Impact of Sport Tourism in the Urban Regeneration of Host Cities (The Case of Sheffield) By WASIU ADEJOBI OLUKOYA Student

ID: 119072457 BSc. (Hons) International Tourism and Hospitality Management University of Sunderland

May 2012 Word Count:

INTRODUCTION These days, most people watch and participate in sports and they also aspire to travel to sport events (Standeven and Knop, 1999). Tourism and Sport have been perceived as a mechanism for urban regeneration for long (Law, 1992, 1993; Hall, 1992; Page, 1995; Page and Hall, 2003). The relationship between sport and tourism are now gaining global significance (Standeven and Knop, 1999). Several authors describe sport as a mechanism used in tackling social problems such as criminal behaviour and there is rich therapeutic recreation tradition in studies on recreation, leisure and sport which has been ever present in the policies of government (Hall, 1992). In addition, Gratton and Henry (2001) argued that sport tourism contributes significantly in the development of a society (in Emery, 2002). There is more to it than just healthy living, physical activity and active lifestyle because it contributes to social, economic and cultural character of host nations (Institute of Sport, 1999; in Emery, 2002). Sport tourism is used as a growth strategy adopted by cities in order to achieve strategic corporate objectives e.g. urban regeneration (Bruce, 1995; in Emery, 2002). A good example of cities which adopted sport as a strategy for urban regeneration is Sheffield which case study is seen in the latter part of the essay. In recent years, urban spectacles (e.g. major sporting events) are used as instrument for urban renewal with spectacles described as key means adopted by cities in expressing their personality, enhancing their status and advertising their position on the global stage (Havey, 1989; Essex and Chalkley, 2002). Policy makers have increasingly recognised that sport can be used as a mechanism to address issues specifically relating to urban regeneration including neighbourhood renewal, social cohesion and economic development (Larissa, 2010). Sport has been increasingly used to regenerate cities not just in Britain alone, but other countries (Larissa, 2010). However, the focus of this essay will be on one of the high profile cities in Britain which adopted sport as a strategy for urban regeneration e.g. the World Student

Games (1991) in Sheffield, the Commonwealth Games (2002) in Manchester and the London (2012) Olympic Games. The essay will look into the impact of sport tourism in Sheffield. Definition of Key Concepts According to Standeven and Knop (1999) neither tourism nor sport are adequately described as industries rather, they are activities people engage in, with sport being an experience of physical activity while tourism on the other hand is a cultural experience of travel and place (Gibson, 1998). Sport is defined in various perspectives e.g. the terminology of sport tourism (in North America) is often associated with competitive play which involves concepts of time, formalised rules and space (Mullin et al, 1993; in Hudson, 2003) however, some authors (Chu, 1982; Zeigler, 1984; Goldstein, 1989; Brooks, 1994) definition of sports looked into the non-competitive elements such as recreation and health (in Hudson, 2003). Sport entails all forms of physical activity aimed at improving physical fitness (through casual or organised participation) and mental well being of participant while encouraging social relationships as well as obtaining results in competition at all levels (The Council of Europe, 1992; in Standeven and Knop, 1999). The Council of Europe definition clearly does not separate competitive from non-competitive activity. Like sport, tourism lacks a common definition. However, the WTO definition describing tourism as a set of activities which involves person(s) travelling to and staying in a place outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes is the most adopted definition (in Williams, 2009). Furthermore, Organisations (e.g. OECD and WTTC) have long laboured over defining tourism from both the supply-and-demand-side. The demand side defines tourists according to: purpose of trip, mode of travel, distance travelled, length of stay etc. while the supply-side

categorise organisations and businesses depending on whether their revenues are partially or totally generated from tourist spending (Hudson, 2003). The origin of sport tourism has not been long compared to tourism and sport. According to Hall (1992) sport tourism can be categorised into two: the first involves travelling to participate in sport while the other involves travelling to observe sport. Gibson (1998b) also added a third category which is visiting and paying homage (i.e. Nostalgia sport tourism). Sport tourism is a social, economic and cultural phenomenon developed from the unique interaction of people, place and activity (Weed and Bull, 2009) with Hall (1992:147) described it as travel for non-commercial purposes aimed at participating or observing sporting activities away from ones usual environment (in Standeven and Knop, 1999). Gibson (1998) described sport tourism as leisure-based travel which takes person(s) outside their usual environment for the purpose of watching, participating (in physical activities) or adoring attractions associated with physical activities Impacts of sport tourism Sport tourism brings about economic benefits to host communities as a result of sales in accommodation, gifts, food and beverages, hire fees, admission fees, use of transports and other spending at the facilities (Weed and Bull, 2009). The community benefits from attracting visitors using sport tourism as a key product being offered. The products sport tourism offers generate inward investment, sponsorship income, on-going tourist appeal, and media exposure of the destination and secondary multiplier effects. The impacts of sport tourism are mostly measured in-terms of its contribution towards the urban regeneration of the host city therefore it is required to create a working definition of the term regeneration, urban regeneration and sport-led regeneration.

