Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

farming strategies in Nepal

Editor

Tek Bahadur Gurung















Proceedings of 1st National Workshop on
Scaling-up of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
Farming Strategies in Nepal





2


Proceedings of the workshop on scaling-up of
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
farming strategies in Nepal.

August 2008





Edited by:
Tek Bahadur Gurung








Organisers:
Fisheries Research Division, Godawari (NARC)
Japan International Cooperation Agency
Directorate of Fisheries Development (DoA)
Nepal Fisheries Society







3

NARC- Nepal Agricultural Research
Council
2008



Published by: Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Lalitpur of NARC


Copyright: 2008, Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal
Agricltural Research Council


The printed materials in the proceedings may be reproduced
for education, research and other non-profit uses with
acknowledgement of the source.


Citation: Gurung T. B (2008) Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
farming strategies in Nepal. Proceedings of the workshop on
scaling-up of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming
strategies in Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal

Available from: Fisheries Research Division, Godawari
PO Box 13342, Lalitpur, Nepal


Disclaimer: Opinions expressed by the authors and editor in this
publication do not necessarily reflect the views of NARC or
JICA or the organization they represent. There might be several
grammatical errors in this publication; those are not of authors
but of the editor.





4



Foreword


Technological development of rainbow trout farming in Nepal is one of the most appreciable
technologies generated by Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC). The present stock of
rainbow trout, one of the excellent fish for cultivation in cold water was introduced from Japan.
Presently several aspects of trout farming have been accomplished by scientists of Fisheries
Research Division, Godawari and Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli of NARC. The present
technology generation on rainbow trout farming has been well applauded by Asia-Pacific
Association of Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI), FAO, Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific Bangkok.

Trout farming technology has been well received by the farmers in hills. As a result, several trout
farms in private sector have been emerged. Now onwards, the commercial production
technological package for increased production is highly desirable. Visualizing this fact a
workshop on further strategies on scaling up of rainbow trout farming in Nepal was organized in
January 2007. This workshop has recommended several important aspects for enhancing
commercial farming of rainbow trout production in the country. I hope these recommendations
would be highly useful for planners, extensionist, NGO's, media, students, researchers and
farmers for rapid expansion of trout farms in different parts of the country. So the market
demand of this commodity in country as well as abroad could be fulfilled in affordable price in
the market for consumption.

I wish to thank and congratulate all fisheries related scientists who actively participated in trout
research, develop the technologies and also played significant role in expansion of trout farming
in the country. I also wish to extend my sincere thanks to all donors and stakeholders without
whom this technology would not have been developed and extended in the country.







Dr. Nanad Prasad Shrestha
Executive Director
Nepal Agricultural Research Council





5

Abbreviations
ADB Agriculture Development Bank
BMP Best Management Practices
cm centimeter
CF Crude Fat
CP Crude Protien
CO
2
Corbon di-oxide
DO Dissolved Oxygen
DoA Department of Agriculture
DoFD Directorate of Fisheries Development
FCR Feed Conversion Ratio
FE Feed Efficiency
FRD Fisheries Research Division
FRCT Fisheries Research Center, Trishuli
GR Growth Rate
IU International Unit

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
LI-BIRD Local Initiatives for Biodiversity Conservation and Development
NARC Nepal Agricultural Research Council
(NO
2
+NO
3
) Nitrate +Nitrite
OVOP One Village One Product
PUFA Polyunsturated fatty acid
KJ Kilo Joule
kg Kilogram
m meter
mg miligram
mt Metric ton
MoAC Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative
MoF Ministry of Finance
Ropani Nepali unit of land measurement (1 Ropani =500 m
2
)
SAARC South Asian Association Regional Countries
o
C Centigrade or Celsius
NEFIS Nepal Fisheries Society
sqm Square meter
SLC School Leaving Certificate
SR Survival Rate
TL Total Length
WTO World Trade Organization





6
Contents

Contents Page No.
Foreword
Abbreviations
Contents
Acknowledgment
Program Highlights
Few words
Inaugural Address
Chairperson remarks
Closing Session
Field Trip Report
Vote of Thanks
Summary Report of the Working Groups

Technical Papers
History of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) introduction in Nepal: 1
Deep Bahadur Swar

Status and prospect of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming in Nepal: 5
Ash Kumar Rai, Tek Bahadur Gurung, Sadhu Ram Basnet, Raja Man Mulmi

Breeding performance of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in northeastern hills, Nepal 12
Sadhu Ram Basnet, Gopal Prasad Lamsal, Raja Man Mulmi, Tek Bahadur Gurung

Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) larval rearing methodologies in Nepal: 17
Neeta Pradhan, Asha Raymajhi, Sant Kumar Shrestha

Nutrition and feed formulation for Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal: 23
Jay Dev Bista, Suresh Kumar Wagle, Neeta Pradhan, Nanda Kishor Roy

Raw material, storage, equipment & accessories for rainbow trout feed 41
preparation in private sector in Nepal:
Resham Raj Dhital, Nand Kishor Roy

Water Quality parameters for Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming: 46
Raja Man Mulmi, Neeta Pradhan, Ram Prasad Dhakal

An evaluation on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) diseases and their control 52
measures in Nepal:
Asha Raymajhi, Resham Raj Dhital
Market Channels of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) products in Nepal: 57
Devendra Gauchan, Narendra. Thakur, B. Shrestha, Asha Raymajhi, S. Gautam, Gopal Prasad Lamsa

Socio-economic study of rainbow trout farming in Nepal: A case study of 63
Kathmandu - Trishuli - Rasuwa road corridor:
Naresh Singh Thakur, Devendra Gauchan, Asha Raymaghi, Gopal Prasad Lamsal

Prospects of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming commercialization in relation to global 71
context in Nepal:
Tek Bahadur Gurung, Neeta Pradhan, Dharni Man Singh, Tek Bahadur Thapa





7
Linkage need among research, development and private institutions for 80
commercializing rainbow trout farming in Nepal:
Kiran Raj Joshi, Sudha Sapkota, Gopal Prasad Lamsal, S. Gautam

GIS based evaluation on potential sites of cold water fish, 83
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
farming in Nuwakot, Nepal
Suresh Kumar Rai, Tek Bahadur Gurung, Gopal Prasad Lamsal

GIS based potentiality of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming 89
innorthern high hill Rasuwa, Nepal:
Saroj Prasad Aryal, Mahendra Nath Paudel

A case study on integrated trout farming in hill terrace with other developmental activities: 95
Gopal Prasad Lamsal, Sadhu Ram Basnet, Padam Bahadur Rumba

--+= =-== === =c +=-+ =-+ 100
+- += =:~

=c +=- =-=== + -+= ++ =- ==- -- - ++= 103
=+ += ~=

Recipes for dish preparation of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): 106
Bharati Moktan

Best management practices (BMP) for aquaculture of rainbow trout 110
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal:
Surendra Prasad, Jay Dev Bista, Suresh Kumar Wagle

Extension strategies for Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) aquaculture 116
development in Nepal:
Dharni Man Singh, Bikash Chand Shrestha Shanker Prasad Dahal, Ramanand Mishra

Constraints and potentialities on scaling-up of Rainbow trout farming 120
practices in mid and high hills of Nepal: Farmers Perspective

:
Aditya Raj Khanal, Resham Gautam

Role of media for scaling up of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) 125
farming technologies among stakeholders:
Bhola Man Singh Basnet

"One Village One Product" (OVOP) program with special reference to 132
Rainbow trout farming and marketing perspective in Nepal:
Kiran Raj Pandey
Rainbow trout farming in hills of Nepal in relation to gender perspectives: 137
Sudha Sapkota, Kiran Raj Joshi





8


Acknowledgement

Sincere gratitude to the farmers for their perseverance and active involvement in participatory trout
cultivation research in hills and mountains of Nuwakot, Kathmandu, and Rasuwa districts. Thanks to
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for continuous encouragement and support. We are
grateful to JICA for financial support to conduct the workshop on scaling-up of rainbow trout
farming in Nepal. Thanks also to the people and the former Governor of Miyazaki Prefecture Mr.
Matsukata for providing rainbow trout seed to Nepal and several other Japanese friends, Mr. Tatsuo
Morimoto and Mr. Utaka Nakagawa for their support and encouragement by which present endeavor
of rainbow trout cultivation in Nepalese mountains could be possible. All authors are thankful for
their thoughtful papers. The resource personnel involved in the workshop are also appreciated for
extending their cooperation, Mr. Bhola Man Basnet, Mr. Jay Dev Bista, Mr. Suresh Wagle, Mr. Raja
Man Mulmi, Mr. Krishna Murari KC, Lalit Tamang, Mr. Shiv Lal Adhikari, Ms. Neeta Pradhan, Ms.
Asha Raymajhi & Ms. Renu Aryal are gratefully acknowledged for their support. We expressed our
gratitude to Professor, Dr. Sena De Silva, Director General idea for his encouragement. Special
thanks to the "One Village One Product" Program of Agro-Enterprise Center (AEC) under
Federation of Nepal Chambers of Commerce and Industries (FNCCI) for providing financial support
to publish this proceeding.








9
Programme Highlight and Objective of the Workshop

Dr. Tek B Gurung

== += == === =c +=- --- --- +== ==- ==-+ == =-=,
==-+ += =- =--= + - =-+ =+, = +===== +-- ~|+ += +=+
=, +=+ -+, + ~=+ -+, -+= +== ====+ +++ =, ~- =
=-+ =--+=-, -+=-, += =-, FAO, JICA + -+= +--+=-, ++ =-=,
+++ +, --+ =+, =- =, =-= - ==- = +=+ = =+- =-== =-==
-+=, -+= +== ====, + ~=+ =-= += --==, -+= + =-=+- ++
=-= =-=+- =-+ |== =~ ===- - == : - +=+=+ += =:= -=== =+
-+= + =-=+- += =-~=-=+ =-=+- +=+= =-=- =+- =+ === =c
+=- ++-+ == = == +-+ = -+=+ =~= +-= t ~ t +=- =~--
==- c= ~ c= =+~+- == =+ === === =c =+=+ ==- --+ ---
-= =- -

-+== =+=+ ==-, ~==+ =-- +=--= =-+=-=: ==- = -= ===- = +-
=== =c+ =-- + =- +-=- ~|+ ~c, -= ~- =|- = =- - -+ ===
-+= ~+:+ - - =c ==- -=+|+ -c -= +-, == = =+-= -=:|+
====: -+=+ ----, ===+ =+ +-- =-+= += = +-++ =+= - = ~ -=
-= += =+- ==- =- ~|+ c -+== =c +=- ~- = ===-=, -:= s=
+ -| +=- ~- ~c -, -=== =+ +=- === =c +=-+ +-+= == +=
'PARADIGM SHIFT' =:-+ +-- -==- =+= -+ == ~+ c +- ~-, === =c
-== +-: -= --++ == +-+ - -=+ +- -=== ++ ==- ==+ =-- ==-
= +- =+ =+=+ +- =- =+- -=+ =-=+-= +=-- ~|+ c

--= ==-+ +- -+== ==-+ ~+ =+== = === -~ -- + +-=
=+ -+=+ == = ~ =--+- + - +-: ::+:-= =++= + === + -+==
-+=+ == -- += +- ==~--+ = =- +c +-:+ ==- ++- =-= +- +=+=-
+ += -~ - =-- == -+ c- - - =- +- +-- -=+- =---= =--=:
c=+ : ===+ =+ -+=+ == === ==- =+ =- =-- - + + =
-== +-:= +- -- ~- ==-+ == =- ++-+ =+ -==-= =-=r= =+ -==-
-+= + =- =+- += JICA + =-= == ++ =-~===+ === =c +=- ---
===- += = ==- =-+ c

+=- --= === =c +=- +-= +=+ --+== =|+ = -= - ++-+
=--= =-=r= =+ =|+ c -, =c+ == =-=+ =+- =+ - -- =++ c-
+s=-:+ +- :+=== -== == =c= +- -- +| +- t =+~a-+== -=
==- -- +:|+ c == =+~+- === ==+ +-= +==- =+|+ c- -=, =+~+- ===
+==- = = =-, =-=+- += +=+ -- +=- === +=+= -==+ =-=+- -+
c = ~ +-= =+ ==+ ++ +== ==+ + -++ -=: +-++ -==+
=-=+- =- + -+ =-=+- -+ c = ==-=+ +- - === -+- =- JICA
-+=+ SOFT Type Follow-up + =- +=+= =-=-, -== +- =, ++-=:- ~
=+- =- +=-- =- =+ +- =|+ c == +=+= =-=- +=-- + ==-~





10
- =+- c- -+= =+ = === =c+ =+- :+== =+= --= =-=+ + =+=
+= |+ -- |+ =+- +=+= =- --+= =-== =+ c =, == =+ =
=== =c+ -== ===- =- ==~= +: -+= + =+== = +- ~|+ c -=
+=--=: === =c ~+ t ==+- =- =-= =-+ +== =~ s= ~ =+- +
-+- =c

=+ -= ++ += =-+== ++-+ =-~=-= : = ==- =+ === =c ==
=+~+-+== +- c= =+=+ -- =+-= =-- -- =+c === =c +=- ==-
+=-+== =+ -~ t ~ t +=- == +-+ = =~-- ==- +-:-+ = ==
+=+= =-+ - += =- =- = c +=-





11
cota (Few Words)
: - += s
+=+ -+
-+= + =-=+- +

== ==-+ += =- =--= + - =-+ =+ |- -+= + =-=+- ++ ===,
++ + =-, ~- = =-+ =--+=-, -+=-, NACA + =--+ :
=- : =--, FAO, JICA + -+= +--+=-, +++ ~- = =-+ += =-

== -+== ====c ==+ += == +== =s ===- ~: -+= ==: ==+ c
-+== = ===c +=-+ +-+ += -+= + =-=+- += ==+- ~ + + --=
-- -- =+ c -+=+ ~-= ++-+ ==-+ -=-= -+== =-= +=- +-+=:
--- = =-= == +-: -: ++ ==- ~== + -, == ==-, ==+ =-=+ =
= ---= ==- +-==- =+- c == ++ +==:= =-= +=+=, +=- +
==-+ +=+-= -+- +- =-+ :: += =-= ++ ++ += =-- ==-=
==- +-- = -= ==~= - +--= +=+ c = +-- -: ++== =+ =+=+-
+ + =+=+ -+ += -

-=, -+= + =-=+- += =-= +=-+ --+ +-+-+ ---+ +== =-= -==
~== =+=+- -- ====c +=-+ +-+ ---= ~ + :: + := -+ -== +=-
+-+ - =+= = = = ~ =+ =--+ =-- -- =s=-, ==- +- - == ==-= : =-
=+- =-= + - =+ c -+= =+= -= --+= =- =-== |+ == |+ =+-+
-- =-= +=+= ===- =+ = ~=+ --=- +- =+- =-==: === =-= ~-
- =+ - === =c+ --- +=+ ==: + ==- +=+ c

= ==- =, ++- =-- =- --+ ==- -+== +- == +== =-+= ===
=a -= = ~+ -+ == +-+ --+ =+== = == +-= =+=+- == === =c+
+-+ ---- =- +=- += -= - =+ --+ ==+- +== = +c:|+ +-= +
===- == - = +== ~=+ = =, = ---, == ==-, +- - ==+ =-=
+- = +--+-, :: =--+-= ==- =-== +- =+- c

-+= |== + ++- ==+ ~|+= -= - +=+ =+ ==:+== + ++ -- +-, --
+- -= +-+ =--+ - ==- -- =+- c -= -+== -:+ == =+=+- ++ =c
+-+ -+, +-: ++ == +- +++ += ~|+ =~=, =- ----+ -= +-+ =+=+-
=== ~|+ ==: ==+ c -=, + +=- ==-+ +=- += =+== = ==-+-+
=+==+== + =-= =-= ++ ---+== =-=+ ~-+ + -+ += =- ==-
=--+ =-~=-= =+ -= ++ =-+= =-=- == - =-== = =--=
=-=+a+ += =+ - +-++ =-== =: =-= =+- :+ == += ==: -=- +-
+- r =+- =-= =- =- = c +=-





12
oo |o|u |nn|a |r| cu| pco o|z| cota (Inaugural Address)

== ==-+ =~+- =-=, ~- = =-+ =--+=-, -+=-, NACA + =--+
: =- : =--, FAO, JICA + -+= +--+=- +++ +, ~- = =-+ +=, ===+ -=,
==+- =+-- +++, ++, =-= - ==-

-= -+=+ =+ ==:+ == +++ -+== =--+- ==- - =+- --=- --=+ =-=+-
= t +--++=+ == == -+ + =+=+ =~: = =+ +=-+ =-+= -= === + --
=+-= = -- c ==+ == =s= -+= + =-=+- += -+= = ---- =- ==+ ===
=c-+ + -+ |== = =+ : -== --, = = |- =- ---= = =- - =+- +:+
+= +=- -- +-= =: - =-c

-+= |== + ++- ++-+ ==-+ +- ==+ ~|+= --~-+ += ++-+ ==--+== +-
==- |++-+= +==- -- =+ + =++- : -- == + c- ==: == -+== |==
=-- + -++ -+= ~|+ c, == = +- ~|= ~= ==- ==-+ +== = == + = = ~: =-=
=-= +- === =c =+- =- =+- ~|+ c

-:= =-= +=-+ +-+ -+ +-= c -+ -+=+ ~-= ++-+ ==- =-= -+==:
=-= =+-= ==-~- -+ === ==- t ~ t +=-+ =-+ == =:-, + -
=-=-+ =-~=- ===- + -+=: = +- = = +== =-+= === == -:, == =-= +-:
+-= =-==+ =-= +=- ==- ---- -= =- + c - =+, =-= +=-+ -- = =-=, ==
+-: -: ++ ==- ~== +-, == ==-, ==+ =-=+ = = ---= =-=-= ==-
+-==- =+- rc

== +-= =+- -- =+- === =c =+- +-+ = + +=- =~-- - - -= -+=- + +-=:
===-+= +==- = =+-=: --- :, =: +- +s-:-=: -== +=+==: ==: t=-
=+=a -- c === =c =-== +-+-+== =-=+ +- =- +--=: ==+- = ==- =-+= =-
+c

= ==- =, ++- =-- =---+ ==- -+== +- == +== =-+= === =a ~==
-+ == +-+ --+ =+== = == +-= =+=+- == === =c+ +-+ ---- =- +=-
+= -= - =+ --+ ==+- +== = +c:|+ +-= + ===- == - = +== ~=+ =
=, = ---, == == -, +- - ==+ =-= +- = +--+-, :: =--+-= ==-
=-== +- =+- c

= = - -= ~ +-++, =+ ===+ +=+== =+=+- ---- -= ~-+ =-- c,
-=, +=- ==-+ +=- += =+== = +=-+ =-~=-= =+ -= ++ =-+==
== =-= =+- =~: =- = =-== = =-- - -+=-=: =-=+a+ += =-==+==
+- = =-- = c

=-=, =s+ ===+-=: +: - =-c == =s= =|+ -+ =+=- -+= =+=:
+- + =- =+- -= ~- = ~+=- c = =+-=: === =-= += ==- +=-,
=-==, =+=, =+~+- == =+-=+ --+== +=-=- =- + -:-+ = = =-=+ +=
=- ==- =- =-=- =-c +=-







13
e|o|oaa| cota (Chairperson)
=- += + =, ==-,
+ - =-+ =+==

=~+- =, += =- |- + - =-+ =+==+ =--= =+ = , = - =- , =-=
- ==- - =+ s= == -+ += -+ ==-+ =+==+ +== +-: - -==
++ ~= :: += = == =c +=- +++ +== = =- ++ =--= = = ,
=++=-= =:- -+ = + += =-- =+-= : -==- =- - =+- c ==
+ -- +=+== ====c= +=+- +=-=: ==+ =-- =c === =c ---
+=+==: =+ - =+=a +-++ ===-+= -+=-+ =: - =-=+ c -+= +
=-=+- += -~- =-=+== |- ==-- ==+ ==-= - =-a -+== =:
- +- -c === =c=: =-==+- = =- +=-~ == =: == |- =
--- -+ +- - +=+= ==: t=- +- -c

-+= - =+ ==s-+ =-=+ --= = == --- +--++ =- =+- = =+- ==-
= == -=- +-+-= =:-, =-=+- = +- =+= a ++ += += - -==+ ===
= =--- === +-==- ==+ =-=+- -+ c = = -== ~== +:- -- =-+
=c+ +- +=- - ~- += =: === =c --- +=+= ==: t=-= -=
=|+ c

=-= =s ===+ =: +: - =-c == =s= =-=+ +=-- -= =- -+ |-
=~-- -= =-c ~-= +- --- c






14
Vote of Thanks

Dharni Man Singh, Program Director
Directorate of Fisheries Development (DoFD)

== =s+ =~+- |- + - =-+ =+==+ ==-=, =r= =- =--= + - =-+
=+= +=+ -+=, =-==-=-, + -~=+ =--+=, Resident Representative,
JICA, Dr. Sena S De Silva, Director General, NACA, + -~=+ =+=--+=-, +
=-=+- ++ -+=-, s =++-=-, s --+=-, -= === === |-
++ =-, -~- ==-= +-- ~|+ =-= - ==- , ++++-, -~- =:==
+-- ~|+ =+-,

=-+= ==: ===++ -+ = += -+- =- ===- :|+= ===+=: += -
=-c + = =--+ +-== + ++ === -+= ==+ ===+-+ =--+
==- =- -= = -+=- ~:-+ - === =c +=- --- = =- --- |- +-
+=- =+-= + =- +-==-c -+= =-- +-: -== ~~= |- -= -+ --=- -+
= ==+-= +=- =- =-= =-=+ === =c+ ===+ +=- +-=+ ==- -+= =-
=+- +=-- ==~-- -+ === --= == -+ - +=+=- ===- =- -= =|+ c
=-- |+ == |+ =+-= - ===+ =+- +=+= --+= =-== ===- ~:-+c ==
+=+==: --- |- ---+ == -= -= =- == =s ===- -- =:-+= ==-
==+c

=+- =- =---+ =- +- +-- ~|+ =--= + - =-+ =+ =-- s+== ==
=s+ += =-+ =-= =-- = =s+ ==- ==- =- ~|+ = --=: - +=
- =-c = =-= -+= +=+==: -+= |- --- =- ==- --- =s+ =~+--
=-- ~|+ + - =-+ =+==+ ==- =- +===: += - =-c ===
+ -~=+ =--+ : + - --= -+= + =-=+- ++ +=+ -+ :
- += s=-= =s+ -- ++ +- ~|+= --- =: += - =-c
-+== ==+-= =c +=-= -- =-== +-=: =|+ =: + =:+ Resident
Representative == : - ~|+= += - =-c

I would also like to thank Prof. De Silva, Director General, NACA, who has come all the way from
Bangkok to attend this Workshop, =-= == =s= +---- =-==-=-, + -~=+ =+
=--+=-, -+= + =- =+- ++ -+=-, s =++-=-, s --+=-,
-= === === |- ++ =- -~- ==-= +-- ~|+ =-= - ==- ,
++++-, -~- =:== +-- ~|+ =+- - ==+- =- =-~= ==: -+ +=
+--- ++= =- =-c +=





15
Directions for Field Trip Report
Term of Reference to Group No. 1 (Extension strategies)
==- + == += =~ + = ---

Review the existing fisheries extension agencies and structural set up in Nepal (government,
NGO, INGO service centers, human resource, policy, strategies)
-+== -=- =-= += -+=-+ == =+, ==+ == =-==, += =-
+, =--= -, = =-, --- ==-
Recommend appropriate approaches, process, systems of extension strategies (government,
NGOs, CBO, cooperative and other private farms) covering above all aspects to promote
trout aquaculture and cold water fisheries in Nepal
=+ = +=: ===- = === =c - == +-= -- =c+ =~ : =- += +=
---+ === ++ = -++ =+= =+, ==+, --= =--
Review geographical, social, gender, financial, marketing constraints and advantages of
resources
~==+, ===+, ==+, =+ - =-+- =+ = ==-= - = =-+- =+
+--=+-
Recommend appropriate extension strategies for production enhancement of trout in
potential areas in hills of Nepal
=~-- +-: += === =c+ =+- =~- : =- ==- += += ---+ =+=

