pieces),10k (1 piece) Capacitor 0.0047uF (4 pieces)

PROJECT ELABORATION:
Pulse Amplitude Modulator: An audio signal with low frequency cant be transferred to a long distance. Because the strength of the audio signal is very low so we need to transfer the signal through a carrier signal of high frequency. This process is known as modulation. There are different types of modulation such as PAM, PWM, PTM, PCM etc. A pulse Amplitude Modulator is a circuit that modulates a high frequency with the audio signal according to the amplitude of the audio signal. PAM means a circuit that adds a very high frequency pulse train with the audio signal. The pulse train is known as carrier frequency. In Pulse Amplitude Modulation, there are two ways to realize the natural sampling and at-top sampling. The sampling process is equivalent to amplitude modulation of a constant amplitude pulse train, thus PAM. The amplitude of the carrier pulse varies with the analog baseband signal.

Fig: PAM Output with Natural Sampling.

Fig: PAM Output with Flat-Top Sampling. The pulse train can be generated using 555 timer IC. The pulse generator can be designed according to the following equations. If t1 is the ON time then, If t2 is the OFF time then,

The frequency of the pulse generator, f0 = 1/T

Filter Circuit:
A filter circuit passes or rejects frequency according to the circuit configuration. The filter circuit can be designed using capacitors and inductors. There are some configurations where operational amplifiers can be used as filter circuit with necessary configuration. The Filter circuit may be three types high pass, low pass and band pass filter. In my project I need low pass filter of 2nd & 4th order. The order of the filter circuit determines the amount of additional attenuation for the frequencies higher then cut off. The order means the number of capacitors and inductors connected in this circuit.

2nd Order Low Pass Filter: The 2nd-order low-pass filter gain rolls off at
the rare of 80 dB/decade in the stopband. A first order low pass filter can be converted into second order type simply by using an additional RC network. Here an op-amp two capacitors and some resistors are used.

Filter design : For second order filter, At first wewill have to consider a higher cutoff frequency f H . fh 1 2 R 1R 2 C1C 2

C1 C 2 C , chooseC 1F . R 1 R 2 R. R 1 2f H C RF R1

As the op - amp is used in non - inverting configuration the gain is, AF 1

The output voltage of the filter circuit is,

4th Order Low Pass Filter: The 4th-order low-pass filter gain rolls off at
the rare of 80 dB/decade in the stopband. It is like a combination of two 2nd order low pass filter. Here four capacitors an op-amp and some resistors are used.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PAM with natural sampling:

PAM with Flat-Top sampling:

2nd Order Low Pass Filter Circuit:

4th Order Low Pass Filter Circuit:

CIRCUIT OPERATION:
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM): Here at first, in the pulse amplitude modulator circuit there is a pulse generator circuit is needed. The NE555P timer IC with others necessary apparatus generates the carrier frequency.

Fig : Block diagram of 555 timer IC.

Here we use the 555 timer as an astable multi-vibrator. It is often called a free running multi-vibrator as it generates pulse without an external trigger. The circuit is shown below.

Fig :wave form across the output terminal &the capacitor

Here we can also calculate the frequency of the output of 555 IC, f0 = 1/T

= 32 kHz From this equation we can calculate frequency of the carrier signal.IC555 can be used to generate PAM with one NPN transistor connected at output. The chip

is configured in astable mode to generate pulse train to get samples of audio signal. Its frequency should be at least twice that of audio signal but for better quality here I am keeping it 32 KHz. This pulse train output is fed to base of NPN transistor. The low frequency audio input is given in the collector of the transistor. The output at the collector of transistor is PAM wave. The amplitude of pulses generated by IC555 varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of information signal. 2nd Order & 4th Order Filter: Here I designed the filter circuit for higher cutoff frequency of 1 kHz. This circuits are acting as filter circuit on the basis of RC network. According to the circuit design the circuit will ignore all the frequencies above 1 kHz because its higher cutoff frequency is 1 kHz.

Output Wave Shape of PAM:

Frequency Response 2nd Order Low Pass Filter:

Stop band response -40 dB/decade. Frequency Response 4th Order Low Pass Filter:

Stop band response -80 dB/decade.

COST ANALYSIS:
Equipments
1. IC UA741(3 pieces)

Price(Tk)
10 10
03 02

2. IC NE555P 3. Transistor Q2N2222A (1 piece) 4. Diode D1N4007 (2 pieces)

5. Capacitor 10uF (1 piece) , 5nF (1 piece), 0.0047uF (6 pieces)

10

6. Resistor 3.7k ( 2 pieces) , 330 ohm (1 piece) , 10k (1 piece),2k POT, 33k (4 piece), 15k (2 pieces), 27k(2 pieces),10k (1 piece)

10

Total

45

APPLICATION:
The main application of Pulse Amplitude Modulator is to send information or audio signal to a long distance, Demodulator or 2nd order 4th order filter is used for achieving the audio signal.

CONCLUSION:
In this project we designed pulse amplitude modulator and second order fourth order filter circuit. We designed this circuits according to the conventional equations. We have observed the required output but there was some distortions. This is due to some problems such as noise etc. Moreover this project provided us a huge knowledge about pulse amplitude modulator & second order, fourth order filter which will be beneficial for us in future.

REFERENCE:
1. Internet,
2. Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits -Ramakant A. Gayakward