Traditionally, regeneration has always been measured in-terms of the economic and environmental benefit but recent emphasis has included the social community aspects (Sport England, 2001). Regeneration is increasingly linked to social inclusion aiming to reintegrate group of people who are being excluded from education, employment and sporting opportunities (Sport England, 2001). According to Roberts (2000) urban regeneration is a comprehensive and integrated approach aimed at solving urban problems while creating a lasting improvement in the economic, social, physical and environmental condition of areas that has been subject to change. Sport-led regeneration on the other-hand is the way sport is used in regenerating an area economically, socially, physically, environmentally (Larissa, 2010). Regeneration has shifted merely from infrastructural and environmental redevelopment of urban areas to encompassing the creation of employment, housing, leisure facilities, health and education of those suffering from the decline in industrialisation (Smith, 2007). The hosting of sporting events is seen as a recipe for urban regeneration, not only does it bring about the opportunity for the host community to improve its infrastructure and appearance but, it also promotes the image of the city through the global media exposure it receives, a good example of such city is Barcelona which successfully liberates itself (using the 1992 Olympics) from its traditional manufacturing city (Brown and Massey, 2001). Harvey (1989) stressed that major sport events are mechanism for urban regeneration because they creates opportunities for host cities to present a new and exciting image of itself to the world. Essex and Chalkley (1998:187) argued that sporting events bids are often written to show urban regeneration initiatives as a result of the high costs in hosting such events which can only be justified when they are envisaged as programmes which will bring improvements (e.g. upgrading areas of the citys landscape, improving transportation networks etc.) and urban regeneration to host cities. Long and Sanderson (1996) argued that there is a widespread recognition in local government using sport tourism as an urban regeneration

approach. Up until recent, the phenomenon of urban regeneration has become a prominent theme in most developed economy while the issue of regeneration has become a major theme for urban policy and planning for more than 30years. The impacts of globalisation, economic restructuring, and policy change and technology has paved the way for fundamental shift in most urban economies thereby resulting to certain areas having high levels of social exclusion and deprivation. The concept of regeneration consists of the physical (i.e. image and architectures); the economic (i.e. job creation); and the social (i.e. improving the quality of life of the people within the destination) (Page and Hall, 2003; in Ritchie and Adair, 2004). There are areas (e.g. inner-urban areas with large number of derelict, un-used or vacant buildings or land, public owned houses, and built-up areas) where regeneration can occur through comprehensive packages of measures in order to tackle both the physical environment and the economic and social needs of the local residents. In many cases, the physical regeneration plays a crucial role in improving a destinations identity while also attracting employment opportunities in the area (DETR, 2000b). Several authors (Law, 1992, 1996, 2000; Swarbrooke, 2000; in Weed and Bull, 2004; 2009:227) argue that North America was the first to use sport tourism as a tool for urban regeneration however its usage is widely adopted by most cities nowadays (e.g. London, Barcelona) around the world. The Olympic Games in Barcelona attracted US$8300 million in investments including the construction of the Olympic village, airport and the ring-road aimed at regenerating the city. Some cities (e.g. Sheffield) specifically make use of sport tourism as a central theme of their tourism led regeneration. Therefore, for the purpose of a clear understanding, this essay will explore the economic, social, political and environmental impacts of sport tourism as a tool for urban regeneration of host cities.