Fingertips for group exercise in trout farming extension
=== - + = += =: ==-=- c=+=+ =r= =r= -

Horizontal scaling-up
+-== ---
Expand trout farming in feasible areas
=~- += === =c -+ --
Establish trout hatcheries in private sector
-=++ === =c= +=-- +=+ -+-
Provision of subsidy in interest on loan for the capital investment
= ==-= =- === =- ==-+ =-
Develop code of conduct for responsible aquaculture at national level
===-++ =-=+=- =- = = -- --=+ -== =-
Enforcement of Aquatic Life Protection Act
=== =- |-=: == =-
Credit scheme for trout should include an enterprise as collateral and land (steep land)
should be valued in accordance with the annual turnover of the trout farm.
=== +=+ + ==-+ =+= ==+ =-=+-+ +:- -+- =- +-
Promote commercialization of trout through public-private partnership (farmers'
cooperative, NGOs, INGOs) approach
=-~=-==+ +=+=+ =+= ===+ === =c -=: t- -
Expand domestic and explore abroad market for the trout.
=== =c+ --= =+ --- + =++ = ~=-
Develop input delivery mechanism in trout growing pocket areas
=== =c =+- += =+- === t--+ -+
Initiatives on establishment of fish feed industry in private sector





16
-=+= =c+ - =+=+ -+-+ -- =-
Prepare database on fish production, demand, consumption , export and import
=-= =+-, == , +-, -=- ==-+ -=: -= +-
Develop training curriculum for farmer level training
++-- -==+ + -=+ -= +-
Develop human resources, infrastructure, facilities required for the rapid expansion trout
=== =c+ - +=: ==+ =-+- ,~-+ =++ + =-
Develop/strengthen feedback mechanism and communication system for all stakeholders
= =+-=: ==- =- +- -- = -++ + =-






17
Term of Reference to Group No. 2. (Research Strategies)
==- - + == += =~ =-=+- ---

Review existing research facilities, human resource strategies, organizational and
institutional strength and weakness setup in Nepal
=-=+-+ == ~ -+ = +, =-+- ---, ==s-=+ =-=- ++ + +=
+==+ +--=+- =-
o Lack of national level research program to address researchable issues in coordinated
approach in wider ecological region
~- --+- -+ += =-=+-==+ ==-=+ +-=- = ==+- =- = =--+
=-=+- += +=+ =~-
o Inadequate human resource (only five research personal)
=-+a+ =~- =- =- =+-+- =+ ~|+
Review present status of linkage among research institutes at national, regional and int'l level
for the advancement of research support to trout growers/industry
=== =+= -- + == ~- == =-== --+ =-=+- =- ==+ ==++ =+
Recommend possible research strategies (technical, post harvest, market, social, policy etc).
=~- =-=+- ---+ =+= +++, ~-:-, = =-+-, ===+ -- =
Recommend appropriate organizational and institutional frame to enhance research
capability
=-=+-+ =- -: =- ==- == s-=+ =-=- -- -++ =+=
Recommend approaches to strengthen linkage among research/ academic/ development/
private sector
=-=+-, + =-, + -=-- = ==-=-+ ==-- === -+- =- =+= =-

Fingertips for group exercise in research
=== - =-=+-+ ==-=- c=+=+ =r= =r= -

Research on the year round supply of trout seed
~ === ~ =+=+ -- =+- =-=+-
Feasibility study in different development regions from commercial and livelihood
prospective
~- + += =++ =+=+=-+ == === =c ++ =~-- ===-
Research on quality feed based on local ingredients
--= ==== =---= - =+-+ =-=+-
Technology on Low cost pond/raceway construction
+= =-== + - - -=- ++
Maintenance of genetic variation, genetic purity
-=- --+- :- +== r-
Participatory trout farming research in new locations
-= += =-~=- ==+ === =c -+ =- =+-
Mitigation research with trout establishment in hydel reservoirs impounded in cold water
regions
==+- += +-=- -=-= -=- -- ==== === =c = -- ===+ ==
=-=+-
Fish health management research
=-= --= =-+- =-=+-
Research to increase reproductive performance of trout
===+ +=-- =~ : ===-
Research on delayed maturity of female





18
+ =c =: == == == t= +++- ==- =-=+-
Establishment and study on different strain of rainbow trout
~- +=-+ === =c+ ===- + -s+-
Environmental impact study on effluent of trout farm in recipient water (water quality and
biodiversity perspective)
=== =c -= - +- -++ ----= + ~-+ ===- +-+ =--- =-+ --+-=
Improve survivability of allevins
~=- -+ -- =+ =-
Socioeconomic impact of trout farming
=== -+ ===+ =+ + ~-
Market and marketing
= = =--+-
o Research on meat quality of trout grown in high altitude Himalayan water
=-= +-: -=== ++ +-= =+- -- === =c+ == = ---= ===-
o Study on fish processing and value addition
=c+ +=+- =--- : ===-
o Study on post harvest technology (transportation, smoking, frozen, etc.)
~-:- ++= ===- t-- , =+=-, == +- =
o Surveillance of consumer preference
=+~a -= =c - =~=+ ===-
o Market behavior and interaction with other meat products
= + ++ - == == =+- -= ===-=
Study of social behavior on natural resource (land and water) use for trout farming
++-+ - ===- +- +== ===+ + ~-+ ===-
Research institution should undertake trainers' training programs
=-=+- =--= +, + + -== =- +-

Summary Report of the Working Groups
Group A
The existing fisheries extension activity is not enough to promote One Village One
Product slogan in Rasuwa and Nuwakot District:
No SMS (cold water)
No JT/JTA (cold water)
It needs specialized extension agents in cold water
Participatory extension
Use of NGOs/INGOs/CBOs
Integration with micro/macro hydropower
Ensure Seed Production and supply
Participatory
Government
Import of fertilized eggs
Inventry preparation of most potential area in Rasuwa and Nuwakot District
Inventry preparation of most potential area in Rasuwa and Nuwakot District

Horizontal scaling-up
Expand trout farming in feasible areas:
Rasuwa and Nuwakot District particularly focused and other Mid-hill and High-hill general

Establish trout hatcheries in private sector:
Partnership mode





19
Broods, Technical Service - FDC
Venue, Labour and operating cost - Farmer's field

Provision of subsidy in interest on loan for the capital investment:
As for Coffee, Tea, Cold storage subsidy for interest should be provided
Ist year 100%
2nd year 75%
3rd year 50%
4th year 25%
5th year no subsidy
Loan Secure scheme for total capital
Government Sector 60%
Private Sector 40%

Develop code of conduct for responsible aquaculture at national level:
Water user's right
Farm Registration
Water Resource conservation
Effluent water monitoring

Enforcement of Aquatic Life Protection Act:
Escape of trout in natural water body monitoring

Credit scheme for trout should include an enterprise as collateral and land (steep land)
should be valued in accordance with the annual turnover of the trout farm:
Land Valuation on the basis of total Investment
Re-valuation after infrastructure
Promote commercialization of trout through public-private partnership (farmers'
cooperative, NGOs, INGOs) approach:
Expand domestic and explore abroad market for the trout.
Develop input delivery mechanism in trout growing pocket areas.
Initiatives on establishment of fish feed industry in private sector
Encourage to local manufacturers
Prepare database on fish production, demand, consumption , export and import
Develop training curriculum for farmer level training
Develop human resources, infrastructure, facilities required for the rapid expansion trout
Develop/strengthen feedback mechanism and communication system for all stakeholders
Group B: Recommendations for research strategies of trout scaling up

Based on TOR provided to the group, the following research needs are recommended
Fisheries and aquaculture as national commodity research programme needs to be
established

Human resource:
o Discipline wise inadequate number
o Regular recruitment of researchers
o Utilize available resources/experts

Research facilities
o Upgrading of lab facilities
o Seed research facilities





20
o Production research facilities

Research needs
o Genetics and breeding Genetic improvement, Brood management (Fecundity
improvement, Maturity alteration, Alevins survival)
o Feed and nutrition Feed standardization, Digestibility improvement, Cost effective feed
o Health management Regular monitoring for site specific protocol; Research tie up with
other research fields, Virology research
o Production research Economic harvest size, Stocking density versus water flow,
Alternative production systems
o Post harvest Value addition, transportation (Quality maintenance)
o Socio economic - Consumer preference, Marketing cost
o Environmental Effluent discharge, Effluent utilization
o Site characterization GIS and Remote sensing

Research linkage
o Networking with national and international Institutions
o Collaborative research
o Participatory research





21

History of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) introduction in Nepal

Deep Bahadur Swar, PhD
Department of Agriculture, Harihar Bhawan, Pulchok, Lalitpur, Nepal
Email: deep_bahadurswar@hotmail.com

Abstract
This paper gives a brief description on the history of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) introduction,
status of trout farming and perspectives, especially in high hills where abundant cold and unpolluted
water are available.

Key words: Trout, Asala, fry, introduction

1. Introduction
Nepal has an area of 147,181 km
2
, which can be divided into three physiographic regions, from south
to north: the Terai plain, the mid hills, and the Himalayas. The Terai lies between 65 m and 500 m
elevation, the lower hills up to 2700 m, the upper hills up to 4000 m, and the greater Himalayas are
located above tree line (>4600 m). Mountain and hills make 77 percent of the area of Nepal, while
the Terai occupies only 23 percent. The Himalayas in the north strongly influence the climate of
Nepal. The country may be divided into three climatic zones according to altitude: sub-tropical in the
Terai, temperate in the hills, and alpine in the mountain. These geographical zones are endowed with
many water resources, approximately 5% of the total area, in the forms of river and stream, lake,
reservoir, pond and swamp. Among these, the rivers represent about 49 percent of the total water
area.
2. Fishery Resources
Cool and cold water streams and rivers in Nepal extending from the Himalayas offer excellent habitat
to 76 native (Rajbanshi 2002) and 3 exotic cold water species (including Brown trout and Amago
trout: perhaps do not exist in Nepal; and Rainbow trout). The native cold water fisheries resource
offers vast scope for development of cold water aquaculture; however, at present this sector is
predominant by subsistence and recreational fisheries only. Cold water native species for their
aquaculture promotion is still in its infancy. It is only few indigenous species that have been
domesticated and propagated for cultivation purposes. Their culture has yet to be adopted by the
private sector. Among the exotic species, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) formerly known as Salmo
gairdeneri is widely cultivated cold water salmonid throughout the temperate world (Bardach et al.
1972). In Nepal, its farming practices has recently been started to adopted (Rana 2007a, 2007b).
3. The Snow Trout (Schizothorax spp)
There are about 14 species of 'snow trout' (colloquial Asala), cold water riverine native fish in Nepal.
The 'snow trout' is English vernacular name of Asala (Nepali name). These Asala belongs to
Cyprinidae family and do not have any relation with Salmonidae, however, they are called snow trout
due to their appearance from dorsal side which closely resemble with trout, in general. Chuche Asala
(Schizothorax plagiostomus) is found in a range of 345 m to 3,323 m altitude, whereas, Buche Asla
(Schizothorax progastus) is found in 300 m to 1,820 m altitude. These are high value food fishes with its
importance for sport also; available in most mountainous rivers and streams in Nepal.

Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is a cold-water carnivorous sport fish of North America, which
was taken to California, Alaska, Asia and Europe during different periods of 19
th
century. Among
which, Japan is one of the largest producers of rainbow trout, where this species was introduced in





22
1877. Rainbow trout requires high protein feed and well oxygenated water for its cultivation. In
natural habitat it feeds on aquatic insects, small crustaceans and small fish. Nevertheless, it can be
cultured using artificial feed containing high animal protein. Trout can survive within a temperature
range of 0-25C. However, it grows best at the water temperature range of 10-20C. Normally, the
trout attains commercial size of 200-300gm within 14 to 20 months. Its growth depends on the
quality and quantity of feed, suitable temperature and dissolved oxygen concentration in the water
body.
4. Introduction of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
Considering the suitable climatic condition and abundance of cold water, juvenile brown trout (Salmo
trutta) were introduced from India for the first time during late 1969; and Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss) from the United Kingdom in 1971. They were distributed in two places. Few hundred
juveniles were kept in Godawari in a cement tank and the rest of them were transported to a newly
established Trishuli Trout Hatchery (which was established in Nuwakot district on the bank of the
river Trishuli). Its objective was propagation, rearing and releasing of trout into suitable hill streams to
establish sport fishery for tourism development. However, mass mortality was occurred in Trishuli
within the few months of their arrival. Since the Trout Hatchery was established in the king's interest,
the mass mortality of trout created a big issue for the Ministry of Agriculture along with Department
of Agriculture. A high level commission was constituted. Mr. K. G. Rajbanshi and Mr. J. C. Gautam
were the members of that investigation team. The team, after a through investigation of all possible
reasons of mortality came to a conclusion that the trout was introduced without proper preparation of
physical facilities such as:
ponds were leaking with earthen bottom,
proper pellet high protein feed was not available,
only buffalo meat/liver was fed, and
The water was highly silted.
The trout commission recommended that the existing facilities (ponds, water resources, human
resources, and feed) were not suitable for trout culture; and the trout farming program was dropped
until rehabilitation of Trishuli Fisheries Station. Activities in Trishuli station were resumed as usual
from 1974. Exotic carps were breed and distributed for pond culture and paddy cum fish culture for
few years.
In the beginning of 1990s, Nepalese government requested a mini project from Japan International
Cooperative Agency (JICA) under the leadership of a Senior Volunteer Mr. Kiyoshi Masuda. Under
which, the JICA supported rehabilitation of Trishuli Fisheries Station. for trout hatchery and raceway
construction Technical support was provided through Japan Overseas Cooperative Volunteer.
Realizing the importance of trout for cold water in Nepal, 50,000 eyed-eggs of Oncorhynchus mykiss
were again imported form Miyazaki Prefecture of Japan. These eyed eggs hatched out in Godawari
Fish Farm (Gurung & Basnet 2003) where more than 80 percent of the eyed eggs were successfully
hatched. These fry were grown in Godawari and Trishuli Fish Farms for several generations. Several
fisheries scientists were trained with Japanese counterparts in Nepal and Japan.
Afterward, studies on its culture and breeding technologies were conducted in Trishuli and Godawari
Fish Farms. Research on effectiveness of local feed on growth and spawning behavior of trout in
Nepalese waters were carried out. Participatory research and development trials were also conducted
in farmers' ponds with encouraging results (Rana 2007a, 2007b). In addition to aquaculture, rainbow
trout fingerlings have been introduced in one of the isolated rivers in high hills (Modi Khola). Studies
were carried out to assess the survival rate of rainbow trout and its impact on native fish fauna.
Nevertheless, trout farming is gaining popularity among the farmers of high hills region due to its high
value and excellent taste. Besides these accomplishments, trout seed has also been exported to
Thailand. Nepalese experts under Technical Cooperation program sponsored by JICA providethe
technical assistance.






23




















Fig 1: Trout production in Nepal.
5. Present status of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal
Rainbow trout culture in Trishuli is being practiced in water coming down from glaciers, whereas
spring water is used in Godawari station. The area of trout farm at Trishuli is about 2,000 sqm
whereas it is nearly 300 sqm at Godawari. The breeding of rainbow trout was initiated around 1990.
The experiment on rainbow trout cultivation started around 1993. At present, production technology
has been developed and verified in farmers' raceways. To date private sector involvement is limited.
However, the private farmers are attracted towards trout farming in Nuwakot and Rasuwa districts.
Number of trout farmers is being increased every year and production is also increasing. Mr. Purna
Bahadur Lama (Mr. Gopal Lama) of Kakani VDC-4, Ranipauwa, Nuwakot District is the first private
trout culturist in Nepal. He started rainbow trout culture in 1998 on the trial basis. Presently, he has
been growing 10,000-20,000 fingerlings of rainbow trout each year in an area of 136 sqm (Nepal et al.
2002).

Total production of trout in Nepal is estimated about 17 mt in the year 2006 (Fig 1), where
production from private sector contributes 60 percent. However, total annual fish production in
Nepal is estimated to be 42,463 Mt, of which captured fishes accounted about 47%. Majority of the
production came from private sector. At present annual trout production in Nepal ranged between
10-15 mt. Trout production in Nepal in 1993 was about 318 kg which was 1565 kg in 2005.

6. Constraints
A major constraint for expansion of trout culture is the availability of adequate seed and year-round
supply of clean and cold water at suitable site where motorable road, electricity and other infra
structure are well developed. The trout is a high value but perishable food product, thus, should be
marketed as soon as it is harvested. Post harvest handling in trout farming in near future, therefore,
would be important aspect of trout production management. Transportation network, cold storage
facilities, fish dryers are considered as pre-requisites for efficient marketing of trout. The domestic
market for rainbow trout may be not wide and simple as that of carp due to its lower production and
higher price. Nonetheless, record shows that over the last four years demand for trout in Nepal has
been increasing.






24
7. Way forward
Trout farming provides a great opportunity for utilizing the abundant source of cold water in Nepal.
From technical point of view, it can survive and grow in flowing water with temperature range of 0 to
25
0
C. As Nepal has several rivers and their tributaries of glacial origin, suitable to grow trout using
their waters, such sites suggest high prospect of further expansion of trout farming. Despite of its
low production, trout fetched very good market price, thus, trout farming has been one of the highly
profitable agricultural commodities. Research conducted on small-scale trout private farm indicated
that farmers do not have any problems in selling trout.

Feasibility survey for the expansion of trout farming is being carried-out in various parts of Nepal.
Some of the probable sites identified are Modi Khola of Parbat district, Khimti Khola of Dolakha,
Khokundol of Sindhupalchowk, and Naubise of Dhading District. Department of Agriculture is
proposing additional projects on promoting rainbow trout farming in private sector of hilly areas of
central and western development regions. Above all trout culture not only generates entrepreneurs'
income but also help establish recreation site for tourism.

Acknowledgement
I am indebted to the organizing committee of the workshop for providing me to present this work.
Thanks are also to all of concerned personal involved in rainbow trout farming in Nepal. I wish to
express my sincere thanks to all farmers for providing information on rainbow trout farming
activities.


Reference
Bardach J, J. H. Ryther & McLarney W. O (1972). Aquaculture: The farming and Husbandry of
Freshwater and Marine Organisms, Wiley Inter-Science, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 868pp.
Gurung T. B & Basnet S. R (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss in Nepal;
Constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia. No. 4. p 16.
Nepal A. P, S. R. Basnyat, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & Mulmi R. M (2002) Economics of rainbow
trout farming in Nepal. In: Petr T & Swar D. B edited "Cold water fisheries in the trans-
Himalayan countries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 431 Rome FAO, p 376.
Rajbanshi K. G (2002) Zoo-geographical distribution and the status of coldwater fish of Nepal. In:
Petr T & Swar D. B edited "Cold water fisheries in the trans-Himalayan countries. FAO
Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 431 Rome FAO, p 376.
Rana C (2007a) Rainbow trout: an agricultural breakthrough. The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007:
97-99. www.readtheboss.com
Rana C (2007b) No, fishy business! The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 76-77.
www.readtheboss.com





25



Present Status and Prospect of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
Farming in Nepal

Ash Kumar Rai, Tek Bahadur Gurung
1
, Sadhu Ram Basnet
2
, Raja Man Mulmi
1


1
Fisheries Research division, Godawari, Lalitpur
2
Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli, Nuwakot

Email: akrai@akrai.wlink.com.np
Abstract
Intensive studies on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming started after its introduction in 1988.
As a result farming package of the fish was developed in two research stations of Nepal Agricultural
Research Council, namely, Godawari and Trishuli. Presently, altogether 12 farmers are involved in
trout production, out of them 10 farms are in business with profit. In 1998/99, the production of
trout in private sector was 0.8 Mt, but in 2006 trout production has been increased to 12 Mt from
1270 m
2
water surface area. The production rate calculated in average from the farms ranged 15-20
kg/m
2
/year The feed for trout containing 35% protein are prepared by farmers themselves. Feed
conversion ratio (FCR) is about 2:1. Trout attains marketable size (about 200-300 g) from alevins
stage within 12-17 months. The farm gate price of trout ranges Rs 300-700/kg. The demand of
rainbow trout in market is high. Nepal, predominantly a mountainous country with rich cold-water
resource possesses high potential for rainbow trout commercial cultivation. It can also supports eco-
tourism development through opportunities like recreation by fishing.
Key words: Trout breeding, fry, alevins, survival, growth rate, grow out

1. Introduction
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is one of the most suitable fish to cultivate in cold waters. It can
survive in cold waters having a water temperature range from 0 to 25
0
C, but performs relatively well
for growth in 16-18
0
C. The water temperature range from 9 to 14
0
C is considered suitable for
maintaining spawners for breeding and incubation. To grow the trout at commercial scale water
volume, quality and constant water temperature play important roles. Though trout farming in Nepal
is a new endeavor, however, commercial rainbow trout cultivation was started as early as 1853 in the
US and a little earlier in Europe (Bardach et al. 1972). Nowadays, cultivation of rainbow trout for
both commercial production and recreational fishing purposes has been a well-established industry
throughout the world (Barrington 1983).

Rainbow trout was introduced in Japan from USA in 1877. Now trout has become the third highest
fish products of freshwater aquaculture in Japan (Yamaha Motor Co. Ltd 1991). Rainbow trout was
introduced first time in Nepal in 1969 from India; and second time brown trout were brought from
United Kingdom (Gurung & Basnet 2003, Swar 2007). Those fish were kept in Fish Farm, Godawari
and later on in Trout Hatchery, Trishuli. These stocks could not survive due to lack of technical
know-how and management practices. After few years in 1988, again 50,000 eyed eggs of rainbow
trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were brought from Miyazaki Prefecture of Japan. These eggs were hatched
out in Fish farm, Godawari. Then some broods were taken to Trishuli for study. Now this stock is in
cultivation in research farms as well as in private sector. After a decade of continuous efforts on
research, a complete technology package of breeding, fry nursing, rearing and grow-out of rainbow
trout with feed production technology has been developed by Nepal Agricultural Research Council
(NARC).





26
Nepal is one of the major countries for having abundant cold freshwater resources in the world;
however, these water resources have been poorly used. Rainbow trout being a cold-water fish has high
potential to cultivate in Nepal particularly in hilly region where cold water streams prevailed well.
People living in the hilly region have less opportunity to increase their income to better their
livelihood. Rainbow trout farming could be an important source of their income and providing job to
the people living in such regions. Rainbow trout can also supports eco-tourism through developing
recreational based fisheries for fishing opportunities to tourist in hill streams. However, effort on that
direction is required. Trout farming has bright prospects for expansion as Nepal is rich in cold water
resources from east to west in the hilly region. Here, in this paper we aim to provide existing
technological performance of rainbow trout farming and highlight some with issues possible solution
for scaling-up of the developed technology in the country.

1. Introduction
Fingerlings availability is the main bottle neck for trout production. Since, the trout fingerling
production is an urgent need to enhance trout production nationwide. Therefore, trout breeding was
initiated in private sector since 2005 with technical support of NARC. In the first year about 44,000
fingerlings were produced by two farmers of Rasuwa and Nuwakot.

