INFERENCE

This refers to the formulation of a new proposition by way of interchanging the SUBJECT and the PREDICATE of
the original proposition.
However, the QUALITY of the proposition is retained

No fish is mouse.
No mouse is fish.

SIMPLE CONVERSION
No men are mortals. (E) Some animals are dogs. (I)
.: No mortals are men. (E) .: Some dogs are animals. (I)

PARTIAL CONVERSION
Is a kind of conversion where the quantity of the convertend is reduced from universal to particular.

This is applicable only to A and E proposition, since an A proposition becomes I and E becomes O

All computers are gadgets. (A) No men are mortal. (E)

.: Some gadgets are computers. (I) .: Some mortals are not men. (O)
Obversion

Is a kind of eduction where a new proposition is formulated by retaining the subject term and the quantity of the
original proposition
This is applicable to AEIO Propositions
The original proposition is called the OBVERTEND and the new proposition OBVERSE

Rules to follow
Retain the subject term and the quantity of the original proposition.
Change the quality of the original proposition.
Replace the predicate of the original proposition to its contradictory
All men are mortal. (A) No men are non-mortal. (E)
Su C+ Pp Sp C- Pp
No men are mortal. (E) All men are non-mortal. (A)
Su Pu Sp Pp
Some men are mortal. (I) Some men are not non-mortal. (O)
Sp Pp Sp Pp
Some men are not mortal. (O) Some men are non-mortal. (I)
Sp Pp Sp Pp
CONTRAPOSITION
Is a kind of eduction which results from a formulation of a new proposition whose subject term is contradictory of the
predicate term in the original proposition
It is likewise applicable to AEIO Propositions
The original proposition is called the CONTRAPONEND and the new CONTRAPOSIT

PARTIAL CONTRAPOSITION
Rules to follow:
The subject of the contraposit is the contradictory of the of the predicate term of the contraponend.
The quality of the contraponend is changed in the contraposit.
The predicate term in the contraposit is the subject term in the contraponend
The A is changed to E, while E to I and O to I

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
All whales are mammals. (A) No fishes are dogs. (E)
Su C+ Pp Su C- Pu
.: No non-mammals are whales. (E) . : Some non-dogs are non-fishes. (I)
Su C- Pu Sp C+ Pp

Some students are not studious. (O)

Sp C- Pu
.: Some non-studious are students. (I)
Sp C+ Pp

COMPLETE CONTRAPOSITION
Rules to Follow:
The subject term in the contraposit is the contradictory of the predicate term in the contraponend.
The quality of the contraponend is not changed in the contraposit.
The predicate term in the contraposit is the contradictory of the subject term in the contraponend.
The A is changed to A, then E to O, and O to O
All whales are mammals. (A) No fishes are dogs. (E)
Su C+ Pp Su C- Pu
.: All non-mammals are non-whales. (A) . : Some non-dogs are not non-fishes. (O)
Su C+ Pp Sp C- Pu

Some students are not studious. (O)

Sp C- Pu
.: Some non-studious are not non-students. O
Sp C- Pu
INVERSION

A kind of eduction whose subject and predicate terms are contradictories of the subject and predicate terms in the
original proposition
The INVERTEND undergoes various stages of eductions like OBVERSION, SIMPLE CONVERSION,
CONTRAPOSITION, PARTIAL CONVERSION and finally, INVERSION.
Only the A proposition is qualified of inversion

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE

Inverse All terrorists are criminals. (A) to

Obverse No terrorist are non-criminals. (E) to
Converse (S) No non-criminals are terrorists. (E) to
Obverse All non-criminals are non-terrorists. (A) to
Converse (P) Some non-terrorist are non-criminals.(I) to
Inverse Some non-terrorist are not non-criminals. (O)

The Square of Opposition

CONTRADICTORIES
An opposition existing between a pair of propositions having the same subject and predicate but differ in both
quantity and quality.
A and O, E and I
Rules on Contradictories
If one is true, the other is false and vice versa.
Contradictories cannot be simultaneously true or false at the same time.
If A is true, O is false
If E is true, I is false
If I is true, E is false
If O is true, A is false
CONTRARIES
this is an opposition existing between a pair of universal propositions having the same subject and predicate but
differ in quality
A and E are contraries
Rules on Contrariety
If one is true, the other is false.
If one is false, the other is doubtful.
If A is true, E is false.
If E is true, A is false.
If A is false, E is doubtful.
If E is false, A is doubtful.

SUBCONTRARIES
this is an opposition existing between a pair of particular propositions having the same subject and predicate terms
but differing in quality
I and O are
subcontraries
this is an opposition existing between a pair of particular propositions having the same subject and predicate terms
but differing in quality
I and O are
subcontraries

Rules on Subcontrariety
If one is true, the other is doubtful.
If one is false, the other is true.
If I is true, O is doubtful
If O is true, I is doubtful
If I is false, O is true
If O is false, I is true

SUBALTERNS
this is an opposition existing between a pair of propositions having the same subject and predicate terms but differ in
quantity
A and I (vice versa) and
E and O (vice versa)
 A and E – subalternant
I and O - subalternate
Rules on Subalternation
If the universal is true, the particular is true.
If the universal is false, the particular is doubtful.
If the particular is true, the universal is doubtful
If the particular is false,
the universal is false.
If A is true, I is true
If A is false, I is doubtful
If E is true, O is true
If E is false, O is doubtful
If I is true, A is doubtful
If I is false, A is false
If O is true, E is doubtful
If O is false, E is false