Economic Impacts Sport tourism has both positive and negative repercussion on the economy of host cities (Robinson et al, 2011). From a positive perspective, it generates significant economic benefits to host communities through revenue, infrastructure and employment to both the national and local economies (Weed and Bull, 2009). Host cities tend to gain from sport tourism because its provision brings mass tourism thereby resulting in huge financial gains for the city while also benefiting the local businesses (e.g. hotels, restaurant etc.) and other businesses not related to tourism (Robinson et al, 2011). Furthermore, sport tourism helps in increasing the profile of the host cities and as a result, it attracts new business relating to sports (e.g. smaller sport activity supply chains, sports equipment merchandisers etc.) and other business (e.g. cafes, teashops, restaurant etc.) not related to sport. The growth of these businesses helps in creating job opportunities to the locals which is a key element of urban regeneration. However, host cities are also prone to negative economic impacts of sport tourism attractions. A good example is that local residents might be forced to relocate due to the manner in which sport tourism raises a citys profile. Also, other factors i.e. increased rents, taxation, increased housing etc. are all perceived as negative effects sport tourism can have on host cities (Robinson et al, 2011). A good example is Sydney 2000 Olympics where the cost of living soured immediately it was announced to host the 2000 Olympics. Social Impacts There are limited researches focusing on the social impact of sport tourism on host communities (Robinson et al, 2011). The social impacts is the way in which travel and tourism affects individual behaviour pattern, lifestyle, values, and quality of life and community structures (Hall, 1992). Generally, social impacts are viewed as short-term effects to host cities while cultural impact tends to be long-term (Ohmann et al, 2006; in Robinson et

al, 2011). Sport tourism can have positive and negative social impacts on host cities. Fredline (2005) highlighted the positive social impacts of sport tourism as: self actualisation; opportunities to witness the effect of good health and fitness-bound lifestyle; sense of pride; entertainment; family and community cohesion. However, sport tourism also results in negative social impact on host cities, they include local community displacement, crowding, hooliganism, crime and disruptions in the normal life of the local people (Higham, 1999). Political Impact Host cities benefit immensely from sport events through media attentions (e.g. world-wide TV coverage) contributing to a countrys symbolic step onto the world stage (Robinson et al, 2011). The media always view sporting events from a positive perspective due to its impacts in re-imaging the host city. More importantly is the political message host cities covey to the rest of the world through sport tourism e.g. the Berlin (1936) Olympic Games was staged at a time when there was political turmoil (the onslaught Nazi regime) in the country however, German authorities used the games to pass a message of supremacy, power and dominance to the rest of the world (Robinson et al, 2011). Other political messages passed to nations include the benefits of encouraging healthy lifestyle, fitness and athleticism. However, there are also instances where sport tourism brings negative political impacts to host nations as a result of protests, terrorism etc. Negative political impact can also occur if host nations fail to generate a legacy thereby triggering massive debts as in the case of the Lake Placid Olympic Games in 1980 (Robinson et al, 2011). Environmental Impacts Generally, the impact of sport tourism on the environment can be negative as a result of clearing of trees, building ski huts etc. thereby increasing waste and carbon emission (Robinson et al, 2011). Other negative impacts might emanate as a result of traffic

congestion, built-up construction areas, noise pollution, light pollution and overcrowding. However, most cities have environmental laws in place which prohibits further building on sporting events site unfortunately the damage may have already taken place (Robinson et al, 2011).

The Case of Sheffield The major interest of this essay is the way sport tourism was used to spur Sheffields regeneration process. Sheffields reputation was initially built on steel and cutlery industry however, in recent years, there has been a decline and as a result the steel employs less than 10 percent of its former work-force. Between 1978 and 1988 the city lost 60,000 jobs in the metal-based manufacturing industry (Smith, 2005) and the country also suffered from a relatively poorly developed service sector paving the way for the Labour government to acknowledge that resources and finance (aimed at regenerating the city) must come from other sources aside from local taxation (Dulac and Henry, 2001; in Weed and Bull, 2009). In 1986, the City established the Sheffield Economic Regeneration Committee (consisting members from the city council, central government agencies, local organisations, highereducation institutions, trade union and the business community) in order to achieve long-term economic regeneration of the city. Over the period of 1986-1988, Sheffields bid to host the World Student Games in 1991 was successfully developed. The games was seen as an instrument to: re-image the city from City of Steel to City of Sport; generate a range of new and exciting infrastructure meant to be used by the local people after the games; enhance the derelict environment of the Don Vally; promote tourism and sport tourism in the city; and lastly, to improve Sheffields financial standing (Dulac and Henry, 2001). Public money of about $221 million was spent in developing the facilities required in staging the games