Trout can breed after attaining two years. In general, a 3-4 years old single female can laid up to 3,000-
3500 eggs/kg (Morrissy 1973), however, breeding performance and quality egg depends on the quality
of water, feed and other management practices. The brood fish should be fed at least 35% protein
content diet at the rate of 2-3% of body weight once or twice daily. Two years old adult rainbow trout
are bred artificially once in a year during December to March; and the same group of brood can be
used for coming years. The older brood generally lays higher number of eggs/kg body weight. These
broods also produce larger eggs. The smaller eggs might have low hatchability; contrarily larger size of
eggs produce higher alevin. The eggs are stripped from females and the stripped eggs are fertilized
with the milt obtained from males (Fig. 1). Normally, one male can supply enough milt for the eggs
of two females. The fertilized eggs are incubated in incubation trays in Atkins incubators, where clean
and cold water had been supplied @ 3-7 L/sec. The water used for incubation should contain the
concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) >7 mg/L. The eggs used for incubation hatch out within
20-30 days interval depending on water temperature.


Fig 1. Mature female rainbow trout (A) and milt mixing with the eggs for fertilization (B).






27
Nursing and rearing:
The Newly hatched sac fry which are often called "alevin" weight about 0.08 g each and take about 2
weeks to attain swimming stage. At the beginning the alevin with a large yolk sac (reserved food) can
not swim well. These sac fry attains swimming stage after absorption of the yolk sac. These alevin are
fed with starter feed, which contains 35-40% crude protein. The feeding is carried at the rate of 15-
20% total biomass of fry. The feeding is generally performed at 2-hour intervals in day time till
attaining 3 g size, which take about 10 weeks. After 3 g sizes fingerlings are fed @ of 8-10% body
weight of fish at 2 hours interval till about 5 g sizes.

Alternatives to the starter feed for nursing frozen raw buffalo liver mixed with starter feed has been
proved to be one of the best starter diets with healthy and better growth compared to other diets fish
meal 30% mixed with local feed, 30% earthworm mixed with local feed and 100% earthworm (Fig.
2). Egg custard has also been found as a potential alternative to the starter feed (Pradhan 1998).
According to Parova & Rehulka (1997), the growth of trout receiving 18.5% of fats was dynamic and
faster. Basnet & Silwal (1995/96) have claimed that deformed alevins of rainbow trout might be due
to high water temperature during the spawning season.

3. Rainbow trout cultivation
Trout needs clean and cold water for its growth. Earthen ponds are not used but they can also be
used for growing trout, if abundant year round cold water is available. Concrete raceways of various
shapes and sizes are used normally for trout culture. Circular tanks typically range from 4 to 6 m in
diameter but less suited to automated handling, grading or harvesting which have been used overseas
to improve productivity (Bromage & Shepherd 1990) with a depth of about 0.75 m. Generally, water
supply equivalent to 4 L.sec
-1
can permit stocking densities up to 20 kg.m
-3
.


3.1 Stocking density
In worst conditions when water flow are not regulated negative correlation between stocking density
and growth might occur. The stocking density can be increased up to 35 kg/m
3
water flow is
sufficient (Bekiroglu et al. 1995). If the water supply is reliable, permanent, stable and adequate ponds
can be constructed in parallel fashion to avoid contamination. But, if water source is limited then
linear raceways for holding trout could be constructed. However, it needs a filter chamber to clean the
used and polluted water before sending to other raceways.


Fig 2. An effect of different starter feeds for fry nursing (Source: FRD 1999/00; 2001).






28
3.2 Site selection and water quality
The selection of suitable site for trout farming is one of essential part for successful business. The
best site for trout farm establishment should have preferably a slope of 1-3% to permit adequate
water flow and water quality. Easy access to road, availability of electricity, safety and security, free of
poaching and no possibility of flooding are also important factors that need to be considered during
site selection.

Adequate volume of cold water below 20
0
C throughout the year is the pre-requisite for a trout culture.
Yamazaki (1991) has reported rainbow trout grow well at between 10-20
0
C but in Nepal it showed the
best growth takes place in between 16-18
0
C (FRD 2001). Feed consumption decreases when water
temperature increase above 20
0
C, resulting in slow growth and eventually death, if exposed to higher
water temperature for longer period. Trout require more than 7 ppm dissolved oxygen (DO) in its
water for proper growth and breeding. The growth could be retarded or fish could die, if dissolved
oxygen remained below 7 ppm (Gibson's Limited 1998). The preferred pH range for trout is between
6.5 and 8.0 with optimum value between 7.0-7.5. At higher pH levels, relatively low levels of
ammonia can also be dangerously toxic (Bromage & Shepherd 1990; Sedgwick 1985).

4. Grow out rainbow trout
Trout can be stocked at 50-100 fish/m
2
depending upon water source the quantity, the quality and its
flow. But the stocking density in government and farmers ponds at present is 50 fish/m
2
. At this
stocking rate the marketable size of 200-300 g reach at 14-16 months of culture period. However,
fish need to be graded timely to attain uniform growth and avoid cannibalism. Specific growth rate
(SGR) decreases with the increasing size of fish. In general, if quality feed could be provided the feed
conversion ratio (FCR) equals 2:1. So, it requires about 2 kg of feed to produce 1 kg of trout. Several
other works abroad have also showed similar results (Bromage & Shepherd 1990, Gibson's Limited
(1998).

For achieving success in trout farming fish of different sizes should be graded time to time. This
management avoids competition and cannibalism. The size category for separation might be of
2-5 g; 10-20 g; 50-60 g; and >100 g sizes. Such management could also help to improve FCR and
minimization of the cost of production. The trout diet formulation depends on the age and size of the
fish. Rainbow trout needs high protein containing diet which might be obtained using dry
shrimp/prawn and soybean products for feed preparation (FRD 1998/99). Other feed ingredients
could be wheat, oil cake, rice bran, vitamin mixture and minerals to prepare trout feeds. With the
success of research on feed formulation and testing in farmers field NARC has demonstrated viability
of commercial trout feed production in the country.

Generally, the marketable body weight of trout is about 200 g. The longer culture period after 200g
body weight might results in increase in the cost of production. Therefore, it is advised to harvest the
fish right after attaining the size of about 200 each to get the best profit. Feed efficiency in trout in
Japan ranges from 60-80% (Tasiro et al. 1974) but it has been found lower (43-46%) in Nepal (FRD
1999/'00). This suggests that there is still need research on trout feed efficiency improvement. The
cost of rainbow trout production has been analyzed which shows that to produce 1 kg of marketable
size (200-300 g each) of trout might cost nearly Rs. 170 (Joshi & Westlund 1996). Economic analysis
of trout culture based on the experiences of the private sector in Nepal (Nepal et al. 2001; Rai et al.
2005) showed that annual rate of return could be nearly 43% of the total investment. The high initial
investment for raceways construction could be a constraint for rapid expansion of trout cultivation, in
general.





29
5. Prospect of rainbow trout farming in Nepal
Efforts have been made to transfer the technology to the private sector with the help of various
government and non-government channels. As a result, till now about 1175.2 m
2
areas of 88 raceway
ponds have been used for trout production. The suitable size and depth of the ponds are 50-150 m
2

and 80-90 cm, respectively.

Trout farming has become a success in Nepal after more than a decade of continuous and untiring
efforts. It generates not only the income to the farmers but also creates employment opportunities to
the people living in the mountainous and hilly regions. In addition, it has potential to be exported
overseas and earn foreign currency. Rainbow trout can also entertain tourists and provide fresh fish in
restaurant as well. In order to expand the industry, government should initiate and take interest and
support providing subsidy as well as technical support. To make the trout farming a successful
business, further research and supports are also necessary.

People living in the hilly regions have limited income resources to improve their livelihood. Therefore,
the introduction of trout and its culture technology in the hilly region could be supportive and
encouraging to the people for income generating opportunity by utilizing rich cold-water resources.
Out of about 6,000 rivers in Nepal most of them origin from the Himalayan snow peaked mountains.
These rivers could be utilized for cold water aquaculture, if related infrastructures such as road and
electricity are available. Pond fish culture in warmer region has limited area and should compete with
other agricultural activities for land and water use. Therefore, to develop aquaculture in Nepal
utilization of cold water resources in hilly terrain could be one of the best options. Therefore,
cultivation of cold water fish could ascertain promising agriculture activities in Nepal. In addition, the
development of cold water fisheries could also supports sport fishery based eco-tourism for income
generation activities to local people.

The market for trout is enormous as it has high demand in and outside the country. Fresh trout can
consume directly to the hotels and restaurants in towns within the country. The local influential
communities as well as tourists are the main consumers of trout in these hotels and restaurants.
Besides that trout has high demand outside the country, however, the quantity and consistent quality
product is the main bottleneck. The production and supply should be regular, reliable and sizeable.
Therefore, in order to be competitive trout should be produced on a commercial scale to take
advantagese. Such managerial improvement is expected ton reduce the production cost. There is a
great prospect of trout culture industry in Nepal but more private entrepreneurs and organizations
should be attracted towards this business.

6. Recommendations and suggestions
The most important and crucial part of trout farming is the hatchery to produce enough
fingerlings. Therefore good hatchery should be established for mass seed production to
supply sufficient quantity of quality fingerlings to the growers.
Trout farming depends on quality and quantity of feed supply available. The feed production
cost can be relatively higher, because trout requires high protein content diet. Therefore,
government need to establish or subsidy the feed manufacturers of the trout so that they can
supply quality feed at low cost to the trout growers. The mixture of different levels of
defatted soybean meal, corn gluten meal and meat meal could replace up to 90% of the
fishmeal to be used, if the combination of these ingredients produces the profile of amino
acids comparable to the fishmeal diet (Juadee & Watanabe 1993).





30

However, the research needs to be continued to search locally available cheaper ingredients
for fish meal so that manufacturers would be able to produce low-cost feed.
Unlike other fish species, trout solely depends on quality feed and need skilled human
resource to manage successfully. Due to these reasons, trout culture is normally costly than
carp. Therefore, in order to encourage private farmers, government should make provision
to get loans in low-interest for capital investment and subsidies on feeds or feed ingredients,
related equipments, fry transportation etc.
Acknowledgement
We extend our sincere thanks to all of staffs working in Trishuli Fish Farm, Fisheries Research
Division, Godawari and Private farms for providing information require for this study. Fund and
support for this study was provided through Nepal Agricultural Research Council and Japan
International Cooperative Agency.
Reference
Bardach J. E, J. H. Ryther & McLarney W. O (1972) Aquaculture: The Farming and Husbandry of
Freshwater and Marine Organisms. Wiley-Inter science, A division of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
NY. 868 pp
Barrington R (1983) Making and Managing a Trout Lake. Fishing News Books, England, 135 pp
Basnet S. & Silwal U (1995/96). Relationship between local environmental condition management
and spawning efficiency of rainbow trout. Technical report, Fisheries Research Center, Godawari
Bekiroglu Y, T. Sahin & Duzgunes E (1995) Assessment of optimal stocking density for rainbow
trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). General Directorate of Agricultural Research, Ankara(Turkey). 59
pp
Bromage N. R. & C. J. Shepherd (1990) Fish, their requirements and site evaluation. In: Shepherd, C.
J. & Bromage, N.R. (eds), Intensive Fish Farming. BSP Professional Books, Oxford. 17-49
FRD (1998/99) Annual Technical Report. Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Fisheries Research
Division, Godawari. 5-8
FRD (1999/'00) Relationship between specific growth rate and sizes of rainbow trout. Annual
Technical Report, Lalitpur, Nepal. 51-54
FRD (2001) Development of starter feed for trout alevins. Annual Technical Report, Fisheries
Research Division, Godawari, NARC. 27-33
Gibson's Limited (1998) Feed Management Guidelines for Salmonids. Gibson's Limited, Tasmania.
150 pp
Gurung T. B & S. R Basnet (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal:
constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia 8 (4):16-18
Joshi P. L & Westlund L M (1996) Production Technology and Prospects of trout forming in Nepal,
Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Role of Fisheries and Aquaculture Nepal, Nepal
Fisheries Society, Kathmandu. 27-34
Juadee P & Watanabe T (1993) Replacement of fishmeal by alternative protein sources in rainbow
trout diets. Proceedings of the seminar on Fisheries, Department of Fisheries. Bangkok,
Thailand. 15-17
Morrissy N. M (1973) Comparison of strains of Salmo gairdneri Richardson from New South Wales,
Victoria and Western Australia. Australian Society for Limnology Bulletin, 5: 11-20
Nepal A. P, S. R. Basnet, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & Mulmi R. M (2002). Economics of rainbow trout
farming systems in Nepal. In: T. Petr and D. B. Swar (eds.) Cold Water Fisheries in the Trans-
Himalayan Countries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 431 Rome, FAO. P. 376
Parova J & Rehulka J (1997) The effect of dietary fat in market rainbow trout on growth dynamics,
specific growth rate and trout health. Zivocisna-Vyroba-UZPI (Czech Republic). 42(12):547-551





31
Pradhan N (1998) Development of starter feed for trout larvae under local management. In Present
Status of Fisheries, Research, Development and Education in Nepal. Eds. Pradhan, B.R., Wagle,
S.R. Osamu, Y. and Masakazu, T. NARC & JICA, 170 pp
Rai A. K, R. C. Bhujel, S. R. Basnet & Lamsal G. P (2005) Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) culture
in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal- A success story. Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural
Research Institutions (APAARI), FAO, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok,
Thailand. 33 pp
Sedgwick S. D (1985) Trout Farming Handbook. 4th ed. Fishing News Books, England, 160 pp
Swar D. B (2007) History of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) introduction in Nepal. In proceeding
"Rainbow trout farming initiatives in Nepal" edited by T. B. Gurung. p
Tasiro F, W. Tachikawa, T. Kamata, E. Tamura, AOC II & Y. Yabe. 1974. Rainbow Trout Fish
Farming Lecture Series, Vol 10, Midori shadow Co. Ltd, (in Japanese)
Yamaha Motor Co, Ltd. (1991) Rainbow trout culture. Fishery Journal. 36
Yamazaki T (1991) Culture of foreign origin Fisheries, Farming Japan. 25
th
Anniversary. 25(1):41-46





32
Breeding performance of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in
northeastern hills, Nepal

Sadhu Ram Basnet, Gopal Prasad Lamsal, Raja Man Mulmi**,
Tek Bahadur Gurung**

Fisheries Research Center, Trishuli
Email: srbasnet@yahoo.com.np

**Fisheries Research Division, Godawari
Abstracts
Research on participatory breeding of rainbow trout has been one of the main activities of Godawari
& Trishuli Fisheries farms in past several years in Nepal. Under the breeding program 1
+
and 2
+
year's
old broods were used for spawning. The main objective of this study was to examine the breeding
performance of rainbow trout for fry production. The broods were stocked at experimental sites
about three months prior to spawning. The hatchability and growth trends were affected by the
presence of silt and humus in water used for eggs incubation. Variation on different parameters such
as hatchability revealed that poor water quality and feeding management might affect dramatically on
survivability of alevin. In general, the results showed that highest hatchability (45.32%) occurred in
Rasuwa which might be related with water quality available during incubation period. This fact was
further evidenced by higher hatchability of 2+ years old mothers in Kakani (45%) and Trishuli (24%)
than 1+ female group. The lowest hatchability occurred in Godawari (8.08%).

Key words: Trout breeding, male female, fecundity, alevin, hatchability

1. Introduction
Rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss is one of the most popular fish for cultivation in cold water. For
sustainable cultivation of trout pure seed are produced in hatcheries. However, trout breeding
technologies need strengthening in both government as well as private farms in Nepal. To achieve
this goal, first breeding of trout in hatchery was attempted in 1990. Rainbow trout require cold, clean
and highly oxygenated water for ripening of broods for successful breeding and hatchery activities.
Female rainbow trout spawn best at the age of four to seven years and males at the three to six years.
The maximum longevity of rainbow trout is 11 years (Morrissy 1973). The fecundity of rainbow trout
changes with the age of female brood (Martyshev 1983). Contrarily to these, Trishuli and Godawari
research farms use females ranging more than one year to three years age group, male mostly less than
three years old.

Feeding condition notably influence the fecundity of rainbow trout (Huet 1975). Shortage of quality
feed reduces fecundity. Therefore, shrimp
-
, fish
-
and soybean meals had been recommended as the
main source of protein dietary component of formulated trout diets. Shrimp and fishmeal are most
expensive component, which cannot be fully replaced by plant originated protein for trout feed. It is
known that feeding with high quality feed is one of highly important part of brood management for
producing quality seed and table fish production. Recognizing these facts dietary composition of trout
has been attempted to standardized, however, to make trout farming more economical further work is
highly desirable.

To transfer the farming technology participatory approach is one of the best options. In this approach
potential farmer locations are selected where researcher could perform the research activities in full
participation of the farmer.





33
2. Materials and Methods
Comparisons of breeding performance were examined in two government farms (Trishuli and
Godawari) and two private farms (Kakani and Rasuwa). In the Trishuli fish farm, water was supplied
through glacier originated Trishuli River, where the water remains turbid at least 4-5 months in a year
from MaySeptember. In other location the source of water was spring for supply in the hatchery.
Broods were selected from the farm stock and divided into two age groups, one was comprised of 2
years old and another 3 years old broods named as 1
+
(first spawner) and 2
+
age (second spawner).
These broods were maintained in raceways having a dimension of 1:5 width and length.

The female and male broods were transported into the experimental areas at least three months prior
to breeding period. The feeding regime to broods was twice a day in the morning and the evening at
2-3% of total body weight. Brood fish were fed 35% crude protein containing pellet feed
(Table 1) at the rate of 1-2% of live weight before spawning or November first week. In all
experimental sites quality of brood stocks were assessed on the basis of: general health condition,
absence of deformities, good external appearance, good coloration, activity, and swiftness of reaction
to stimuli. The stocking density of brood was 5-10 Kg/m
2
and water exchange were maintained to
exchange at least 4-6 times within 24 hour.

The state of ripeness was examined two times at a week during breeding period from the end of
October. The state of brood could recognize through external body appearance of males and females.
Such as body coloration of males become brilliant, appeared darker but abdomen remains
compressed. Along with these, lower jaw elongated; and curved upward like a hook. The maturity in
females was verified by enlarged abdomen the presence of oocytes. The gravid broods were selected
and brought into the hatchery. Gravid broods were gently wiped using dry and clean towel to clean
the dirt and soak the water from body surface and avoid water mixing on extruded eggs and milt.
Thereafter eggs were collected in the container by applying mild pressure first on lower part of the
ovary (near the vent) and upward the ovary over the ventral side of fish. The eggs from mature
female were obtained by simple hand stripping on a sieve and cleaned with 0.9% common salt
solution. Immature female were kept and checked periodically an interval of 3-4 days.

Eggs were counted by weighing 5 g eggs separately. For fertilization, brisk milt was mixed in same
container where eggs were stripped. Thereafter, eggs were stirred gently with a feather and stand for
one minute. After that, 0.9 percent salt solution about was poured carefully from the side of the
container for removing dirt and cleaning the fertilized eggs. Then the green eggs were washed
continuously until the water becomes
transparent. The green eggs were poured in
the tray (local made 33*34 cm size). Then all
trays were tied in stake together to put into
the Atkins. Where, continuous and uniform
water flow was maintained at the rate 2 lit/
minute for 10,000 eggs. The optimum
dissolve oxygen required in the incubation
apparatus was always about 6-8 mg litre-.
During the whole incubation period the trays
were cleaned twice from the Atkin to remove
dead eggs.

2.1 Nursing and rearing
After hatching sac fry were carefully removed
from the tray into the mesh cage arranged
into rectangular troughs where running water
were maintained by protecting them from
bright light. Water supply rate in the trough





34
were @ 0.3-0.5 ml/min/1000 larvae. The sac fry remained in the tray until the absorption of yolk sac
and the fry become able to swim. After that the free swimming fry were fed 10 times a day. The
feeding frequency was reduced to 2-4 times a day after the fry attain larger in size. The fry were fed
every hour at the rate of 5-10 % of body weight with crumble feed. Along with the crumble, minced
buffalo liver was fed to the fry.

2.2 Grow-out fish trials
For analyzing the grow-out, 1-2g size fingerlings were stocked @ 50 fish m
-2
. Continuous and uniform
water flow was maintained @ 1 L/min /m
2
in raceway pond, containing more than 7 mg L. dissolve
oxygen and pH range from 6.5 to 7.5. Locally prepared feed for grow-out were supplied after pelleting
according to the feed composition given in Table-2. According to water temperature the feeding rate
were maintained. The water temperature was measured daily using simple mercury thermometer, DO
was measured by simple portable meter. For pH measurement simple Litmus paper were used.
Specific growth rate decrease with increasing size of fish and feed conversion ratio has shown the 2:1.
For more than 50 g of size fish 20% and less than 50 g size 30% animal protein containing feed to
grow-out production 2-3 times at daily @ 1.5 -2% of total biomass were fed.
















3. Results
Water temperature ranged from 12 to 20
0
C in Trishuli, 13 to 22
0
C in Godawari, 10 to 17
0
C in
Rasuwa and 9-21
0
C in Kakani. The water pH ranged from 6.5-7.5. Other detail of breeding
performance is given in Table-3. The egg incubation period in Godawari and Trishuli were 325 to
350 degree days, respectively. The hatchability was low Godawari and Trishuli than private farms in
Kakani and Rasuwa farms.

Breeding occurred from first week of November to the beginning of December. First breeding
occurred in Godawari, then in Kakani, Trushuli and Rasuwa. Fully mature eggs were spherical,
translucent and pale yellow to orange color. The egg diameters of 1
+
female ranged from 3-3.5 mm,
while those of 2
+
ranged from 3.5-4.0 mm female. The extruded total 1500-2600 eggs per kg

of
female. Body weight of each alevin at first day was about 40-50 mg, while total length ranged from
1.3-1.8 cm.

In Trishuli hatching occurred after 27 to 35 days when temperature ranged 10-13 C, while in
Godawari it took from 25 to 30 days when temperature was ranged from 11 to 14C. Hatching
period depends on the water temperature, and takes place 27 to 41 days when temperature remains
10-12C (Frost & Brown 1967). Marketable size of trout (200-300 g) reached within 15-17 months in
Trishuli and 12-13 month of culture period in Godawari. Yolk sac got absorbed within 7-18 days and
reached into free swimming stage.






35
Table 3. Fecudity, fertility and other characteristics of 1+ and 2+ years female in different locations.






























Fig 1. Growth trend of trout fingerlings in two different stations.

3.1 Growth trend of grow out
The growth showed that the body weight becomes double rapidly in smaller trout. This trend
however decreased with increasing fish body wieght (Fig-1). The temperatures seemed to play
important role in growing period. The initial stocking rate of 2-3 g fingerlings ranged 50-100 fish m
-2.

The marketable size of 200-300 g achieved within 15-17 month in Trishuli and 13-15 month of
culture period in Godawari. However, 9-10 months old trout with averaging 100 g body weight
started to sell around November in private farms.

4. Discussion
Breeding performance and success of rainbow trout highly depend on feeding, selection, maturation
age, management disease occurrence and water quality. Good selection of brood fish is one of the
important aspects to increases the rate of hatchability and decrease mortality rate of offspring. Trout
becomes ready to spawn on second year of age. In Nepal both male and female broods are used for
spawning after reaching 2 and 3 years old. Rainbow trout needs clean and high DO containing (more
than 7 mg litre-
1
) at normal condition and intensive management 10-11mg liter- for brood. Water pH
normally should be 7.0-7.5. It is known that at higher pH, relatively low levels of ammonia can be
dangerously toxic to trout (Bromage & Shepherd 1990, Sedgwick 1985).

Trout can breed after two years and spawn 2000 eggs kg- (Huet 1975); however breeding
performance and quality egg development depends on the quality of the feed and water. A female
weighing 1 kg gives an average of 1500 to 2000 eggs (Huet 1975) Based on our experience in two
research (Trishuli and Godawari) centers trout can be bred artificially once a year from November to
February.






36
Males of two to four years considered best for breeding (Pillay 1993). Quality milt plays an important
role for successful breeding. High quality milt has a dense consistency with creamy colored
appearance, while poor quality milt is watery with bluish tinge. The quantity of spermatozoa in the
milt is considerable: 10,000 million in a cubic centimeter of the trout milt (according to Schlenk &
Kuhmann, quoted by Dorier). It is not advisable to use eggs collected from females spawning for the
first time, because the roe might be comparatively small and could yield higher loss during the period
of embryonic development (Martyshev 1983).

In present study, the egg size varied from 3-5 mm. Many works suggest egg diameter should be about
5 mm (Range of 4.7 to 5.6 mm) for achieving good hatchability and low mortality with effective
growth performance in rainbow trout. The quantity of eggs or milt and the egg size increase with
increase in size of brood. It means larger the eggs size, larger alevins and more resistant young one.
The size of the male however, does not influence the size of the alevins, but descendants of older
females fertilized by young males is predominantly masculine (Huet 1975). Only 2-3 years old broods
has been using for breeding in Nepal. This might be the reason of smaller eggs size.
Conclusion
We concluded water quality, feed and brood maintenance are main factor which directly play
important role on achieving higher hatchability and production. To improve the life span of trout
improvement in trout nutrition might be highly desirable. Further comprehensive study and data
would require for concluding specific performance of trout breeding in prevailing ecological sites.
However, the present results have demonstrated that participatory trout breeding in private farms are
highly encouraging and commendable.

Acknowledgement
We thank all the staffs of Trishuli & Godawari fish farm and private trout breeders for their
cooperation. Funds for this research were provided through Nepal Agricultural Research Council,
Japan International Cooperation Agency and from KR2 of Government of Japan.
Reference
Bromage, N. R. & Shepherd C. J (1990) Fish, their requirements and site evaluation. In, Shepherd, C.
J & Bromage, N. R. (eds), Intensive Fish Farming. BSP Professional Books, Oxford. 17-49.
FRC (2005) Annual Technical Report. Published by Trishuli Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli,
Nuwakot
Frost W. E & Brown, M. E (1967) The Trout. NMN. Pullin St. James Place London.
Gurung T. B & S. R. Basnet (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal:
constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia 8(4):16-18
Huet M. (1975) Textbook of fish culture, breeding and cultivation of fish. Fishing News (Books) Ltd,
23 Rosemount Avenue, West Byfleet, Surrey, England.
Morrissy N. M (1973) Comparison of strains of Salmo Gairdneri Richardson from New South Wales,
Victoria and Western Australia. Australian Society for Limnology Bulletin, 5: 11-20.
Martyshev F. G (1983) Pond Fisheries, American Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
Nomura, M. (1994). New Fishery Handbook. Koudansha, Tokyo. pp. 388-390
Pillay T. V. R (1993) Aquaculture Principles and Practices. Fishing News Books, A Division of
Blackwell Scientific Publication Ltd. University press, Cambridge, The Great Britain.
Sedgwick, S. D. (1985). Trout Farming Handbook, Fishing News Books Ltd., 1 Long Garden Walk,
Farnham, Surrey, England.





37

Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) larval rearing methodologies in Nepal

Neeta Pradhan, Asha Raymajhi & Santa Kumar Shrestha
1

Fisheries Research Division, Godawari

Email: pradhannita@yahoo.com

1
Fisheries Research Center, Trishuli
Abstract
Sustainability of aquaculture highly depends on the availability of high quality robust and healthy seed.
The larvae of trout accept feed from early stages after yolk sac are absorbed. Preparation of
composite feed for early fry is a complex process. In earlier years in absence of appropriate modern
technologies for the preparation of dried crumble feeds, several local methods were attempted in
Nepal. Previous works suggest that in absence of well balanced appropriate dry starter pellet, boiled
egg yolk and liver could be the best feed for larval rearing as starter feed. The growth pattern and
survival of fry fed with egg yolk and liver were same as it was with dry pellet. These methods could
be useful in remote trout hatcheries where transportation of dry pellet could be impractical.

Key words: Crumble, starter feed, liver, egg yolk, dry pellet

1. Introduction
Rearing fish larvae successfully is one of the most important parts of aquaculture enterprise, as its
sustainability highly depends on survival of larvae (Bardach et al. 1972, Huet 1975). To guarantee the
success of any aquaculture enterprise consistence seed supply mechanism is the most important step.
Carp require natural food when larvae first start its feeding. However, larvae of trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss) in hatcheries exclusively depend on external feed for their growth from the time larvae
commence first feeding (Bardach et al. 1972). Therefore, trout larval rearing highly depend on quality
feed.

In many countries, high quality commercial branded dry pellet known as crumble for larvae are
available (Hinshaw 1999). However, in Nepal enterprises for commercial trout diets are not yet
available. Thus, to initiate sustainable trout farming methodologies use of local feeds become
essential. Rainbow trout being carnivorous obtain limited amount of energy from fat and
carbohydrates; thus, need diets rich in animal protein (Nomura 1993, Hinshaw, 1999). Besides, the
amount of water and seed the success of trout farming depends on the types of feed on which they
are cultivated (Ghittino 1972, Maruyama 1983). Earlier, Japanese feed was used as initial feed for early
fry in Nepal. Dry feed obtained from abroad was not only expensive but always bears risk upon
unavailability. In earlier years before the methodologies were available for pellet feed, rainbow trout
were usually fed raw feed of animal origin (Bardach et al. 1972, Sedgwick 1985). Since, these
methodologies could be still appropriate for far remote places where modern technologies would not
be available. Thus, our objective in present work was to review, examine and develop appropriate
local feed to rear trout larvae from swimming to fingerling stage.

2. Some important feeding methodological trials and their results
2.1 Methodology for testing effectiveness of egg yolk (1
st
experiment)
Two feeding trial were conducted at FRC Godawari in 1992/93 (Gurung & Tamang 1992/93) to
examine the effectiveness of various local feeds to find out simple methods, if pellet feed is not
available. Fry of 0.92 to 0.11g in first trial and 0.23 to 0.35 g in second trial were reared with two
types of feed for 30 days. The two types of diets were Trishuli farm made crumble feed (CP 32.59%,
CF 6.38%, ash 15.23%, and moisture 6.48%) and boiled egg yolk (crude protein 12 % and crude fat
12 %).





38
In both trials, growth and survivability were higher in group fed with crumble than with boiled egg
yolk. The growth rate (18.61 mg/day) of group fed with crumble was higher than fish fed with egg
yolk (14.115 mg/day). But there was no significance difference in growth rate and survivability
between treatments.

2.2 Methodology of fish meal replacement of by soymeal (2
nd
experiment)
An experiment was conducted from 1993 for 60 days at FRC Godawari in 1993/94 to find either fish
meal could be substituted with soybean protein or not. The experiment was carried out in troughs of
equal size (0.1463 m
3
). There were two treatments each with two replicates. Each trough was stocked
with 142 trout fry of approximately 45 days old (av. wt. 1.052 gm). In treatment-1, trout fry was fed
with soybean based feed (soybean 72%, shrimp meal 10%, wheat 16%, multivitamin 1% and salt 1%)
and in treatment 2 with pellet feed (soybean 40%, shrimp meal 42%, wheat 16%, multivitamin 1%
and salt 1%).

The growth rate of trout fed with soybean-based feed was higher (0.155gm/day) than fed with pellet
(0.151 gm/day) but there was no significance difference in growth rates between the two treatments.
This might be due to the presence of abundant natural food (invertebrate population) in water supply.
It might be possible that the animal protein deficiency could not be seen in the fry fed with soybean
plant protein, if they had consumed the natural food. In a study fish meal replaced up to 75% by
soybean had no adverse effect on overall performance of feed utilization efficiency in rainbow trout
(Tacon et al. 1983). Except the protein level, the difference between fish meal and soybean meal is
their origin. In farm made feeds, the protein level is about 35%. This level of protein can be derived
from soybean. However, the cost of fishmeal is approximately 4 to 6 times higher than soybean.

2.3 Methodology testing for appropriateness of liver as initial feed
A study was carried out in nine circular cemented tanks (1.4 m
3
each) for a period of 60 days in 1998
(Pradhan 1998). Three treatments each with three replicates were carried out for feeding early larvae
of trout. The three different types of feeds were Japanese starter feed (control), liver and boiled egg
yolk (Table 1). All tanks were stocked with 525 trout larvae of 0.35 g individual average weight. In
the tanks water depths were maintained up-to 30 cm. The volume of circular tank up-to water level
was 0.53 m
3
. In each replicates tank water flow was maintained at the rate of 6.0 L/m. Dissolved
Oxygen, pH and temperature and mortality were measured everyday.

Table 1. Percentage composition of three experimental diets








*Composition as written on trade bag

The highest growth (0.096g.day
-1
) occurred for fish fed on Japanese starter feed followed by liver
(0.066g. day
-1
)

and egg yolk (0.06g.day
-1
)

(Fig. 1). Mean individual body weight and total length at the
end of experiment were not significantly different among and within the treatments. The condition
factor for a normal fish was about 1, tending towards fatness. Computed values of condition factor
for the experiment fish were in normal range (Table 2).







39

Fig. 1. Body weight of trout fry fed with three different feed

Result indicated that young trout could efficiently use and can rear with Japanese initial feed, frozen
liver and egg yolk for their growth. This finding suggesting that liver and egg yolk are highly palatable
and prescribed to use as initial trout feed. This result support the study by Brown (1951) who showed
that fresh liver was the most satisfactory food than shrimp meal (2 parts dried meal, 1 part bemax and
1 part farex) and live tubifex. Based on these results it can be concluded that fresh liver may be
equally good as standard starter feed meeting all the nutritional requirements of young trout.

Table 2. Growth of rainbow trout fry fed upon three different types
















2.4 Methodological testing for appropriateness of liver as fry feed in Trishuli
Three different diets based on protein percentage (Table 3) were fed to trout fry for a month to
determine whether the liver can be substitute the high grade feed required of trout (Igarashi & Roy
1997). The tested diets were Japanese feed (control), raw frozen liver and boiled liver. The experiment
was carried out in six circular plastic buckets (0.02 m
3
each) from 24 January to 23 February 1996, a
period of 30 days. Each bucket was stocked with 100 free swimming fries of 99.4 mg sized.

Weight gain was higher for fish fed with Japanese feed (0.0173 g per day) and raw liver (0.0167g.
day
-1
) than for fish fed with boiled liver (0.006g.day
-1
). It is clear that the group provided with first
two types of diets exhibited high survival, over 90%, while group fed with boiled liver had 70%
survival. Total length at the end of the experiment was not significantly different in first two
treatments. Comparatively, growth of individual fish in the third treatment was fairly lower than first
two treatments.





40
Table 3: Proximate analysis of feed of three experimental diets of trout alevins and fry









2.5 Growth studies using earthworm as feed
Several studies reported that vermiculture has potential to supply earthworm as a substitute of
fishmeal from fish diet because of earthworm meal contains all essential amino acids required for fish
feed (Ismail 1997). Mitra (1997) reported that availability of methionine and lysine are recorded
higher in earthworm than fishmeal. Considering these facts a comparison study was carried out on
the effect in the growth of fish fed with diet contained 25% earthworm plus 75% farm feed only. Fish
fed with farm diet showed better growth than fish fed with diet contained earthworm. The reason
might be the earthworm powder was not accepted by fish due to earthworms unfavorable smell
though contained high protein. (The reason might be the unfavorable smell of earthworm powder
that was not accepted by fish though contained high protein)

3. General practice adopted for larval rearing in Nepal
In FRD Godawari, after yolk sac absorption, the free swimming larvae are fed only with boiled egg
yolk at the rate of 1.5% of the body weight for 7 days. After 7 days crumble feed (crude protein 35%)
was supplied. While in FRC Trishuli and 6 private trout farms at Nuwakot and Rasuwa districts the
free-swimming larvae were fed with crumble dry starter feed with 45% crude protein (Table 4). In all
cases the source of animal protein was from shrimp (47%). Feed was supplied till satiation 7 to 8
times per day. Frozen liver was supplied to the fry as supplementary diet at the rate of 2% of body
weight two times per day.

Table 4. Feed composition of rainbow trout fry (CP 45%)




















The growth rate of rainbow trout at farmers field was higher (0.65g
-1
) than FRC Godawari 0.42 g
-1
(Fig. 2). This might be due to better water quality in farmers field than FRC Trishuli. The water at
FRC Trishuli had high silt. The fry reached 4.25 g after 5 months at FRC Trishuli. The growth rate
was 0.03 g. D
-1
after 150 days of culture.





41

















Fig 2. Growth study of rainbow trout at Trishuli farm and farmers field

Recommendation and conclusion
In absence of suitable dry pellet feed for trout during larval stage, most suitable starter diet could be
egg yolk, followed by liver. Since, liver contains very high protein and several other vitamins and
minerals; probably it is the best feed till the development of appropriate dry starter pellet feed in
Nepal.

Acknowledgement
We extend our thanks to Dr. Tek Bahadur Gurung, Dr. Ash Kumar Rai, Mr. Sadhu R.am Basnet and
Mr. Purusottam Lal Joshi for extending cooperation for the preparation of this paper. Partial fund for
preparation of this paper is provided through Soft Type Follow-up Program of Natural Water
Fisheries Development of Japan International Cooperation Agency.

Reference
Bardach J. E., Ryther, J. H. & McLarney W. O (1972) Aquaculture-The farming and husbandry of
freshwater and marine organisms. Wiley-Interscience, A division of John Wiley & sons, Inc. NY.
868 p.
Brown M. E (1951) The growth of brown trout (Salmo trutta Linn.) The effect of food and
temperature on the survival and growth of fry. Zoological Department, University of Cambridge.
Ghittino P (1972) The diet and general fish husbandry; in fish nutrition; John E. Halver (ed.);
Academic Press New York.
Gurung T. B. & Tamang L. S (1993) Fingerlings of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) rearing with two
different feeds. Annual Technical Report, FRC, Godawari.
Hinshaw J. M (1999) Trout production feeds and feeding methods. South Regional Aquaculture
Center
Huet M. (1975) Text book of fish culture. Fishing news (books) Ltd. Rosemount, Avenue, West by
Huet, Surrey, England.
Igarashi M & Roy N. K (1998) Effects of buff liver upon the growth of free swimming larvae of
rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Eds. Pradhan B. R., S. K. Wagle, O. Yamada & M. Takano,
Editor), Present Status of Fisheries Research, Development and Education in Nepal. Pp. 64-65.
Ismail S. A (1997) Vermicology the biology of earthworms. Orient Longam Limited New Delhi,
India.
Maruyama T (1983). Inland aquaculture Kanagawa International Fisheries Training Center, Japan
International Co-operation agency.





42
Mitra A (1997) Bioethics in India: Proceedings of the International Bioethics Workshop,
Biomanagement of Biogeoresources, 16-19 Jan. 1997. Editors Jayapaul Azariah, Hilda Azariah,
& Darryl R.J. Macer, Copyright Eubios Ethics Institute, Madras.
Nomura, M. (1994). New Fishery Handbook. Koudansha, Tokyo. pp. 388-390
Pradhan N (1998) Development of starter feed for larvae under local management. In Present status
of Fisheries Research, Development and Education in Nepal. Eds. Pradhan, B.R., S. K., Wagle,
O. Yamada. and M. Takano. NARC & JICA, 170 p.
Sedgwick S. D (1985) Trout Farming Handbook 5th edition. Fishing News Books (Blackwell Science),
Oxford, England. 192 pp.
Tacon A. G. J, J. V. Haastler, P. B. Featherstone, K. Kerr & Jackson A. J (1983) Studies on the
utilization of full fat soybean and solvent extracted soybean in a complete diet for rainbow trout,
Bull Jpn. Sot. Sci. Fish. 49: 1437-1443.





43

Nutrition and Pellet Feed Formulation for Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss) in Nepal

Jay Dev Bista, Suresh Kumar Wagle, Neeta Pradhan
1
& Nanda Kishor Roy
1

Fisheries Research Centre, P. O. Box 274, Pokhara, Kaski, Nepal
Email: fishres@fewanet.com.np

+
Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal


Abstract
This paper reviews a number of specific issues in the fields of trout nutrition and feed formulation
which are critical for sustainable trout production in Nepal, e.g. nutrient requirements of trout and
their supply under practical farming conditions, availability and supply of feed resources and their
implication on development of trout feeds, and maintenance of environmental quality and
sustainability of trout aquaculture systems. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) was introduced in
Nepal to use of vast cold-water resources for aquaculture in mountain region of the country. The
other objective was import substitution of high valued fish and alike commodities. Recently,
technological packages of trout farming in prevailing ecological condition had been developed and
efforts are being made for up scaling of the technology among farming communities. Despite of huge
potential for trout farming, quality feed is one of the major constraints hindering its rapid expansion.
Shrimp meal is an essential component in the diet of trout. In view of the increasing cost and relative
scarcity of these feed stuffs, a considerable research effort has been expanded in the country on
evaluating the suitability of plant ingredients as complete or partial replacement of the fishmeal
components in trout diet. A review of selected research literature on investigations into the use of
plant feedstuffs in trout feed indicated that it is possible to utilize processed soybean meal at high
level (up to 60%) in trout diet without impairing growth and environment. Dietary formulations,
based on the use of high inclusion levels of locally available and known quality ingredients, are
recommended for use within three distinct feed lines, namely starter, and fingerling and production
diets. Emphasis has been placed on larval nutrition and need for refinement and improvement of buff
liver to increase feed efficiency.

Key words: feed formulation, amino acid, protein, carbohydrate, fish meal, vitamin, fatty acids

1. Introduction
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) prefer clean, cold and high oxygen water for their growth and
survival, which are abundant in the hill and mountain areas in Nepal. Trout are well studied fish for
cultivation in cold waters (Bardach et al. 1972, Huet 1975, Shetty et al. 1989). The wide distribution of
rainbow trout in pond and raceway culture is explained by its low sensitivity and demands in terms of
external environment, good growth, and high food qualities. The edible part of trout constitutes 78 to
80% of the fish and its muscle protein contains 18 amino acids, of which 10 are essential for man
(Martyshev 1983).

Trout was successfully introduced in Nepal in 1988 to meet many needs including substitution of
import, use of cold-water resources for aquaculture and promotion of fishing tourism in hill streams
(Gurung & Basnet 2003). Despite of huge potential for the development of trout farming in the
country, presently its expansion is limited to a few farmers of Nuwakot districts. Availability of fish
seeds and quality feed are the major constraints hindering the rapid expansion of trout farming in
cold-water region of the country. Rainbow trout is a typical high protein and high oxygen demanding
carnivorous fish. In natural habitats trout depends on aquatic insects, small crustaceans and small





44
larvae. However, all stages of trout can be grown from larvae to adults feeding upon artificial food.
Its farming is mostly characterized by intensive farming system elsewhere, using high-cost nutrient
inputs in the form of nutritionally-complete formulated diets. In the formulated diets the most
expensive ingredients are fish and shrimp meal which have been incorporated to meet the protein
requirement of trout (FRCT 2004).

At present some problems associated with the development of pellet feed for commercial trout
production could be delineated as maintenance of quality and quantity. Local feed stuffs tend to vary
quality and quantity. Therefore, sustainable development of trout feed might depend on inputs based
on local circumstances, and balance maximizing profitability with social and environmental costs.
Therefore, this paper reviews several specific issues in the fields of trout nutrition and feed
formulation that are critical for sustainable trout production in the country. These includes nutrient
requirement for trout, availability and cost of feed resources, options to develop cost-effective feed in
local conditions, and maintenance of environmental quality and sustainability of trout aquaculture
system.

2. Nutrient requirement of rainbow trout
Growth, health and reproduction of fish and other aquatic animals are primarily dependent upon an
adequate supply of nutrient, both in terms of quality and quantity, irrespective of the culture system in
which they are grown. Nutrition is the process by which an organism intake food and assimilates for
metabolic activities. Nutrition involves the ingestion, digestion, absorption, and transport of various
nutrients throughout the body where the nutrients in foods are converted into energy and body
tissues. The nutrition of trout is similar to that of other animal species. Thus, trout require almost
same nutrients as other animals for normal metabolic function. However, the specified amount of a
particular nutrient needed by trout may differ from other animals. Qualitatively, 40 nutrients have
been identified as necessary for the normal metabolic function of trout. The quantitative requirement
of nutrients for rainbow trout has been given in Table 1 and Table 2.

Energy, which is defined as the capacity to do work, is essential to life processes during all stages of an
animal's life. The energy needs might associate with the feeding standard in the organisms. On this
aspect information on energy needs particularly of fishes is not adequate comparing to ruminants. In
general, it is argued that energy needs in fishes are lower than warm-blooded animals because fish do
not have to maintain a constant body temperature and they expend less energy to maintain their
position in space. Gross energy, which is a measure of the heat liberated on complete oxidation of a
compound, requirement for rainbow trout, is in between 19.1-20.8 KJ/g (Hasan 2001). Gross energy
is not a practical indicator of usable energy because certain compounds are not as digestible as others.
Digestible energy, defined as gross energy minus fecal energy losses, is often used to express the
dietary energy of rainbow trout feeds.

2.1 Protein requirement
A continual supply of protein is needed throughout life for maintenance and growth. Rainbow trout
require rather high (40-50%) dietary protein. Trout including catfish require a source of nonspecific
nitrogen and indispensable amino acids (Robinson & Li 1996). Usually, the most economical source
of these elements is a mixture of proteins in feedstuffs. Ingested proteins are hydrolyzed to release
amino acids that may be used for synthesis of tissue proteins or, if in excess, utilized for energy.
Rainbow trout require 11.7% essential amino acids in the dry diet (Hasan 2001).

2.2 Lipid requirement
Use of protein for energy is expensive, thus lipids are primarily included in formulated diet to
maximize their protein sparing. Lipids are a highly digestible source of concentrated energy. Trout
have natural diets rich in triglycerides and can adapt to high fat diets (Hasan 2001). Dietary lipid levels
as low as 10% has been reported for rainbow trout (Tacon 1990). Generally, however, weight gain and





45
feed efficiency are depressed in aquatic species when fed diets containing 15% or more lipid
(Robinson & Li 1996).

Table 1. Dietary protein, essential amino acid, energy levels, carbohydrates and lipid requirements of
rainbow trout (adapted from NRC 1993, Hasan 2001, Tacon 1990, Steffens 1989)






















*
Amino acid requirement based on the essential amino acid composition of fish

Dietary lipids provide essential fatty acids (EFA-polyunsaturated fatty acid, PUFAs) that fish, like all
animals, can not synthesize but require for the maintenance of cellular function. Coldwater freshwater
fish have an exclusive requirement of linolenic series (n-3 or omega-3) PUFA (18:3n-3, 20:5n-3,
22:6n-3) in their diet (Hasan 2001). It is apparent from Table 2 that rainbow trout require a small
amount (1% of dry diet) of n-3 fatty acids. Inclusion of too much dietary lipid, however, may result in
excessive fat deposition in the visceral cavity and tissues that may adversely affect yield, product
quality and storage of processed products (Robinson & Li 1996).

2.3 Carbohydrate requirement
Carbohydrates are the least expensive form of dietary energy and are frequently used for protein
sparing in formulated diets. The utilization of dietary carbohydrates appears to differ depending on
the complexity or chemical structure of the carbohydrate source used. The ability of carnivorous fish
species to hydrolyze or digest complex carbohydrate (glucose or sucrose) is limited due to weak
amylolytic activity in their digestive tract. For trout, starch digestion decreases as the proportion of
dietary starch is increased (Hasan 2001). However, commercial trout feed contains 15-25% soluble
carbohydrates. An additional 1-2.5% carbohydrate is generally present as crude fibre. Fibre is
considered to be indigestible by carnivores; thus, it is not desirable in carnivore's feeds because
indigestible materials may pollute the water (Robinson & Li 1996). However, there is always some
fiber inherent in practical feed ingredients.






46
Table 2. Dietary mineral and vitamins requirements of rainbow trout (g/kg or mg/kg dry diet)
(Source: Hasan 2001, Tacon 1990, Hepher 1990).



