(Foley, 1991; in Smith, 2005:226). However, Sheffields strategy to host the games was criticised by some authors. Pithers (1992) pointed out that the cost of providing the sporting facilities will be picked-up over the next decade. Roche (1994) highlighted that the lack of insufficient research was a contributing factor which led to the games being crisis ridden, incompetent, and financially questionable. Bramwell (1993) suggested that the Sheffield games had no clear view on how the games facilities could help the citys tourism industry (in Smith, 2007:91). Bramwell (1997) also believed the city was slow in adopting adequate funding strategy that will link the games investment with Sheffields development and tourism, with Roche (2001) criticising that the involvement of the local population in the project was minimal (in Weed and Bull, 2009). Having being criticised by these authors, it can also be argued that on a long-term and medium-term the commitment to use sport tourism for regenerating Sheffield has brought so much benefits. The overall economic value of sport and sport tourism in the city was estimated to be around 680 million in 2006 (The Times, 2008) in the 90s alone, the citys sport programme was estimated to have gained TV coverage worth 85 million and the local economy gained about 31 million (Bramwell, 1997a, 1997b). Also, individual events were held in Sheffield (after the games) in 1993 e.g. the UK Special Olympics and the European Swimming Championship generated an expenditure of about 1.7 million (Weed and Bull, 2009). The city held Three Euro 96 football matches in 1996 producing a significant economic impact boosting Sheffields economy by 5 million (Locum Destination Consulting, 2004:34) while also creating 157 full-time employments to the local people (Dobson et al, 1997). Apart from bringing media attention to the city from across the world, the event also benefited guest houses, hotels, pubs, shops, restaurants etc. economically. Sheffields local economy also received an additional 4.1 million during June/July 1996, this figures also justifies how Sheffield utilise major sport events as economic catalyst for urban regeneration (Dobson et al, 1997). Also, the

FINA World Masters Swimming Championship has greater economic impact on the city because it generated 4.5 million in the city (Locum Destination Consulting, 2004:35). Another sporting event in Sheffield which up till 2003 had been held 27 times (even before the 1991 games) was the Embassy World Snooker which attracts thousands of visitors to the city every year (Weed and Bull, 2009). In 2002 alone, the World Snooker Championship generated 2.26 million into the citys economy and 18,000 commercial bed-nights was sold as a result of the event same year (Locum Destination Consulting, 2004). The National Heritage Select Committee highlighted that the Games investment appeared to be successful in the city despite the resulting burden of debt (Bramwell, 1997a). According to Weed and Bull (1999) cities bid to host sporting events not just because of the economic benefits such events will bring to the city but also the re-imaging involved and its impact on the wider economy such was the case of Sheffield which placed its objectives on creating a new image based on sport and leisure. In 1995, Destination Sheffield was developed as a strategic plan for the citys regeneration process and it contains element of sport, tourism and city promotion. In addition, the improvement of the environment is another key part of urban regeneration process because it helps in improving the image of a city (Weed and Bull, 2009). The facilities developed for the Sheffield Games certainly had a positive effect particularly the sport and leisure corridor created in the Don Valley area which was the area that had suffered most from the citys de-industrialisation (Smith, 2005:226). Conclusion Sport tourism is used to enhance citys identity and appeal to businesses and travellers. Sport tourism has the potential of creating more positive economical, social and cultural benefits to the host community if well organised. Most cities bid to host sporting events in order to achieve urban regeneration with revenues being generated from TV licences and other areas i.e. tourists spending which have a multiplier effect on the local economy while also

promoting the reputation of such city. However, cities also face difficulties while trying to assess the impacts of these events when set against the costs incurred. Therefore, to minimise the negative effects sport tourism brings to host cities, events organisers must develop sport tourism in a way that will benefit the host cities. This essay outlined the benefits of sport tourism in cities using Sheffield as a case-study. As we have seen from the essay, Sheffield experienced urban decay and unemployment (in 1980s) and Labour government thought the best way to rejuvenate the city was to make use of other strategies aside from taxation in developing the city. The city became strategically focussed following the World Student Games it hosted in 1991. Like any other developed city, sport tourism in Sheffield has had significant benefits on the local people (creating jobs, housing etc.). As part of Sheffields regeneration process, substantial array of venues linked to mega sporting events has been developed on the basis of new image linked with sport, leisure and tourism, However, there has been some criticism most especially the costs incurred in hosting sporting events in Sheffield. Overall, the idea of sport tourism in Britains first National City of Sport has been attributed to success with other cities trying to emulate Sheffields success.

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