2.4 Mineral requirement
Minerals are required for metabolism, skeletal structure and, for osmotic balance between body fluids
and their environment. Freshwater fish have greater demand for adequate mineral supplies than
marine fish and shrimp (Hasan 2001). Dietary mineral requirement for rainbow trout are presented in
Table 2. Since much of the mineral requirement is supplied by the food, potential mineral
supplementation may be sufficient to meet dietary needs.

2.5 Vitamins requirement
Vitamins are highly diverse in chemical structure and physiological function. They are generally
required in small amounts in the diet for normal growth, health, and reproduction by animals.
Pathologies related to vitamin deficiency in fish are well investigated, however, quantitative dietary
vitamin requirement are available for few cultured species including trout (Hasan 2001). Vitamin
deficiency mainly appears in formulated feed lot based intensive culture systems as applied to trout
(Hepher 1990), the addition of sufficient levels of several vitamin in trout feeds are required (Table
2).







47
3. Feed formulation & ingredients for trout feed in Nepal
In order to develop efficient and economic feed formulas for aquaculture, basic information is
required on nutrient requirement of the species cultivated, the chemical composition and organoleptic
properties of feed ingredients in relation to their acceptability and the ability of fish to digest and
utilize nutrients from various sources. Although the knowledge on nutrient requirements for trout has
been expanding in recent years (Lall 1991, Hasan 2001), quantitative and qualitative information on
practical feed stuffs to supply required nutrients for trout in Nepal is limited. Availability of major fish
feed ingredients in Nepal and their nutrient availability for trout are listed in Table 3 & 4,
respectively. Amino acid profile and mineral composition of major fish feed ingredients (soybean, fish
meal and shrimp) are given in Table 5 and 6, respectively.

Table 3. Production of agricultural feed stuffs by region which could be utilized in trout feed (source:
CBS 2005)



























3.1 Protein supplements
Feedstuffs containing 20% crude protein or more are considered protein supplements. Protein
supplements may be classified as animal and plant proteins. Full fat roasted soybean seed and meal
constitutes major component of protein supplement (20-45%) in trout feed in Nepal (Rai et al. 2002,
FRCT 2003, 2004). The national production of soybean was 17500 metric tons in year 2001 and most
of the production comes from hilly areas of the country (CBS 2005). Solvent extracted and extruded
soybean meal is particularly important for trout feed because of its high protein and low fat content.
However, soybean processing plants are mostly located in Terai region with a production capacity of
750 metric tons of solvent extracted-extruded soybean per year (Roy 2006).






48
Table 4. Nutrient composition of feed ingredients commonly used for feed formulation of rainbow
trout in Nepal (NRC 1993, Roy 2006, Smith et al. 1995).


















3.1.1 Plant protein sources for trout feed in Nepal
Several types of cake produced from oil seeds can be used in trout feed to substitute soybean meal.
They include mustard oil cake, peanut cake, sunflower cake, sesame cake and linseed cake. The levels
of oil cake used in trout feeds are restricted to 5 to 10% because of amino acid deficiency, high level
of fibre and anti nutritional factors they contain. Mustard oil cake is formed by compressing left over
after removing oil from mustard seed and generally called rapeseed cake. It contains harmful eric acid
as its principal fatty acid. The production of mustard oil cake from several extraction mills in the
country estimated to be 175 metric tons per year (Roy 2006).
Peanut cake is obtained by removing oil either mechanically or by solvent extraction from dehulled
peanuts. Solvent extracted cake contains 48% protein and the mechanically extracted product contains
45% protein and crude fat below 1%. Peanut cake contains no known anti-nutritional factors but
deficient in lysine. However, peanut cake is seldom used in trout feeds because of its sporadic
availability. Sunflower cake, sesame cake and linseed cake are formed by extraction of oil from dry
seeds. Production of these cakes is meager in Nepal and mostly imported from India. Most of the oil
seed cakes are deficient in lysine and methionine (Robinson & Li 1996), hence their use in trout feed
requires supplemental lysine and methionine.






49

Solvent-extracted cottonseed meal is obtained by grinding the cake remaining after the oil has been
solvent extracted. The product generally contains 41% protein but must not contain less than 36%
protein. It is deficient in lysine, and contains free gossypol and cylcopropenoic acids, which can be
toxic. However, levels of these chemicals in commonly available cottonseed meal are generally well
below toxic levels (Robinson & Li 1996). The production of cotton seed in the country is limited to
western Terai and the quantity is insignificant to use in trout feed.
3.1.2 Non-plant source of protein for trout feed
Non-plant source of protein such as shrimp meal and fish meal contribute in significant proportion
(20-50%) to supply protein in trout feed (FRD 2001, Gurung et al. 1994, FRCT 2002). Shrimp meal
and fish meal are prepared by cooking and drying of undecomposed whole fish or cutting of fish.
These products are imported from India for several other purposes including human consumption in
various forms. Nutritional values of these feed stuffs may not always consistent as the feed stuffs are
comprised of varying size of shrimp and different species of trash fish (Roy 2006).
Bone meal, collected from the slaughter houses or meat shops and later processed in several
processing plants, contain protein ranges from 24 to 29% (Roy 2006). Its protein quality is inferior to
whole fish meal because it contains less lysine and the quality of the product may vary considerably
(Robinson & Li, 1998). It could be good source of minerals and inorganic phosphorous. However, its
high ash content (56 to 59%) may limit its use because of possible mineral imbalance. Blood meal is
prepared by heating and grinding of clotted animal blood (buffalo, goat). It contains 80 to 86% crude
protein and is an excellent source of lysine but deficient in methionine (Robinson & Li 1996).
However, availability of blood meal is limited to urban areas of the country.
Buff liver is one of the most important animal protein sources. Despite of low protein content and
limited availability, moist or dry buff liver has proved to be good sources of digestible protein for
early stage of trout grow out (Pradhan 1999). Silkworm pupae available in limited quantity but their
performance has not yet been evaluated in trout feed in Nepal.
3.2 Energy supplements
Energy supplements are feedstuffs that contain less than 20% crude protein. These include grain and
grain byproducts, and animal fat or vegetable oil. Wheat flour and rice bran are the major source of
energy and have been used in trout feeds up to 40% of the feed without adverse effects (FRCT 2004,
2003; FRD 2001). The availability of these ingredients and other sources of carbohydrates such as
corn and millets are abundant and locally available in trout growing areas at comparatively cheaper
price.

Wheat is a good source of energy for trout. Depending on cost, wheat flour are used to levels up to
about 25% in trout feed. Wheat is produced all over the country and the national production in year
2005 was 1.44 million tons. Flour mills in Terai region of the country have a capacity of 40000 metric
tons of wheat flour to process annually (Roy 2006). In humid areas, using levels greater than 25% may
cause the feed to become sticky resulting in clumping of feed pellets and handling problems. Low
levels (<15%) are often used to improve pellet binding. Wheat flour has a digestible energy value of
about 1588 kcal/kg for trout (NPM 1993).

Corn grain and corn screenings can be used interchangeably in trout feeds as a relatively inexpensive
source of energy. Corn grain (whole corn) is ground prior to use. Corn screenings are obtained in the
cleaning of corn and include light and broken corn grain. Cooking improves energy digestibility of
corn for trout. Corn grain is produced all over the country and the national production in year 2005
was 1.72 million tons. Quality Protein Maize (QTM), rich in lysine and tryptophan, recently
introduced in Nepal for farming (RARS 2006) could be a good source of carbohydrate and amino
acids for trout feed in future.





50
Table 5. Amino acid profile of several ingredients available in Nepal (% of dry basis) (Source:
Toshida et al. 1993)















Rice bran is the bran layer and germ of rice grain with hulls or broken rice at levels only that are
unavoidable in milling rice grain. Defatted rice bran pellet is also produced into cake in Terai by
extracting fat from raw rice bran with organic solvent. Although national rice production (4.29 million
tones) favors the use of rice bran, high fat and fiber content limits its use in trout feeds. However, rice
bran has been used in trout feeds at levels of 15 to 25% in trout farms of the country.

Animal and plant fats and oils are highly concentrated sources of energy as well as a source of
essential fatty acids. The use of soybean oil in trout feed at levels 5 to 10% have been tested on
experimental basis in the country (Yamada et al. 1999). Animal fats such as buff tallow and poultry fat
available in the country could be used in trout feeds, however warrants research on extents of their
utilization in trout feeds.

3.3 Vitamin and mineral supplements
Vitamin and mineral premixes are generally added (1-2% of dry feed) to trout feeds. However, mineral
premixes include only macronutrients and vitamin premixes supplied are under requirement (eg.
FRCT 2002, 2003). Usually vitamin and mineral premixes are commercial formulation to meet the
requirement of poultry industry.

Table 6. Mineral composition of several ingredients used for feed formulation of trout in Nepal (%
of dry basis, unless specified) (Source: Toshida et al. 1993)








4. Research status on feed development for rainbow trout in Nepal
Animal protein is the main dietary component used in formulated diet for rainbow trout, since its
introduction in Nepal (Roy et al. 1999). Although sidra (dried trash fish) produced in Nepal is the most
important source of animal protein having high demand for human food and livestock feed industries.
However, its bad smell due to saturated oxidized fat and poor milling quality limits its use as major
source of animal protein for trout feed. Shrimp meal, procured from India, has been the main protein
supplement for trout feed in Nepal (Nepal et al. 2002). Limited market accessibility with relatively high
cost, the shrimp remains one of the major elements to raise production cost of trout farming (Roy et
al. 1999, Pradhan 1999, FRCT 2004).






51
Feed alone comprised 76% of total variable cost and 40% of the total production cost of trout
farming (Nepal et al. 2002) and this is one of the major constraints after seed supply to expand trout
farming in Nepal. Therefore, most of the studies have been focused on finding alternate source of
protein supplement in trout feed which are locally available at relatively cheaper cost without affecting
the growth-production and quality of trout.

The requirements for proteins have been studied in trout for several years. Most of the studies on
protein requirements of fish have been based on weight gain and feed efficiency. Data from those
studies indicate that the dietary protein requirement for trout ranges from about 30 to 35% (Table 7).
Recent studies have indicated that a protein level as low as 30% may be adequate for grow out of
trout when the fish are fed full feed during the growing season. The rationale behind these studies is
that the optimum dietary protein level is driven by economics as much as rate of gain and
survivability. Thus, to maximize profits, the optimum dietary protein level should be changed as fish
and feed prices change.

One of the major challenges in fish nutrition is to decrease the dietary amount of fish and shrimp
meal without impairment of production and water quality. One of the most promising alternatives to
fish meal seems to be soybean which is rich in protein and generally low in phosphorus (Rumsey et al.
1993; Tacon et al. 1983). Earlier studies with rainbow trout in Nepal led to the conclusion that
soybean protein could be a partial substitute to fish meal (FRCT 1997, 2001, 2002, 2003). There is
also evidence that the total replacement of fish meal by soy protein concentrate (SPC) without
negative effect on growth performance and flesh quality of rainbow trout (Kaushik et al. 1995).
However, studies conducted at Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli (Yamada et al. 1999) have shown
that the 60% substitution of shrimp meal with soybean is possible which eventually reduce feed cost
by about 40% without affecting the growth and feed efficiency (P>0.05) of grow out trout (Table 8).
Inclusion of shrimp meal below 20% in carbohydrate enriched feed without soybean substitution,
albeit low feed cost by10%, the percent growth rate/day is lower by 0.35% to that of the feed
contained 55% soybean meal (Roy et al. 1999).

Table 7. Effect of different dietary protein level in feed on the yield attributes of rainbow trout.















*
Major protein source at low protein profiles for juvenile was raw buff liver (30-50%), for advance fry
and grow out trout was shrimp meal (20-25%) and soybean meal (18-42%). Response studies have
been conducted on various proportions of shrimp meal and soybean meal in trout feed for
corresponding increase of dietary protein percentage and their effect on growth and survival of
different stages of trout (Table 9). Significant differences were not observed (P>0.05) among types
of feed on the growth-survival attributes of fry and fingerling stage of trout, although an improved
growth and survival was evidenced for trout fed upon a feed containing 45% crude protein and
comprised of 35% shrimp meal and 48% soybean meal. Similarly, no correlation exist between





52
growth-survival of grow out trout fed on rations comprised of different proportion of shrimp meal
and soybean meal with corresponding increase in dietary protein. Proximate analysis of fish flesh of
trout fed upon these feeds revealed a narrow range of crude protein (19.3 20.4%) and crude fat
(3.14.1%), and these differences are not significant (P>0.05). From Table 8, it is apparent that a feed
formulation containing 3035% protein supplemented with 2030% shrimp meal and 1832%
soybean meal may be appropriate for fingerling and growout trout.

Results from several experiments, Roy et al. (1999) concluded that inclusions of soybean oil in feed
enhance the feed efficiency, growth and survival rate of trout. This is more important, to supply
energy, especially when the supply of shrimp meal in feed is decreased (Yamada et al. 1999). Low
protein and high calorie feed for fish relies on animal protein has been reported for increased
hatchability and growth (Takeuchi et al. 1978). Use of oil in feed of carnivorous fish could economize
10% of shrimp meal (Takamatsu 1973 in Yamada et al. 1999), and provide concentrated source of
energy which may virtually increase the protein sparing effect.

The transform from an endogenous to an exogenous food supply, which marks the onset of the larval
stage is one of the most critical phages of the life cycle and is the period when much of the mortality
of hatcheryreared stock occur (De Silva & Anderson 1995). In spite of the clear importance of
nutrition influencing the survival, growth and development of trout larvae, however, relatively little is
known about the absolute nutrient requirement and feed formulation of these stages of trout and
most of the other fish species.

Japanese commercial starter feed was used at the beginning of trout farming in Nepal. Lacking due
availability and high cost of commercial feed has triggered trout farms to develop its own formulation
based on local materials. Although relative performance are poor, the use of buff liver, egg custard
and several other formulations evaluated has shown their suitability for rearing trout larvae (Table
10). Trout larvae, fed upon fresh buff liver and egg custard, grew steadily at specific growth rate
(SGR) of 4.2% with survivability over 99% (FRD 2000; Pradhan 1999). Encouraging results have also
been obtained on survivability (>70%) and SGR (>3%) of trout larvae fed upon fish meal and milk
powder based feed formulations (FRD 2000). Results of these experiments have implications that the
buff liver and egg custard has been recommended as starter feed for trout farms in the country, as
they are locally available at relatively cheaper price.

Table 8. Growth and feed efficiency of rainbow trout fed upon different proportion of shrimp and
soybean meal for 60 days in raceway (Yamada & Roy 1997)

















a
Vitamin C was added 1% of the total feed composition.





53
5. Prospects of feed formulation for trout
Solvent extracted soybean meal (SESM) contains 48% protein and could be the predominant protein
source in rainbow trout feed. It has the best amino acid profile of all common plant protein sources
and is highly palatable and digestible to trout (Table 5). Trout is a predatory fish, although it
consumes and assimilates plant protein; however, its intensity of growth on such foods is much lower.
This is partially explained by the fact that in the protein from plant sources, deficiency of the less
important amino acids such as lysine and methionine usually occurs (Martyshev 1983). Trout suffer
from cataracts when given a diet deficient in methionine (Peston et al. 1977). This is likely to occur
only when animal protein sources are completely replaced by the plant protein (Mdale et al. 1998) and
in such case methionine supplement is necessary. It was reported the protein digestibility reduced in
salmonids when diet contains high level of soybean due to its anti-trypsin factor. Anti-nutritional
factors such as trypsin inhibitors are destroyed or reduced to insignificant levels (<0.32 mg/g) with
heat that is applied during the solvent extraction (Robinson and Li 1996; Mdale et al. 1998). Heat
treatment also reduce phytic phosphorous contained in soybean and consequently increase the
retention of crude phosphorous (Mdale et al. 1998) and protein availability (Spinnelli et al. 1982).
Levels of SESM up to 48% of the diet have been used for trout feeding in Nepal. Preliminary studies
on trout feed development with plant protein sources conducted in the country (Roy et al. 1999;
Yamada et al. 1999; FRCT 2003) and elsewhere (Tacon et al. 1983; Kaushik et al. 1995; Mdale et al.
1998) revealed that the high levels (up to 75%) inclusion of SESM is possible without impairing the
growing environment and growth of trout.

Refinement of buff liver into microencapsulated feed and incorporation of nutrient supplement in egg
custard is needed to improve the quality of these formulations, as feeding in raw form they would
increase water turbidity (Pradhan 1999) and bent caudal fin of trout (Igarashi & Roy 1999),
respectively. Poultry byproduct meal can be made up of ground, rendered or clean parts of the
carcass (heads, feet, underdeveloped eggs, and visceral organs) of slaughtered poultry, since growing
poultry industry scattered throughout the country could be a major source of protein in trout feed in
future. At present it is seldom used in trout feeds because it is not available on a regular basis at a
reasonable cost per unit of protein.

5.1 Guiding rules for formulation of trout feed
All fish, including trout, require protein, vitamins, minerals, lipids and energy for normal growth and
physiological functions. Because the nutrient contribution from natural food organisms is considered
to be minimal in trout farming, nutrient and energy are provided primarily by prepared feeds.
Feed formulation is a process in which feed ingredients and various vitamin and mineral supplements
are blended to produce a diet with the required quantities of essential nutrients. Trout have a definite
qualitative and quantitative need for various nutrients, some of them highly interrelated. These can be
supplied by a large number of natural feedstuffs in a compounded ration; however no single feed
ingredient contains all nutrients that are needed in the correct proportion.
In order to increase the efficiency of trout production, both nutrition and feed cost must be taken
into consideration. Supplying adequate nutrition for trout involves the formulation of diet containing
40 essential nutrients and proper management of numerous factors relating to diet quality and intake.
The bioavailability of nutrients, diet palatability, feed manufacture, storage methods, and chemical
contamination may have profound effects on fish performance (Lall 1991).
It is important that feed formulas developed for trout are nutritionally and economically sound. To
use a least-cost formulate feeds, the following information is needed: (1) cost of feed ingredients; (2)
nutrient concentrations in feedstuffs; (3) nutrient requirements; (4) nutrient availability from
feedstuffs; and (5) nutritional and non-nutritional restrictions. The primary constraint limiting the use
of least-cost programs for formulating trout feeds is that relatively few feedstuffs are available that can
be used in trout feeds. Many feedstuffs are unsuitable for use in trout feeds because of their poor
nutritional content or because of manufacturing constraints. A limited form of least-cost feed
formulation is to use soybean meal to replace a part of fish meal in trout farms in Nepal. However,





54
the lowest cost of feed per unit fish production is not necessarily synonymous with least cost
production (Lall 1991).
When protein levels are stated, in many case the daily requirement of some essential amino acids and
protein nitrogen are not met, resulting in poor growth performance of fish. Since absolute amount of
protein, vitamins and minerals ingested depend to a large extant on energy intake, the dietary balance
is more critical than the absolute level of specific nutrients.
To formulate feeds, it is important to know the digestibility of feedstuffs to a particular species of
fish. The differences between the nutrient content of the feed consumed and the faces voided being
the amount absorbed or digested. Attempts should also be made to measure digestible energy values,
the gross energy of feed minus the energy in the faces, of locally available ingredients suitable for the
formulation of trout diets. Digestibility data are only useful when ingredients do not contain
antitrypsin and other inferring substances which may influence the digestibility of various nutrients.
However, digestibility coefficient of various nutrients in local ingredients used for trout feed has not
yet been measured in the country. Digestibility coefficients provide an estimate of the usefulness of
feedstuffs and of finished feeds.
Feed stuffs are of varied composition. Generally, the values given in composition tables are averages
reflecting the concentration of nutrients most likely to be present. The protein content of grains may
vary from batch to batch due to differences in soil fertility, time of harvest, genetic constitution,
moisture content and several other factors. An inverse relationship between protein content and
concentration of some essential amino acids occurs in cereal grains (Lall 1991). Animal protein
sources are also subject to variation as a result of nature of raw material from which they are
processed. Severe heating during drying will lower digestibility and cause some loss of essential amino
acids. Proximate analysis of major fish feed stuffs collected from all over the country revealed
considerable variation in major nutrients (Table 11). Hence, it is desirable to have each batch of feed
ingredient analyzed for actual content prior to feed formulation.
Although nutritional considerations are of prime importance, non-nutritional factors often influence
the composition of the final product. The logistics of procuring and storing feedstuffs and feed
additives are primarily non-nutritional considerations. In general, feed ingredients must be available
on a consistent basis, be easily handled in the manufacturing process, and be economical. These
characteristics are the primary reason that soybean meal, wheat flour and rice bran have been the main
feedstuffs, except fish or shrimp meal, typically used in trout feeds in Nepal. Silkworm pupae and
cottonseed meal are often priced economically and could be used in trout feeds, but their use is
limited not only because of nutritional deficiencies but also because they are not available on required
quantity and consistently.

5. 2 Feed processing
Several forms of dry and moist trout feeds are produced locally for small-scale farm use in Nepal.
Trout feed processing involves grinding, mixing, agglomerating, heating, drying, screening, pelleting,
crumbling etc. Thus, the value of certain feedstuffs or feed additives may be lowered during feed
processing. The variation in nutrient composition between formulated feed and the processed final
product is not uncommon in trout farms of the country and trout fed upon gave erroneous result
(FRCT 2004; Roy 2006). However, the overall process should result in a final product of proper form
that meets nutrient specifications. The manufacturing process may also improve digestibility,
inactivate certain undesirable substances present in feedstuffs, reduce the occurrence of molds and
bacteria, and improve palatability. Nutritional and non-nutritional factors must be considered in
manufacturing trout feeds as well as feed manufacturing practices and quality control.










55
Table 9. Growth rate (g/day-GR), percent feed efficiency (FE) and percent survival rate (SR) for different stages
of trout fed on different proportion of soybean meal in trout diet. The feeding periods was 60 and 150 days,
respectively, for fry-fingerling and grow-out trout. Data were averaged from the results of four different
experiments conducted at Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli (source: FRCT 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004)













Table 10. The performance of trout larvae fed upon different formulation (FRD 2000, Igarashi & Roy 1999,
Pradhan 1999).














Table 11. Range of nutrient composition of major fish feed ingredients collected from different parts
of the country (Source: FRCP 1999)
















56
When formulating trout feeds, the feed manufacturing process must be considered because there is an
interrelationship between feed formulation and feed manufacturing. For example, at least 25% of the
feed be composed of grains or grain milling byproducts for proper gelatinization and expansion
necessary for good pellet stability and float. This is generally not a problem, but the type and amount
of grain or grain milling byproducts that are used may be affected by humidity in the air (Robinson &
Li 1996). High-fat feedstuffs, such as rice bran, should generally be limited to 10 to 15% of the feed
because high levels of fat make the feed more difficult to pellet.
Another consideration during trout feed manufacture is that the conditions of high temperature,
pressure, and moisture encountered during pelleting destroy certain nutrients and improve the
availability of others. Vitamins are particularly sensitive to destruction; thus, feeds are normally over
fortified with vitamins to account for losses during feed manufacture. Highly fibrous feedstuffs must
be limited to rather low levels because high levels of fiber reduce pellet quality.
6. Trout feed and the environment
Given that feed is the biggest source of nutrient loading in trout production from intensive of semi-
intensive system, clear understanding of its impact is essential for sustainable development. This will
help reduce negative impacts and improve predictability of environmental effects.

It has been shown that a significant portion of animal protein requirement for trout can be replaced
by soybean meal. However, low level of feed efficiency associated with soybean protein indicated that
the large amount of waste of nutritional origin arising from uneaten feed, undigested matter and end
product of metabolism could pollute the recipient environment. Since sustainable aquaculture is
dependent upon minimal environmental loading, the effects of fish meal substitutes on waste
production should be taken into consideration.

With respect to water quality, total substitution of fish meal or shrimp meal by soybean meal can not
be recommended (Mdale et al. 1998). When fish are fed a ration containing soybean concentrate as
the sole protein source, albeit an increased retention of crude phosphorous but induced an increase in
ammonia excretion. However, up to 75% of fish meals can be replaced by soybean meal in solvent
extracted or concentrate form without impairing feed intake, growth and feed utilization (Mdale et al.
1998); and thus should have a positive effect on the environment.

More environmentally friendly diets need to be produced by developing diets with reduced food
conversion ratios (FCR) by improving palatability and digestibility of raw ingredients. Current
research shows that feed performances and digestibility can be increased with the use of enzymes and
balancing amino acid profiles that enhance plant protein use (Hasan 2001). Reduction of ammonia
excretion can be enhanced by adding crystalline DL-methionine to the diet containing high level of
soybean meal (Mdale et al. 1998). Therefore, more research on processing techniques and additives
and enzymes for improving feed performances and digestibility are required.

7. Nutrition in relation to health and quality of trout
Nutrition and farm management strategies play critical roles in fish health and disease outbreaks
within intensive farming system and, to a lesser extant, in semi-intensive farming systems (Tacon 1997
in Hasan 2001). Trout nutrition and feed formulation research has received significant attention on
the use of plant and animal by-products as fishmeal and shrimp meal substitutes in Nepal (FRCT
2004, Pradhan 1999, Igarashi & Roy 1999). The major emphasis of these studies was on optimizing
growth, feed efficiency and general health condition. Pathology in relation to nutrient imbalance and
the presence of toxic and anti-nutritional factors in feed ingredients, the possible effect of macro- and
micronutrients on immunological parameters have mainly been overlooked. Toxic and anti-nutritional
factors present in plant ingredients, nutritional imbalances of formulated feed, toxic compound (e.g.
aflatoxins) formed during feed storages and processing can all severally affect the health status of
trout and lead to increased susceptibility to disease. Gurung & Basnet (2003) reported fin rot disease
in adult trout associated with vitamin deficiency and, commonly occurring hapatoma disease due to





57
development of aflatoxins in poorly processed and stored feeds in trout farms, Nepal. Appropriate
precautions during feed formulation and processing can minimize these risks (Devresse et al. 1997).
Trout like other fish species is a highly nutritious food, containing high amounts of protein with high
biochemical value and, is a good source of polyunsaturated fatty acids known to be beneficial for
humans. Improvement of feed and nutrition of trout may give the opportunity to further improve the
nutritional quality for the benefit of consumer. Nutritional value, color and appearance, smell and
taste, texture and storing capacity may all be affected by quality of nutrition and feed provided during
culture of the trout (Martyshev 1983). Therefore, adequate consideration has to be given not only
nutrient bioavailability but also to postharvest quality control in response to formulated feeds.

Conclusion and recommendations
For small-scale farmers, the two dietary formulations are suggested for use within two distinct feed
lines, namely starter, and fingerling and production diets. Table 9-10 shows dietary formulations for
the two feed lines, respectively. The formulations are conservative in that emphasis has been placed
on using high inclusion levels of locally available and known quality ingredients (i.e. such as, soybean
meal, buff liver, shrimp meal) rather than experimenting with unknown cheaper alternatives such as
oilseed cakes.

A major researchable issue is the high cost of manufactured pelleted feed due in part to conventional
use of largely imported fish meal and shrimp meal in trout feed. The increasingly scare supply of
fishmeal with its concomitant rise in price and the increased competition from other livestock feed
manufacture has made it necessary to seek a cost-effective replacement to supply dietary protein in
trout feeds. This aspect of fish feed development research is centered in the search for inexpensive,
readily available and nutritious protein sources which can supply all the nutritional needs of the trout.
One obvious approach involves the greater utilization of soybean meal.

Enhancement of nutritive value of commonly available ingredients by some means of processing to
increase the bioavailability of nutrients, reduction or removal of anti-nutritional factors and the
inclusion of appropriate additives to correct known deficiencies could result in non-conventional
plant feed stuffs being incorporated at a higher level of trout feeds. The use of solvent extracted
soybean meal and defatted rice bran are an example of the potential value of plant protein as trout
feed which reveal the critical importance of a systematic approach in evaluating and upgrading other
feedstuffs commonly used in trout feeds in the country.

The primary constraint limiting the use of least-cost formulation of trout feeds is the use of few feed
stuffs which are common to current aquaculture setting of the country. Depending on availability,
there is wide variation in the use of types of feed ingredients within and between trout growing
countries. The use of buff liver, albeit limited access, as starter feed has shown promising results and
it is nowadays the major source of protein for juvenile trout in all the trout farms of the country. An
examination of the investigative steps into the development of buff liver into a major trout (juvenile)
feed ingredient can serve as a model which can be applied to other feed stuffs available in cold-water
regions of the country. Evaluation of barley, oat, millet and potato, which are commonly grown in
high altitude areas of the country, as feed stuffs for trout will meet the feed shortcoming for trout
expansion.

There is a need for understanding the variability in supply and composition of various ingredients and
evaluation of the potential to increase use of these ingredients in trout feeds. Similarly, the capacity to
evaluate nutritional requirements and the best way to utilize available ingredients for trout should be
enhanced. There is a perceived need to improve nutritional research capacity in many areas and the
initiation of a feed and feeding network, with a focused program of training and information
exchange, is recommended.






58
Acknowledgement
We wish to extend our thanks to all of our staffs in Fisheries Research Station, Pokhara for their
cooperation on providing information related to the present topic. We are also thankful to Japan
International Cooperative Agency for their kind assistance in providing facilities for nutritional
analysis in Nepal, especially in Pokhara and Trishuli under the Grant Assistance Program, a
collaboration between Government of Nepal and Government of Japan.

Reference
Bardach J. H, W. O. Ryther & McLarney W.O (1972) Commercial culture of freshwater salmonids,
genera Salmo, Thymallus, and Hucho. In: The farming and husbandry of freshwater and marine
organisms. John Willey and Sons. pp. 397-449
CBS (2005) Statistical Year Book of Nepal. Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal. 447 pp
De Silva, S. S. & Anderson T. A (1995) Fish Nutrition in Aquaculture. London, Chapman and Hall,
319 pp
Devresse B, M. Dahasque, J. V. Assche & Merchie G (1997) Nutrition and health. In: A. Tacon and
B. Basurco (eds.) Feeding Tomorrows Fish, Proceedings of the Workshop of the CIHEAM
Network on Technology of Aquaculture in the Mediterranean. Jointly Organized by CIHEAM,
FAO and IEO Mazaroon, Spain, 24-26 June 1996, CIHEAM, Apodo, Spain: 35-66
FRCP (1999) Study on nutrient content of fish feed stuffs. Annual Technical Report, Fisheries
Research Centre, Pokhara (FRCP), Kaski, Nepal: 53-57
FRCT (1997) Partial replacement of shrimp powder by soybean to make cost-effective feed for
rainbow trout. Annual Technical Report (1996/1997). Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli
(FRCT), Nuwakot, Nepal: 20-24
FRCT (2001) Comparative study of growth and meat quality of rainbow trout fed with different level
of protein. Annual Technical Report (2000/2001). Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli (FRCT),
Nuwakot, Nepal: 27-33
FRCT (2002) Comparative study of growth and meat quality of rainbow trout fed with different level
of protein. Annual Technical Report (2001/2002). Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli (FRCT),
Nuwakot, Nepal: 21-27
FRCT (2003) Comparative study of growth and meat quality of rainbow trout fed with different level
of protein. Annual Technical Report (2002/2003). Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli (FRCT),
Nuwakot, Nepal: 25-33
FRCT (2004) Comparative study of growth and meat quality of rainbow trout fed with different level
of protein. Annual Technical Report (2003/2004). Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli (FRCT),
Nuwakot, Nepal: 14-20
FRD (2000) Development of starter feed for trout alevins. Annual Technical Report (1999/2000).
Fisheries Research Division (FRD), Godawari, Nepal: 8-13
FRD (2001) Development of starter feed trout alevins. Annual Technical Report (2000/2001).
Fisheries Research Division (FRD), Godawari, Nepal: 27-33
Gurung T. B & S. R. Basnet (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal:
constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia 8 (4):16-18
Gurung T. B, L. S. Lama & Silwal U (1994) A preliminary comparative study with two types of diets
for cost effective farming of salmonid (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Annual Technical Report (1993/94),
Fisheries Research Centre, Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal: 20-23
Hasan M. R (2001) Nutrition and feeding for sustainable aquaculture development in the third
millennium. In: R. P. Subasinghe, P. Buneo, M. J. Phillips, C. Hough, S. E. McGladdery & J. R.
Arthur (eds.) Aquaculture in the Third Millennium. Technical Proceedings of the Conference on
Aquaculture in the Third Millennium, Bangkok, Thailand. NACA, Bangkok and FAO, Rome:
193-219
Hepher B (1990). Nutrition of Pond Fishes. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 388 pp
Huet M. (1975) Breeding and cultivation of salmonids or fish culture in cold water. In: Textbook of
fish culture, breeding and cultivation of fish. Fishing news books ltd. 23 Rosemount Avenue,
West Byfleet, Surray, England. pp. 59-112





59
Igarashi M & Roy N. K (1999) Effect of buff liver on the growth of free swimming larvae of rainbow
trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). In: B. R. Pradhan, S. K. Wagle, O. Yamada and M. Takano (eds.)
Proceedings of the Present Status of Fisheries Research, Development and Education in Nepal,
NARC-JICA: 64-65.
Kaushik S. J, J. P. Cravedi, J. P. Lalles, J. Sumpter, B. Fauconneau & Laroche M (1995) Partial or total
replacement of fish meal by soybean protein on growth, protein utilization, potential estrogenic
or antigenic effects, cholesterolemia and flesh quality in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss,
Aquaculture 133: 257- 274
Lall S. P (1991) Concepts in the formulation and diet preparation of a complete fish diet. In: S. S. De
Silva (ed.) Fish Nutrition Research in Asia. Proceedings of the Fourth Asian Fish Nutrition
Workshop. Asian Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 5, Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines: 1-12
Martyshev F. G. (1983) Cold-water (trout) farming. Pond Fisheries. Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi: 345-394
Mdale F, T. Boujard, F. Aalle, D. Blanc, M. Mambrini, A. Roem & Kaushik S. J (1998) Voluntary
feed intake, nitrogen and phosphorous losses in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed
increasing dietary levels of soy protein concentrate. Aquatic Living Resources 11(4): 239-246
Nepal A. P., S. R. Basnet, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & Mulmi R. M (2002). Economics of rainbow
trout farming systems in Nepal. In: T. Petr and D. B. Swar (eds.) Cold Water Fisheries in the
Trans-Himalayan Countries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 431 Rome, FAO. P. 376
NRC (1993) Nutrient Requirement of Fish. Committee on Animal Nutrition, Board of Agriculture,
National Research Council (NRC). National Academy Press, Washington D.C. 115 pp
Poston H. A., R. C. Riis, G. L. Rumsey & Ketola H. G (1977) The effect of supplemental dietary
amino acids, minerals and vitamins on salmonids fed cataractogenic diets. Cornell Vet. 67: 472-
509
Pradhan N (1999) Development of starter feed for trout larvae under local management. In: B. R.
Pradhan, S. K. Wagle, O. Yamada and M. Takano (eds.) Proceedings of the Present Status of
Fisheries Research, Development and Education in Nepal, NARC-JICA: 66-67
Rai A. K., S. R. Basnet, A. P. Nepal, R. M. Mulmi & Roy N. K (2002) Potential of asla and trout
culture for economic enhancement of the people in the hilly region of Nepal. In: F. P. Neupane
& K. M. Bajracharya (eds.) Proceedings of the International Seminar on Mountains, Kathmandu,
March 6-8, 2002. Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (RONAST): 441-446
RARS (2006) Research Highlights. Regional Agriculture Research Station (RARS), Lumle, Popkhara.
Paper Presented at Regional Technical Working Group Meeting (RTWG), 30-31 December
2006, Regional Agriculture Research Station (RARS), Lumle, Popkhara, Nepal. 6 pp
Robinson E. H. & Li M. H (1996) A Practical Guide to Nutrition, Feeds, and Feeding of Catfish.
MSU Cares, Mississipi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station, Bulletin, 1041
Roy N. K (2006) Nutritional value of various fish feed ingredients and their response by rainbow
trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal. M. Sc. Dissertation, Central Department of Zoology,
Tribhuvan University 42 pp
Roy N. K, A. P. Nepal & Basnyat S. R (1999) Variation in the growth of rainbow trout fed upon
pellet feed with different proportions of shrimp meal. In: B. R. Pradhan, S. K. Wagle, O. Yamada
& M. Takano (eds.) Proceedings of the Present Status of Fisheries Research, Development and
Education in Nepal, NARC-JICA: 47-52
Rumsey G. L, S. G. Hughes & Winfree R.A (1993) Chemical and nutritional evaluation of soya
protein preparations as primary nitrogen sources for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Anim.
Feed Sci. Technol. 40: 135-151
Shetty H. P. C, M. C. Nandeesha & A. G. Jhingaran (1989) Impact of exotic aquatic species in Indian
waters. In: S.S. de Silva (ed.) Proceedings of a Workshop on Introduction of Exotic Aquatic
Organisms in Asia. Asian Fisheries Society, Special Publication No. 3: 45- 55
Smith R. R, R. A. Winfree, G. W. Rumsey, A. Allred & Peterson M (1995) Apparent digestion
coefficients and metabolozable energy of feed ingredients for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).
Jour. World Aquacul. Soc. 26(4): 432-437





60
Spinnelli J, C. R. Houle & Wekell J. C (1982) The effect of phytates on the growth of rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri) fed purified diets containing various quantities of calcium and magnesium.
Aquaculture 30: 71-83
Steffens W (1989) Principles of Fish Nutrition. West Sussex, Ellis Horwood Ltd., 384 pp
Tacon A. G. J, J. V. Haastler, P. B. Featherstone, K. Kerr & Jackson A. J (1983) Studies on the
utilization of full fat soybean and solvent extracted soybean in a complete diet for rainbow trout,
Bull Jpn. Sot. Sci. Fish. 49: 1437-1443
Tacon A. G. J (1990) Fish feed formulation and production. FI:CPR/88/077 Field Document 8,
Rome: FAO
Takeuchi T, T. Watanabe & Ogino C (1978) Optimum ratio of protein to lipid in diets of rainbow
trout. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 44: 683-688
Toshida S, J. D. Bista, K. Nagakura & Roy N. K (1993) Feed Ingredients for Fish available in Nepal
(in Nepali). Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC)/ Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA)/ Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteer (JOCV) 68 pp
Yamada T & Roy N. K (1997) Partial replacement of shrimp powder by soybean to make cost-
effective feed for rainbow trout. Annual Technical Report (1996/97). Fisheries Research Centre,
Trishuli (FRCT), Nuwakot, Nepal: 20-24
Yamada T, N. K. Roy & Thapaliya M. P (1999) Study on the utilization of soybean oil in the feed of
rainbow trout, Onchorhynchus mykiss. In: B. R. Pradhan, S. K. Wagle, O. Yamada & M. Takano
(eds.) Proceedings of the Present Status of Fisheries Research, Development and Education in
Nepal, NARC-JICA: 59-61





61
Raw material, storage, equipment & accessories for rainbow trout feed
preparation in private sector in Nepal


Resham Raj Dhital, Nand Kishor Roy
1


Chief, National Natural and Inland Aquaculture Development Programme, Balaju
Email: frdgdr@wlink.com.np

1
Fisheries Research Division Godawari


Abstract
Most of the trout farmers prepare pellet feed by themselves in their farms with the help of pellet feed
mill. The quality of trout products highly depend on the storage facilities, equipments, and
accessories used to maintain the quality of feeds. To analyze the present situation of type of fish meal,
trout feed storage, equipments and accessories a field study was conducted. The study showed that
many farmers further need training and education to improve the quality of their storage and feed.

Key words: trout, pellet feed, storage, feed, shrimp meal, fish meal


1. Introduction
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is one of the most suitable fish for commercial farming in cold
waters. Nepal basically a mountainous country (83% of its area covered by hill and mountain) is
known to possess second largest fresh water resources of the world. To use vast cold water resources
flowing through snow covered world renounced mountains, attempts of introducing trout for using
such resources for fish farming were carried in 1969 and 1972, respectively. However, those stocks
could not survive. Thus, trout were reintroduced in 1988 from Japan. This stock survived well and
complete technological package suitable to Nepalese socio-economical condition was developed
(Gurung & Basnet 2003, Rai 2005, Nepal et al. 2001).

At the beginning, feeds for trout were brought from Japan through personnel of Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) and Japan Overseas Volunteers (JOCV). However, for long term
sustainability this approach was not suitable. Therefore, local technological package of trout feed was
developed. Now, the feed preparation technology has been scaled up in private sector. For feed
preparation various feed ingredients such as shrimp, soybean, wheat, rice bran, mustard oil-cake, pre-
mix vitamin and minerals are used. These feed ingredients may vary in their quality. However,
successful trout farming depends on quality of feed (Ghittino 1972). Adequate supply of balance diet
enables fish to maintain health and grow well. A quality feed for trout must be consistent in its
ingredients quantity and quality for marketing and result oriented outputs. The quality fish product
not only depends on feed ingredients but also on storage management, quality, type of equipment and
accessories used.

In Nepal, trout feeds are prepared by many farmers themselves. Trout production fully depends on
diets supplied by owners. Therefore, the quality of fish would also depend on level of farmer's
management. The quality of feed further may depend on varieties of ingredients, storage facilities,
equipments used to prepare feed and other accessories. Therefore, in the present study, our main
objective is to evaluate the status of quality of trout feed raw material, storage facility, equipment and
other accessories in private sector.






62
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Study area
The present study is carried out around Kakani Village Development Committee of Nuwakot district
where small to medium level trout farms have been emerged recently. The location is roughly 40 km
away from Kathmandu, connected with metallic road that takes about one and half hour drive. There
are 6 farms located in the area. These farms are situated from 1160 to 1640 meter from the sea level.
During the study period these farms were visited and owners were interviewed. Feed ingredients were
collected from different farms in private sector on 14
th
and 19
th
December 2006. Fish feed ingredient
samples were collected in dry conditions. Altogether seven samples were collected from each farm. All
samples were categorized and visualized simply by eye vision and disk camera. Collected samples were
ready for crude protein proximate analysis by calculating method. Generally, all farmers followed
same type of feed composition for trout which is directed by Fisheries Research Division, Godawari
and Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli.

3. Result
3.1 Feed ingredients storage facilities in the farmer's field
In general, the feed ingredients were common among the farmers. The list of ingredients used in fish
farms is given in Table-1. As a matter of practice the trout farmers purchase their ingredients from
local market in Kathmandu. The tentative methods of the processing of feed ingredients before
grinding are as follows:

Table 1. List of raw materials used and composition used for preparation of trout pellet feed for
table purpose.














3.2 Feed analysis
Altogether seven samples were collected from each farm. All samples were categorized and observed
simply by naked eye and using photographic camera. Collected samples were analyzed using
proximate analysis for crude protein. In spite of the proper management some varied quality is lost
while processing and grinding. The required raw material and the cost of feed price per kg are
tabulated below (Table 2).

3.3 Storage facility
In private sector feed ingredients and prepared pellet feed had the proper storage problems. Farmers
were not able to store ingredients and pellet feed in separate rooms, which is often necessary to
manage separately. The store room for storage should be well ventilated and free from dampness.
Jute sacs can be used for the packing in order to make ingredients last longer. A wooden flack may
also be used to keep the ingredients on top of it. It is also necessary to store the ingredients away
from rats as well as other insects which may destroy the stored materials. Generally, the storage
facilities obserred the farmer's fields were as follows:
i. The ingredients were not well store. They were kept in a scattered way.






63
ii. Jute bag: Generally, farmers brought materials in jute bag from the local market or
Kathmandu, but they were not stored properly.
iii. Ventilator: Room was not ventilated.
iv. Drying: prepared feed dry in sun light, but due to cold environment pellet feed can dry
hundred percent. If it is not dry complete fungus may grow in pellet feed.
v. Moisture: Due to environmental condition ingredients and pellet were seen moist.

Table 2: Prices of some raw material in Kathmandu used to prepare trout pellet for table purpose in
private sector in Nepal.













3.4 Equipments and Accessories
Different equipments & accessories are required for preparation of high quality pellet feed. Grinder is
needed for grinding the raw materials, mixture for mixing required raw materials in proper way, pellet
machine for making pellet feed and balance for the measurement of the grinded raw materials in
accurate quantity. The equipments which might require are as follows:
i. Grinder: For grinding the raw materials
ii. Feed mixture: For mixing the raw materials
iii. Pellet machine: Pellet machine for pelleting feed
iv. Pelleting accessories: Dye, pellet cutters, hamper and different kinds of L-keys etc
v. Balance: For the measurement of raw materials

4. Discussion
Fish feed management in private sector by farmers themselves is a new innovative development in
Nepal. This initiation of small scale farms to manage feed for trout by farmers themselves is highly
encouraging for their sustainability. The introduction of local made pellet machine for trout feed in
also one of the very innovative step in aquaculture sector. These all indicates that the future of trout
farming in Nepal is highly positive and innovative. However, there is need of improvement
substantially in consistency of feed ingredients quality, storage facilities properly. Farmers need to be
trained, motivated for maintaining high quality feed and their farm products. Farmers should also be
trained for using vitamin and mineral in the feed.

Some of the required ingredients for preparing trout pellet may not be available consistently. Soybean
meal is found all over the year but quality may be variable. Other ingredients like rice bran, wheat and
mustard oil cake are found in Kathmandu. The quality of raw material in local market was not
satisfactory because quality ingredients are not available in all seasons. Low qualities of raw materials
are sold in the market during off seasons. Hence, the quality raw materials in local market were not
satisfactory. Soybean cake contains higher crude protein than that of full fat soybean (Toshida et al
1993). So it can be used as a cheap source of plant protein. The raw soybean contains a large
percentage of growth inhibititors like Trypsin, Hemagglution, Sapouin, Goitroyenin and anticoagulant
factors.






64
Shrimps and soybean meal are brought from Calcutta and Mumbai. The quality of shrimp from
Mumbai is better than that of the quality from Calcutta. Small shrimp of low quality is easily available
in Kathmandu. For the above result there was a wide variation in the protein content of shrimps
based on their size difference. The protein content was higher in biggest size of shrimp and it
decreased with decreasing size (Toshida et al. 1993). Protein content was 60% in biggest one and
approximately 40% in smaller size of shrimp. In case the shrimp is to be used it is better to use bigger
size to meet the required amount of crude protein i.e.35% which cannot be provided be small
shrimps.

Among the feed equipments and accessories three farmers were involved in pellet production. The
pellet feed may need to improve further in its appearance. One of the farmers who brought
equipment from India produced better pellet than others, however, that requires much water and it
takes long time to dry the produced pellet feed. If it is not dried completely, fungus may grow in
pellet feed.

According to Halver (1976) any nutritionally balanced diet must include an energy source with
sufficient essential acids, essential fatty acids, and non-energy nutrients (Vitamins and minerals). The
amount of vitamin and minerals play an important role in terms of weight gain, survival rate, feed
efficiency and specific growth rate. Several workers (Castell 1979; Watanabe 1982) had reviewed the
essential fatty acid requirement in fish. Studies have demonstrated that the essential fatty acid
requirements of fish differ considerably from species to species. Vitamins are complex and essential
organic trace elements. Water soluble vitamins except cholin and inositol act as co-factors or co-
enzymes are necessary to be incorporated in fish diet as fish cannot synthesize in its body tissues
(Rath 2000). Sedgwick (1985) reported small amount of digestible fat (5-8%) needed in trout diet
along with small quantity of minerals and some vitamins. Different chemical substance stimulates the
feeding behavior in different species of fish.

Wheat provides carbohydrate, so it is in usual practice to use wheat flour in fish feed making. Wheat
flour acts as plant protein source on one hand and a good binder on the other. Rice bran is used as a
cheap source of protein rather than a source of fat. Mustard oil cake exhibited higher protein and fat
but lower moisture content. Hence it can be best utilized as attached protein source for feed
formulation. Higher growth rates of both rainbow trout and common carp were obtained when they
were fed diets with the manganese content of 12-13 mg/kg diets instead of 4 mg/ kg diet (Rath 2000).
Protein is used as a source of energy when fat and carbohydrates are depleted. One gram protein
yields 4k cal energy. A considerable progress has been achieved in the study of the dietary protein
requirements in number of fishes (Halver 1976, Watanabe 1982, Pandian 1987). A higher protein
requirement ranges from 35-55% in different fishes. Protein is efficiently utilized when lipid is added
as source of energy in the feed of carnivorous fish with protein sparing effects. The protein
requirement of fish is about 2 to 3 times higher than that of mammals (Pandian 1987).

A trend of small scale trout production farms seemed to be appearing in Nepal. Generally, ready made
commercial pellet diets manufactured by large industries are sold in many countries. However, many
years may take to take such a trend in Nepal. Therefore, currently development of small scale feed
integrated with trout farming would be important for the development of scaling up of trout farming
in Nepal.

Recommendation and Conclusion
For the further improvement better quality of raw materials is required for better production of feed.
Along with quality ingredients, high capacity equipment is also needed. These help to increase the
production of trout. Big shrimp containing nearly 60% crude protein seems to be the better animal
protein to make trout feed than smaller shrimp because they cannot meet the required amount of
crude protein, greater than 35% for feed composition. Soybean meal is more likely to be used in feed





65
instead of roasted soybean because it contain less fat and more protein; and cheaply available in
Katmandu.

Acknowledgement
We express our sincere gratitude to all farmers who provided us the valuable information for this
study. Fund for study on rainbow trout was supported by Japan International Cooperative Agency
and Nepal Agricultural Research Council. Thanks are also to Mr. Sadhu Ram Basnet, Chief of
Fisheries Research Division, Trishuli for his support and initiatives.


Reference
Castell J. D (1979) Review of lipid requirement of fin fish. In: J. E. Halver & K. Tiews Finfish
Nutrition Fishfed Technology. Vol 1. Proceedings of world symposium, Hamberg,Germany
1:259-273
Ghittino P (1972) The diet and general fish husbandry in fish nutrition. John E. Halver (ed); Academy
press New York.
Gurung T. B & Basnet S. R (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal:
constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia 8(4):16-18
Watanabe T (1988) Fish nutrition and Mariculture. Department of Aquatic Biosciences . Tokyo
University of Fisheries .
Halver J. E (1976) The nutritional requirements of cultivated warmwater and coldwater species. FAO
Technical conference on Aquaculture. Kyoto Japan 26 May to 2 June, 1976.FIR/Conf. 76/R.
131.
Watanabe T (1982) Lipid nutrition in fish. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 73 B: 3-15.
Pandian T. J (1987) Fish energetics. In T. J. Pandian and F. J. Vemberg (eds) vol 2. Acadmic press,
New york p. 357-465.
Nepal A. P, S. R. Basnet, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & Mulmi R. M (2002). Economics of rainbow
trout farming systems in Nepal. In: T. Petr and D. B. Swar (eds.) Cold Water Fisheries in the
Trans-Himalayan Countries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 431 Rome, FAO. P. 376
Rai A. K, R. C. Bhujel, S. R. Basnet & Lamsal G. P (2005) Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) culture
in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal- A success story. Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural
Research Institutions (APAARI), FAO, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok,
Thailand. 33 pp.
Sedgwick S. D (1985) Trout Farming Handbook. 4th ed. Fishing News Books, England, 160 pp.
Rath R. K (2000) Freshwater Aquaculture 2
nd
edition Scientific Publisher (India). 5-A New Pali Road,
P.B.No 91 Jodhpur.
Toshida S, J. D. Bista, K. Nagakura & Roy N. K (1993) Feed Ingredients for Fish available in Nepal
(in Nepali). Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC)/ Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA)/ Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteer (JOCV) 68 pp





66

Water Quality Parameters for Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Farming in Hills
of Nepal

Neeta Pradhan, Raja Man Mulmi & Ram Prasad Dhakal*

Fisheries Research Division, Godawari
Email: pradhannita@yahoo.com

*Fisheries Research Center, Pokhara

Abstract
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is a clean, cold and high dissolved oxygen requiring fish. Water
quality is one of the basic prerequisite to begin the cultivation of trout. Farmers living in hills may
require information on water quality to begin and sustain their farming practices. The present study
aims to provide basic information on desirable water quality and quantity for trout culture. Moreover,
in this paper result of water quality test of Godawari fish farm before entering after passing through
raceway ponds have also been presented. The result showed that in Godawari fish farm the water
quality such as dissolved oxygen, temperature, CO
2
, pH, total phosphorus, and nitrate nitrogen do not
vary substantially into the inlet and outlet stream.

Key words: Water temperature, dissolved oxygen, Nitrogen
1. Introduction
Water quality refers the extent to which water is biologically, chemically and physically suitable to
specific purpose: such as fishery, aquaculture, irrigation, water recreation, and water sports (Boyd
1979). Knowledge of water quality is one of the essential parameters for environmentally sustainable
fishery and aquaculture. The purpose of understanding water quality in aquaculture is management of
water to optimize fish production without impairing environment. To great extent water quality
determines the success or failure of an aquaculture operation.

Water quality is highly influenced by environment of their origin and occurrence. Trout prefer clean,
cold and high oxygen water for their survival, growth and maturity. Rainbow trout culture site must
have a year round supply of water with a temperature ranging from 10-18C (Yamajaki 1991). If the
water temperature stays very near the limits of the suitable range for more than six months, the
growth rate of rainbow trout will be so poor that the production farm will not be commercially viable
(Yamaha 1991). With regards to water quality, the best guideline is that the water should be clear, not
turbid. The pH value of 6.5-8.5 and dissolved oxygen above 8 mg per liter are considered suitable for
trout culture (Huet 1975). Moreover, calcareous water is preferable (Leitritz 1963).

A potential site for commercial trout production must have a year round supply of high quality
adequate cold running water available from stream, river, lake or any impoundment. Very fast
running water is not desirable. If the current is too swift, energy might used up for swimming instead
of the growth (Huet 1975). On the other hand, stagnant water might result depletion in dissolved
oxygen below the desirable level and accumulation of wastes. These could lead to poor growth and
performance of trout. As a rule of thumb, the current should be sufficient to provide at least one
complete change of water per hour (Yamaha 1991).

The majority of solids are generally discharged during raceway cleaning when raceways are partially
dewatered and settleable solids are swept into drains and discharged (Maillard 1998). Therefore, a
study was performed at FRD Godawari for 3 years (from 2000/01 to 2003) to know the situation of
water quality in up, mid and downstream, before entering into and out side the raceway ponds for





67
better water quality management. The objective of this paper is to provide basic information on
desirable water quality and quantity for trout culture and; compare the water quality at inlet and outlet
stream before and after water entering into raceways holding trout.

2. Materials and Methods
Before establishing trout farm in private sector different water quality parameters such as water
temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and rate of flow of water were studied both in dry and wet season
in several farms of private sector. Though there are many criteria to be considered for high trout
production, DO, pH and temperatures were taken the basic parameters.

2.1 Water quality sampling criterion, processing and analysis
DO, pH and temperature were recorded with DO meter, pH meter and thermometer respectively.
Besides, these carbon dioxide, total hardness, alkalinity, ammonium nitrogen, nitrate +nitrite
(NO
2
+NO
3
), reactive phosphorus, total phosphorus were analyzed from four places inside and
outside of fish farm. Water samples were collected from four sampling stations once a month. The
sampling stations included station 1 (main source of water before deer farm), station 2 (water at inlet
of raceways ponds), station 3 (outlet of raceways ponds) and station 4 (main out let to outside of
Godawari farm).

Rate of flow of water at inlet was also monitored during sampling period. Water discharge rate in the
feeding canal was measured every week throughout the experimental period. The Indophenols
method was used to measure ammonium (NH
4
-N) and diphenylamine method (Mullin & Riley 1995)
was used to measure nitrite (NO
2
-N) plus nitrate (NO
3
-N). Phosphorus (PO
4
-P) was analyzed by the
method of Murphy & Riley (1962).

3. Result
The water temperature ranged from 7 to 21C, pH from 6 to 8.5 and DO from 6 to 10 mg/L. The
optimum range of water temperature, DO and pH were 15 to 21C, > 8 ppm and 6.5 to 8.5
respectively. Some of the basic water quality characteristics of some trout farms is given in Table 1 &
2. The average rate of water flow in trout farms in the study area ranged from 2.5-6 L/minute. The
details of water quality parameters examined at four different places of the farm in Godawari fish
farm is give below:

Table 1. Status of water quality parameters of some rainbow trout farms






68
Water flow rate
The water flow rate was higher in rainy seasons, except in year 2002 when higher discharge rate was
recorded in winter in December. The highest discharge rate was about 5000 liter per minute, while
lowest discharge rate was about 1900 liter per minute in May. Fig 1.



Fig . 1. Water discharge (2001-03) Fig . 2. Water temperature (2001-03)

Water temperature
Water temperature in all station fluctuates according to the seasons. Generally the higher temperature
was recorded 18-19
0
C, from June to October; while lowest was 8-10
0
C from December to February
depending on stations (Fig 2).

pH
The pH varied in short range in general from 6 to 9.5. The pH in all stations showed consistent
results however, fluctuated in September and October in 2004 (Fig 3).


















Fig . 4. pH (2001-03) Fig . 3. DO (2001-03)

Dissolved Oxygen
The dissolved oxygen ranged from 6.0 to 10.3 mg/L in Godawari. The variation in sampling station
was not distinct, but showed little fluctuation over each other. In general during the study period the
DO tended to increase in the months of MarchApril (Fig 4).







69
Total phosphorus
The total phosphorus ranged from 0 to 0.68 mg/L. Most of the sampling period in all station the TP
showed consistent results. However, in November 2001 the TP in station 3 exceeded the highest level
to 0.67 mg/L due to unknown reasons. In general the TP was higher in average in year 2001 than
remaining other years (Fig 5).

















Fig . 6. Total phosphorus Fig . 5. Nitrite and Nitrate


Nitrite+Nitrate
The Nitrite+Nitrate showed varied from 0 to 1.2 mg/L. The highest values occurred at station 3 and
4 in November 2001. In rest of the sampling period the values fluctuated from 0 to 0.70 mg/L (Fig
6).

Alkanity
Alkanity ranged from 55 to 190 mg/L throughout the study period. In station 1 alkanity showed
lower values in winter months while values tended to show higher values in early summer months in
general (Fig 7).




Fig . 8. Alkanity Fig . 7. Total Hardness

Total hardness
The total hardness during the study period varied from 103 to 230 mg/L. The values did not show
consistent trend, however, in most the sampling period slight higher values were found in station 4 in
more occasions than others. The values of station 1 also showed higher fluctuation (Fig 8)






70
Ammonia
The concentration of ammonia was high in 2001-02 than in other years fluctuating from 0.10 to 0.25
mg/L. In general the Ammonia was higher in station 1 and 4 than in 2 and 3. In remaining two years
ammonia fluctuated between 0 to 0.27 mg/L. The highest concentration of ammonia occurred at
station 4, the outlet of the farm. In 2002 and 03 the concentration of ammonia was slightly higher in
station 3 than in 1 and 2 (Fig 9).

















Fig. . 9 Ammonia (2001-03)

4. Discussion
The water quality parameters examined in present study showed mostly all parameters falls within the
desirable limit for rainbow trout cultivation. This study only provides limited data on water quality
parameters. Detail water quality data should be used to cover the water quality parameters from
Nepalese hills and mountains.

Past experience has shown that water temperature is one of the strong tools to determine the
feasibility of trout farming areas depending on the origin of water resources. Generally, water
temperature in altitude below 1000 m may not be suitable to grow trout because in summer the
perennial water may exceed >20
0
C. However, if the water origins from glacier, then the water
temperature would be still feasible even at the altitude of about 700 m because the annual water
temperature may not exceed more than 18
0
C. Therefore, care should be taken not to consider the
altitude only but also the origin of water resources to predict the feasible site for trout farm operation
especially in lower altitude. In higher altitude lower water temperature should be viewed in context of
trout farm purpose. For example, performance of trout hatchery would be suitable in relatively cold
waters, while for table trout production water 14-20
0
C has been considered more suitable.

In water originated from glaciers turbidity and suspended solids have been found to be higher during
monsoon. For example, water in Trishuli River. Contrarily; water originated from spring are low in
suspended silt and turbidity of inorganic particles. Therefore, in future for hatchery operation use of
spring or water coming through high altitude lake could be more suitable.

Fish perform all functions and completely depend upon water to breathe, feed and grow, excrete
wastes, maintain a salt balance between water and their body (Boyd 1979). Trout cultivation totally
depends on composite feed input. Thus, the feed derived wastes (uneaten feed and fish fecal matter)
comprise the majority of solids produced in trout raceway production facilities. In general, 5-30% of
dry feed is uneaten by fish and 25-30% of the feed consumed by fish is excreted as feces (Naylor et al.
1999). The quantity of solids produced depends upon several factors, including: fish species, stocking





71
density, feeding frequency (Mayer & McLean 1995; Boujard et al. 2002), feed composition, water
temperature (Cripps & Bergheim 2000), age, and growth rate of fish (Rasmussen & Ostenfeld 2000).
Solids contain nitrogen and phosphorous (Naylor et al. 1999) and their subsequent decomposition
degrades water quality within the hatchery and downstream, directly affecting the health of aquatic
organisms (Van Rijn et al. 1995, Fries & Bowles 2002).

The results of water sampling in inlet and outlet streams of Godawari fish farm showed that water
quality parameters do not change substantially in locations, suggesting that the contamination due to
trout farming is far below than presumption. It might be due to low intensity of trout farming in
raceways. The water flow in the farm varied according to the season, as it was always low in dry
season and highest in wet when heavy rainfall occurred in the area. The present study suggests that
water quality in hill and mountain of Nepal are within desirable limit. Since, farming intensity of trout
in Godawari farm is within the limit therefore the water examined water quality parameters did not
vary in inlet and outlets.

Acknowledgement
Thanks to Dr. Ash Kumar Rai and Dr. Tek Bahadur Gurung for guidance. We are also grateful to our
staffs and farmers who provided us much information and without their cooperation this work could
never be accomplished.

Reference
Boujard T, L. Labbe & Auperin B (2002). Feeding behavior, energy expenditure and growth of
rainbow trout in relation to stocking density and food accessibility. Aquaculture Research 33:1233-
1242.
Boyd C. E (1979) Water quality in warm water fish ponds. Auburn University, Agricultural
Experiment Station, USA. Pp iii.
Cripps S. J & Bergheim A (2000) Solids management and removal for intensive land-based
aquaculture production systems. Aquacultural Engineering 22:33-56.
Fries L. T & D. E Bowles (2002). Water quality and macro invertebrate community structure
associated with a sportfish hatchery outfall. North American Journal of Aquaculture 64:257-266.
Huet M (1975). Text book of fish culture. Fishing news (Books) Ltd, 23 Rosemount Avenue, West by
fleet, survey, England. p
Leitritz E (1963). Trout and salmon culture, State of California, Dept. of Fish and Game. Fish Bulletin
no. 107
Maillard V. M (1998) Characterization, treatment, and improvement of aquacultural effluents. M.S.
Thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia.
Mayer I & McLean E (1995) Bioengineering and biotechnical strategies for reduced waste
aquaculture. Water Science and Technology 31(10):85-102.62. MS.
Mullin J. B & Riley J. B (1995) The spectrophotometric determination of nitrate in natural waters,
with particular reference to sea water. Anam. Chim. Acta, 2:464-480.
Murphy J. B. & Riley J. B (1962) A modified single solution method for the determination of
phosphate in natural waters. Anam. Chim. Acta, 27:31-36.
Naylor S. J, R. D. Moccia, Durant G. M (1999) The chemical composition of settleable solid fish
waste (manure) from commercial rainbow trout farms in Ontario, Canada. North American
Journal of Aquaculture 61:21-26.
Rasmussen R. S. & Ostenfeld T. H (2000) Effect of growth rate on quality traits and feed utilization
of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). Aquaculture 184:327-
337.
Van R. J, N. Fonarev & Berkowitz B (1995). Anaerobic treatment of intensive fish culture effluents:
digestion of fish feed and release of volatile fatty acids. Aquaculture 133:9-20.
Yamaha Motors Co. Ltd (1991) Rainbow Trout Culture, Fishery Journal No.36.
Yamazaki T (1991) Culture of Foreign Origin Fishes, Farming Japan, 25
th
Anniversary, Vol. 25-1:41-
46.





72


An evaluation on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
diseases and their control measures in Nepal

Asha Rayamajhi & Resham Raj Dhital*
Fisheries Research Division, Godawari
Email: rayamajhiasha@hotmail.com

*Directorate of Fisheries Development, Balaju

Abstract
History of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) cultivation is relatively new in Nepal. Trout were introduced
only about two decades before, since then knowledge on rainbow trout diseases and their control
measures have been gained. It is learnt that trout are mostly susceptible to diseases related to feed and
water contamination. Unclean water may stimulate bacterial, protozoan and cytozoic parasites for
infection, such as Eimeria disease, while unhygienic feed may trigger hepatoma and others. These
harmful diseases, if not controlled may cause severe economic losses to farmers. It is concluded that
at present there is no urgent disease problems associated with rainbow trout, however, if occurred can
be controlled, if treated on time. The present low occurrence of disease in trout might be due to
relatively low intensity of trout farming; however, in future intensification of culture system may invite
disease problems.

Key words: Hepatoma, Eimeria, columnaris, pop eye

1. Introduction
Aquaculture is one of the fast growing agricultural enterprises in Nepal. The inland water bodies in
the hills and mid hills area provide ample usable resources for trout growers in the country. Over the
years, culture technology of trout had been developed; however, practice for commercial scale
production is yet to be adopted. In order to increase the production per unit area, high stoking
density and heavy feeding will be inevitable which might deteriorate water quality in the system. As
fish production systems intensifies, the interaction of disease agents with other factors such as the
physical, environment, nutrition become more complex. In such a system, even small changes in some
factors can trigger to cause the expression of disease (Snieszko 1974, Inglish et al. 1994, Purohit 1998).
Particularly stressors in the context of their environmental and hosts physiology, often fish are
exposed to bacterial-born diseases through water that serves as the medium for the growth of
microorganisms (Snieszko 1974, Inglish et al. 1994, Purohit 1998, Trust 1986; Roberts & Sommerville
1982, Paperna 1984). Generally fish disease is recognized as one of the most significant constraints to
aquaculture production and trade, negatively impacting over economic development in many
countries in the world (De Silva 2001). There are diverse of diseases and parasites which may cause
harm to rainbow trout farming. Here, in this paper we review some of the diseases and their control
measures related to trout in Nepal.

2. Review on trout diseases abroad
Among bacterial diseases columnaris disease are caused by Flavobacterium columnaer or Flexibacter
columnaris (Bernardet et al. 1996). Besides these several bacteria are also known to affect rainbow trout
such as, bacterial kidney disease (BKD), mycobacteriosis (fish tuberculosis), myxobacteriosis,
streptococcosis, enteric red mouth disease, haemorrhagic septicaemia, furunculosis and vibriosis
(Klontz 1991, Stickney 1991, Bernardet et al. 1996, Schperclaus 1991). Hoshina et al. (1958) isolated
Streptococcus faecalis from dying juvenile rainbow trout. Streptococcal species, accompanied by
exopthlmus (pop eye) have been reported in rainbow trout by Barham et al. (1979). In Europe, the
parasite Myxosoma cerebralis, has been reported to be the cause of whirling disease in rainbow trout





73
when cultured in earthen ponds (Stickney 1991). In United States, Ichthyophthirius multifilli, Gyrodactylus
and Dactylogyrus have been reported as source of major parasitic infestation in rainbow trout (Klontz
1991).

3. Review on trout disease in Nepal
Earlier when trout were recently introduced, sign of many diseases were absent. Since 1993 rainbow
trout have been found susceptible to diverse types of diseases, such bacterial, hepatoma disease, and
protozoan and cytozoic parasites. The clinical sign of tail rot and fin rot was first noticed in rainbow
trout (Fig 1) in 1993 (Gurung & Lama 1994). The occurrence of fin rot later was often seen at
Fisheries Research Division, Godawari usually in January to September and November (Rayamajhi
1998, Rayamajhi 1999, Rayamajhi & Bajracharya 2000, Rayamajhi et al. 2004, Rayamajhi & Bajracharya
2005). Fin rot have been observed in trout at many farms at Nuwakot. In trout, fin deterioration has
been considered most predominant common disease (Rayamajhi 1998, Rayamajhi & Bajracharya
2000). However, this disease has not found to cause mortality.

Columnaris disease caused by Flavobacterium columnaer were first isolated from trout fingerlings in 1999
and found responsible for 1.2% mortality (Rayamajhi 1999). F. columnaer (columnaris disease) have
been reported mostly (Fig 2 & 3) in late summer (June), rainy (July) and winter months (November &
December). The bacterium, F. columnaer, species of Aeromonas and Streptococcus were isolated from
grown trout (12.63695.01g) in winter (November) and rainy season (June-August) in 2005. Existence
of Streptococcus fecalis may also cause mortality in late monsoon from July to September. Aeromonas
bacterium and Aeromonas hydrophila were isolated from unfertilized eggs of trout and Pasteurella bacterium
from milt in 2005 (Rayamajhi & Roy 2006).

A very few incidence of Trichodina parasite have been observed in trout of young juveniles to adult
(Fig 4) (Rayamajhi 1998 & 1999). The young juveniles of trout infested with Trichodina might cause
mortality. Trout production may also suffer heavy loss due to major outbreak of enterococcidiosis
disease caused by Eimeria sp, if not controlled (Fig 5, 6, 7, 10). First clinical sign of hepatoma disease
was first noticed in liver of rainbow trout in 1993 at Fisheries Research Center, Godawari (Fig 9)
(Gurung & Lama 1994, TFRC 1993). Later the disease was reported in 2004 (Rayamajhi et al. 2004).

4. Possible causes of trout diseases in Nepal
In general, supply of polluted water and unhygienic feed are considered major sources of trout disease
occurrence. Fisheries Research Center, Godawari, receives polluted water in early monsoon from
Deer farm situated above trout farm. Inadequate management, maintenance of hygiene and proper
knowledge to farmers and improper knowledge of the best management practice (BMP) for trout
cultivation are the basic reasons for the causes of trout disease.

5. Diagnosis capacity of trout disease in Nepal
Several disease related to trout including bacterial origin can be diagnosed in Nepal. There are two
disease laboratories in Godawari and Balaju Fisheries Centers respectively with limited capacity in
terms of physical facilities and human resource. Since the physical and human resources related to
trout diseases are inadequate. Till now few training related to trout diseases to farmers have been
conducted. Trout farming at present is confined to limited area. It is easier to monitor trout disease in
these pocket areas. However, later when trout farming will be spread up in various distant parts, then
several trout disease diagnostic center and related human resources would be required. Therefore, skill
human resources and facilities for trout disease control and prevention measures would be requiring
in coming days.










74






























Fig 1-9. Photograph of tail and fin rot (1-3), columnaris (6), parasites (Trichodina sp. 4), and Eimeria sp
(5-7) and Eimeria infected trout (8), hepatoma infected liver (9) exposed to rainbow trout, during
diseases outbreak in Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Nepal.

5.1 Trout disease diagnosis and control
Presently Doxycycline have been considered major therapeutants to combat disease problem against
microflora; Flavobacterium columnaer, Aeromonas species, and Streptococcus species. The recommended
dose is @ 6-10 g /100kg fish feed for 7-14 days. It seems that Tetracycline hydrochloride,
Terramycin, and Oxytetracyclin containing medicated feed could be prepare to minimize microbial
infection. The water flush method using rock salt @ 2-3%, and Copper sulphate @0.1-0.4 g /liter
were also considered as external microbicide to treat Flavobacterium columnaer. Kohrsolin-Th liquid@
0.25 ml/m
3
have been also found protective to minimize tail and fin rot and other general bacterial
infection.

Application of Vitamin 'C' @ 1-2 g /kg pellet feed of trout is considered to make trout robust for
additional resistant power. Amprol, an oral antiparasitic agent used @ 6-10 g/100kg fish feed, for 7-
24 days, have been found effective to control enterococcidiosis/coccidiosis disease infection. The
supply of diagnostic services and control measures have been carried out to trout growers in Nuwakot
District by FRD, Godawari and FRC, Trishuli (Nepal Agriculture Research Council, NARC).

6. Main issue and challenges
Impacts from uneaten feed and fish excreta can impair water quality (increasing biological oxygen
demand, reducing dissolved oxygen and increasing turbidity) and increase the growth of algae in trout
culture raceway ponds, which may cause stress and invite various types of pathogenic diseases.






75
7. Recommendation
Considering the potentiality of trout farming in the country, there should be a Central Cold
Water Aquaculture Disease and Prevention Research Center.
Human resource should be trained in different discipline (parasitology, bacteriology and
virology aspects of trout aquaculture)
Emphasis should be given to train farmers and extension agents on trout disease and
control measures.

8. Conclusion
No severe threat of disease problems have been noticed in rainbow trout culture in Nepal. This might
be due to low level stocking density of trout in raceways. But, in the future inbreeding and intensive
trout farming system could trigger out epidemic diseases. The hepatoma is expected to control by
improving feed storage facilities.

Acknowledgement
We express our gratitude to the Dr. Tek Bahadur Gurung for kindly reviewing the paper. We also
express out thanks to K. Bajaracharya for her support in laboratory work. Part of financial support for
this study was funded by Japan International Cooperative Agency.

Reference
Barham W. T, Schoonbee H, Smit G. L (1979) The occurrence of Aeromonas and Streptococcus in
rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri richardson. Journal Fish Biology, 15: 457-460.
Bernardet J. E, Segers P, Vancanneyt M, Berthe F, Kersters K and Vandamme P (1996) Cutting a
Gordian knot: Emended classification and description of the genus Flavobacterium, emended
description of the family Flavobacteriaceae, and proposal of Flavobaterium hydatis nom. nov.
(Basonym, Cytophega Aqualis Strohl and Tait, 1978). International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology,
46:128-148.
De Silva S S (2001) A global perspective of aquaculture in the New Millennium. In: Aquaculture in
The Third Millennium, pp. 431-459.
Gurung T. B & Lama S. L (1994) A preliminary study on the occurrence of parasites and disease in
rainbow trout (Onchorynchus mykiss). In: Annual Report, Fisheries Research Center, Godawari,
Nepal. pp. 26-37.
Hoshina T, Sano T & Morimoto Y. A (1958) A Streptococcus pathogenic to Fish. Journal Tokyo
University, 44, pp. 57.
Inglish V. R, J. Roberts & Bromage N. R (1994) Bacterial diseases of fish, Blackwell Science Limited,
USA, pp. 312
Klontz G. W (1991) A Manual for rainbow trout production on the family-owned farm. Elson &
Sons, Inc., University of Idaho, Dept. of Fish & Wildlife Resources, Moscow, I. D. Extension
Bulletin No. 7. pp. 70.
Purohit S. S (1998) Microbiology fundamentals and applicants. Sixth edition, Agro Botanica, Bikaner,
pp. 792
Paperna I (1984) Winter diseases of cultured tilapia. In: Acuigrup Spain (ed.) Fish Diseases. Fourth
COPRAQ Session. Editora ATP. Madrid, pp. 139147.
Rayamajhi A & Roy R. N (2006) Surveillance of fish parasites and diseases. In: Unpublished Annual
Technical Report, Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Nepal.
Rayamajhi A & Bajracharya K (2005) Surveillance of fish parasites and diseases. In: Annual Technical
Report, Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Nepal. pp. 61-80.
Rayamajhi A, Bajracharya K & Mulmi R (2004) Surveillance of fish parasites and diseases. In: Annual
Technical Report, Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Nepal. pp. 7-21.
Rayamajhi A & Bajracharya K (2000) Surveillance of fish parasites and bacterial diseases. In: Annual
Technical Report, Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Nepal. pp. 14-23.





76
Rayamajhi A (1999) Surveillance of fish parasites and bacterial diseases. In: Annual Technical Report,
Fisheries Research Center, Godawari, Nepal. pp. 27-35.
Rayamajhi A (1998) Proceedings of The Third National Workshop on Livestock and Fisheries
Research in Nepal, held from 26-28 June, 1999 at Agriculture Research Station, Lumle, pp. 153-
157.
Roberts R.. J & Sommerville C (1982) Diseases of tilapias. In: Pullin R.S.V. and Lowe McConnel R.H.
(eds.). The Biology and Culture of Tilapia. ICLARM Conference proceeding, Manila, Philippines.
pp. 247263.
Snieszko S. F (1974) The effect of environmental stress on outbreaks of infectious diseases of fishes.
Journal Fish Biology, 6: 197208.
Schperclaus W (1991) Fish Disease Volume I and II. Oxonian Press Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, Calcutta,
pp. 1398
Stickney R. R (1991) Culture of Salmonid fishes. CRC Press, Inc., Florida, Pp 113.
TFRC (1993) Annual Technical Report, Published by Trishuli Fisheries Research Center,
Trishuli, Nuwakot, Nepal.
Trust T. J (1986) Pathogenesis of infectious diseases of fish. Annual review of Microbiology 40: 479-502





77
Market Channels of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) products in
Nepal

Devendra Gauchan
1
, Naresh Thakur
1
, Bhawna Shrestha
2
,

Asha Rayamajhi
3
, Sudeep Gautam
1
and Gopal Lamsal
4


1
Socioeconomics & Agriculture Research Policy Division (SARPOD), Khumaltar, NARC;
Email: dgauchan@hotmail.com

Monitoring Division
2
, Singhdarbar Plaza, NARC and Fishery Research Division
3
, Godawari,
Fisheries Research Station
4
, Trishuli

Abstract
Production and marketing of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is a recent phenomenon in Nepal. It
is currently emerging as a niche product for hills and mountain region. This paper is output of a
marketing study on trout in Kathmandu-Trishuli-Rasuwa road corridor. It aims to provide an
assessment of marketing system, market demand and supply as well as market and production
potentiality of trout farming in Nepal. The study employed literature review, key informant
interviews and market survey of trout producers, traders, and specific consumers of trout. The
market survey employed two sets of questionnaires. The first set was used to interview sample
respondents (N=22) involved in marketing of trout (e.g. farmers and market agents from department
stores, restaurants, hotels, fresh house etc.); and the second was used to collect random views of
consumers (N=68). Specific marketing channels, marketing practices, market demand, supply, market
prices and margins, production and marketing potentials were assessed and projected. Similarly
consumers demand, utility and the preferences for the size and types of trout products were
identified and suggested. The finding showed that currently trout marketing is in very small scale (17
mt) mediating for commercialization. The farm households that are closer to road head and markets
adopted trout farming and reaping fairly high benefits from this activity. The traders and hotel
owners are also currently receiving good profit margin from the sale of trout. However, the current
production and market supply of trout is not meeting increasing demands of consumers.
Furthermore, this demand is increasing rapidly due to increasing tourist flow, urbanization, and
increased consumer awareness about fresh trout products. The study therefore confirms that market
for trout is unexploited and large because of increasing unfulfilled demands of high-income local
consumers and demands of hotels, restaurants and super markets. A high prospect for
commercialization of trout exists. Finally the paper suggests that special policy consideration is
required to enhance production and supply of fingerlings as well as technical know-how and enabling
investment environments for future growth in production and marketing.
Key words: Consumers demand, market price, marketing channel, market potential
1. Introduction
Production and marketing of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is a recent phenomenon in Nepal. It
is currently emerging as a niche or specialty product for hills and mountain region, where suitable
climatic conditions, land slopes and abundant perennial source of cold fresh running water is
available. Rainbow trout is a high value exotic cold water fish. It prefers, clean, cold and high oxygen
water for its growth and survival which is abundant particularly in the hill and mountain region of
Nepal (Gurung & Basnet 2003). The present stock of trout was introduced from Japan in 1988 (Joshi
& Westlund 1997, Gurung & Basnet 2003, FRD 2005). The research work on breeding work and
culture technology was first initiated since early 1990s. Over the past 10 years NARC research work
carried out at Fisheries Research Station (FRS), Trishuli and Fisheries Research Division (FRD),
Godavari revealed that production of trout is technically feasible in Nepal (FRD 2005, FRS 2006).
The cultivation has also been tested and validated in the farmer's field to learn the feasibility and
profitability of this technology (Nepal et al. 2002). On-farm testing in individual farmers own
production management conditions and its economic analysis indicated that it is technical feasible and





78
profitable in places where suitable agroecological conditions prevail such as the hills and mountains of
Nepal (FRD 2005).

Recently considering the viability of the technology and its potential role in trout farming
commercialization in hills and mountains, NARC has initiated its scaling-up of technological activities.
Consequently, Government of Nepal has selected Nuwakot and Rasuwa as the Trout Districts
under One Village One Product (OVOP) program (MoF 2006). Despite this policy recognition and
prioritization, we have limited information and empirical studies that have rarely been undertaken to
study market potential of trout production for successful scaling-up and commercialization of trout
farming. In this context, this study was initiated to explore market potentials and understand market
demand and supply of trout in Nepal. The specific objectives were to study the market system, trend,
demand, and supply; assess production, identify current constraints, risks and potentials in production
and marketing for suggesting possible investment measures, priority areas and policy options in trout
farming promotion.

2. Materials & Methods
The study was undertaken in Kathmandu valley, Trishuli and Kathmandu-Trishuli road corridor
where currently trout is produced, marketed and consumed. It employed literature review, exploratory
survey and use of specifically designed qualitative and quantitative methods and tools for collecting
market information. Participatory and qualitative study covered desk study, focus group discussion,
key informant interviews, direct field visits and interaction meeting with trout researchers in Fisheries
Research Center Trishuli and Godawari. In addition, information was also gathered by visiting and
interacting with other related stakeholders in trout production, marketing and promotion (e.g.
ADB/N Trishuli, JICA etc.). Quantitative method involved market survey of market agents and
consumers using specifically designed questionnaire. The market survey employed two sets of
questionnaires. The first set was used to interview sample respondents (N=22) participating in
marketing of rainbow trout (e.g. farmers and market agents from department stores, restaurants,
hotels, fresh house etc.) and the second set was used to interview random sample of different types of
troutconsumers (N=68). The data and information collected from survey were compiled, coded and
analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Scientist (SPSS). From survey data, specific marketing
channels, marketing practices, market demand, supply, market prices and margins as well as
production and marketing potentials are assessed and projected. Similarly consumers demand, utility
and the preferences for the size and types of rainbow trout products are identified and suggested.

3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Production systems
Currently small-scale market oriented production occurs in trout fish with very small volume (nearly
17 mt) and size of production and marketing specifically in Kathmandu-Trishuli-Rasuwa road
corridor. Until 2006, only nine farmers (private sector) have been involved in trout fish farming in
addition to production by two government (NARC) research farms in Godawari and Trishuli.
Current total combined production of trout is about 0.09 % of total pond culture fish production in
Nepal. Production is tied with specific agroclimatic conditions (fresh cold running water, low
temperature in gentle hill and mountain slopes) and market access. Basically, trout farming is
knowledge, input and technology intensive farming. It requires year round dependable source of cold
oxygenated unpolluted fresh running water, water temperature of 9-14
0
C for spawning and 14-18
0
C
for fingerlings and table fish production. It is learned that about 55 hills and mountain districts (15
high hills and 40 mid hills) of Nepal are suitable for rainbow trout fish farming, wherever; this
dependable source of fresh cold running water is available.
The available data (Fig 1) shows that currently 17 mt of rainbow trout fish is produced in the country
where both public and private sector is combined. The trend of production data from 2002 to 2005
reveals that the share of private sector is increasing whilst that of public sector is declining in the last
four years.





79

















Fig 1: Trend of rainbow trout fish production (2002-2005; Source: FRS, Trishuli 2006)

3.2 Adoption of trout farming and marketing
Strong NARC fisheries outreach support in terms of technological know-how, inputs and information
and the existence of markets in Kathmandu-Trishuli-Rasuwa highway were the basic factors that
stimulated the process of trout farming and marketing in the study sites. The households that are
closer to road head and markets in Kathmandu have adopted trout farming earlier. Currently nine
farmers have adopted trout farming and half of them are directly involved in marketing of their own
produce in their own restaurants. The survey revealed there are some behavioral factors that are
responsible for adoption of trout farming and marketing. These behavioral characteristics that are
common to those innovative farmers include creative and information seekers and ability to derive
full benefits from the opportunities.

3.3 Economic viability of trout farming and marketing
Unlike normal fish production, initial investment cost for a trout farm is higher. This is because more
expensive facilities are needed, such as concrete cemented ponds (raceways), operating equipments
and hatcheries. However, currently farmers in the study areas receiving high returns from trout
farming and marketing since they have good market outlets and in majority cases, no middlemen are
involved as they are directly marketing the products. The financial analysis of the study revealed that
the breakeven price for the cost of production is about Rs 250/kg (FRS 2006) but farmers' are
currently receiving Rs. 450 to 650/kg for the fresh products depending upon location, market
negotiation and market outlets.

3.4 Market channels and local marketing practices
Presently trout has a specific niche market that is high income domestic consumers and foreign
tourists, where the products are not marketed in general in local market stalls, footpaths and fish
shops. The market and value chain is small due to small-scale production. Very limited middlemen
were found to exist in marketing of trout fish. Some producers themselves also act as middlemen and
these traders have own informal contractual agreements with local producers for advance buying of
trout products. The market channels are very specific and market is segmented and specific to star
hotels, tourist restaurants and high income domestic consumers. The products were not differentiated
among sellers except some labeling. The producers and hotel owners sells the products in different
types of recipes based on the nature of hotels and consumers preferences. For example, Japanese/
Chinese/Korean restaurants had different recipes compared to western and Nepalese restaurants. The
prices were found set based on market negotiation, local contacts, promotion strategies and technique
with particular hotels, restaurants and super markets.





80
Market arrivals generally occur after November until June. Rainbow trout is a high value perishable
product. As a result it requires good care and handling in post harvest use and marketing. Current
transport system and production sites are reasonably good for a quick distribution of perishable
products. However, such a production site close to major market centers and convenient
transportation system may not be available in many parts of the hills and mountains. The local
marketing practices commonly used for trout include:

i. Collection of fresh fish
ii. Packaging: Plastic vacuum packaging (Air-tight)
iii. Labeling with specific own brand names by producers/traders
iv. Local transportation in Microbus, Vans and Bus
v. Grading: farmers grade their products based on the demand in the hotels, restaurants and
department stores
vi. Advertising with sign post & labeling of attractive exotic names (Japanese name)
vii. Advertising linked with local, traditional and pure organic products
viii. Sold with different forms of food recipes and preparation (Gravy, deep fried, steamed,
roasted etc.)
ix. Sold in different sizes. Most preferred size for hotels is 200-300 gm whilst for own direct
selling to consumers ranges from 100-300gm

3.5 Marketing options
There are three options for the local farmers to undertake marketing of trout in the study areas:
i. Cooked products sold to outside consumers from their own hotels/restaurants,
ii. Fresh sales to local hotels and to hotels, restaurants, department stores in KTM
iii. Fresh sales to local and far way consumers

3.6 Type of market agents
The market survey revealed that there are different types of market agents who are involved in
marketing of trout. They are producer-traders to department stores, restaurants, and hotels etc. as
given below:
i. Producers-traders (restaurant owners)
ii. Star hotels: Yak & Yeti, Soaltee, Height Residency, Godawari Resort, Summit etc.
iii. Restaurants: Koto Restaurant, Mike Breakfast, Chez Carolene, Mackfe etc.
iv. Department Stores: Bhatbhateni, Bluebird, Namaste, Sale well, Valley shop etc.

3.7 Type of consumers
The consumers of trout fish are mainly middle and high income groups from both overseas and
Nepal. The survey revealed that domestic Nepali high-income groups visiting Trishuli and star
hotels/restaurants for enjoyment, fun and relish the taste of exotic fish are the main consumers.
These groups are mainly business people, contractors, politicians, professionals, bureaucrats, high
ranking army and policy officials as well as people involved in travel and tourisms. People are also
buying trout fish from Trishuli and Godwari farm in government rate which is relatively affordable
(Rs 300/kg). Visiting tourists, diplomatic officials and professional from Japan, China, Korea and
western Countries are the main foreign consumers of rainbow trout fish. They normally buy it from
department stores, government farms and also visit hotels and restaurants for relishing the taste.
3.8 Farm gate, market Prices and margins
There are no variations in market prices of trout in different seasons and parts of the year. Currently
the farm gate average price of fresh products (table fish) in private farm is Rs 400-450/kg. The
marketing costs include handling, packaging and transportation costs. No direct and indirect taxes,
marketing hassles and other types of costs are found to incur. The storage, warehousing,
communication costs are not prevalent due to direct fresh marketing.





81
The buying market price for private farm produced fresh trout in department stores, hotels and
restaurants in Kathmandu is Rs 550/kg. The selling prices (retail price) are Rs 600/kg for fresh trout.
The cost of handling and packaging (Rs 10/kg), and transportation (Rs 20/kg) and additional cost of
weight loss and others (Rs 20/kg) could add up to a total Rs 50/kg. Using this data of marketing
costs, the net marketing margin (profit) from marketing by the middlemen is Rs 50-100/kg, which is
quite high under current situation where there is no competition in the market.
3.9 Consumers preference
Unlike normal fish (e.g. carp), trout fish has absence of Y bone so consumer feel easy and
comfortable to eat it. The main reasons for consuming trout fish was tastiness (>60%) followed by
good nutrition (30%). Many consumers (>80%) prefer to have 200-300gm size of fish, though some
domestic consumers prefer to have 150-200g fish to eat in the restaurants. Among Nepali high-
income consumers, deep-fried was one of the most preferred recipes followed by gravy and roasted.

3.10 Demand and supply
Currently, the demand of trout for consumption is large and unfulfilled. All surveyed market
respondents (trout producer-traders, star hotels, restaurants /caf, department stores etc.) indicated
that they are not receiving adequate quantities of trout; some of them even complained government
research farms and producers not supplying it for the last six months and one year or so. The findings
revealed that they are likely to increase their market sale three to five times, if they receive adequate
quantity of trout fish regularly.

3.11 Market prospects and trend
Current combined 17 MT of production (with 66:33 ratio from private and public sectors) is
inadequate to meet huge demand of domestic consumers as well as overseas tourists' inflow. Current
demand shows that 50 MT of trout fish could be marketed in and around Kathamndu a year without
any further efforts of market promotion. The domestic overall demand of trout fish currently is
estimated about 200 MT if market is promoted in different urban centers and popular tourists
destination around the country. Domestic demand is increasing rapidly. The survey also revealed that
high prospects of export exist for this unique fish in the name of Himalayan Rainbow Trout in
Japan, Thailand, and western countries, if adequate market search is made and quality supply is
assured on time. Until now there is no problem of external competition for the trout products. Hence
market for trout is large and unexploited due to unfulfilled demands, export potentials and future
trend of consumers choices.

3.12 Problems in production and marketing
Technology, knowledge and labor intensive production
Highly perishable, seasonal, bulky, small scale and scattered production
Increase risks of markets due to high input costs and market volatility
Poor market infrastructures and high costs of transportation
Limited supply of fingerlings for increased production and marketing
Limited infrastructures for hatcheries and trained high quality human resources
Low amount of credit access due to low valuation of marginal land that are used for trout
farming in mountains
No insurance policy for pond structures and facilities
Lack of investment priority for inaccessible hills and mountains where trout farming is
possible
3.13 Policy considerations
Finally the paper suggests that special policy consideration is required to enhance production and
supply of fingerlings as well as technical know-how and enabling investment environments for future
growth in production and marketing. The following policy and practices are considered in successful
production and marketing of trout fish in Nepal:





82

i. Integration of market-based trout production with organic horticulture, micro-livestock,
water mills and eco-tourism
ii. Credit policy with appropriate valuation of lands in combination with insurance provisions
iii. Development of satellite hatchery farms in various hilly regions with adequate human
resource development programs
iv. Investment policy focused for hills and mountain region of Nepal where trout farming
could be successful
v. Public- private partnership for scaling up and commercialization through one village one
product
vi. Market promotion and export market search for the rainbow trout
Conclusions
Currently trout production is in trial stage of commercialization. It is a profitable business with high
demand and prospects for trout production and marketing in Nepal. Current production and market
supply of trout is not meeting and increasing demands of consumers in local market. Furthermore,
this demand is increasing rapidly due to increasing tourist flow, urbanization, and increased consumer
awareness about trout products. The study, therefore confirms that market for rainbow trout in Nepal
is unexploited and large because of its increasing unfulfilled demands. A high prospect for
commercialization of trout exists in the country.

Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to Fisheries Research Division (FRD), Godavari for giving this opportunity
and financial support for the field study. Special thanks goes to Dr. Tek Bhadur Gurung, Ms. Nita
Pradhan and other supporting staffs for providing logistic support to carry out this study. The study
would not have been completed without generous support provided by the trout producers, Fisheries
Research Station (FRS), Trishuli and all the respondents of star hotels, supermarkets, restaurants as
well as the concerned stakeholders and trout consumers. We thank all of them. The authors are also
grateful to Socioeconomics and Agriculture Research Policy Division (SARPOD), Khumaltra NARC
who facilitated and undertook the leading role in this study and especially to Mr. Bisawamber Man
Singh Basnet, Administrative Assistant SARPOD for his untiring contribution for the fieldwork, data
compilation and logistics.
Reference
FRD (2005) Annual Technical Report 2004/05: Fisheries Research Division (FRD), Godawari, Nepal
Agricultural Research Council (NARC), Lalitpur, Nepal
FRS Trishuli (2006). Short information on rainbow trout farming in Nepal. Fishery Research Station
(FRS), Trishuli, Nuwakot, Nepal Agricultural Research Council.
Gurung T. B & Basnet S. R (2003) Introduction of Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss in Nepal.
Constraints and Prospects. Aquaculture Asia, Vol. VIII (4). October December.
Joshi P. L & Westlund L. M (1997) Production Technology and Prospects of Trout Farming in Nepal;
Proceed. National Symposium on the role of Fisheries and Aquaculure in the Economic
Development of Rural Nepal, 15-16 August, 1996.
MoF (2006) Budget Speech, Minister of Finance, 2006 (2063/64), Government of Nepal.
Nepal A. P, S. R. Basnet, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & Mulmi R. M (2002). Economics of rainbow
trout farming systems in Nepal. In: T. Petr and D. B. Swar (eds.) Cold Water Fisheries in the
Trans-Himalayan Countries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 431 Rome, FAO. P. 376





83

Socio-economic study of rainbow trout farming in Nepal:
A case study of Kathmandu - Trishuli - Rasuwa road corridor

Naresh Singh Thakur, Devendra Gauchan, Asha Rayamajhi
1
, Gopal Prasad Lamsal
2

Socioeconomic & Agricultural Research Policy Division, NARC
Email: nareshthakur@hotmail.com

1
Fisheries Research Division, Godawari
2
Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli

Abstract
The main objective of this study was to analyze the socio-economical performance of emerging trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) farms in Kathmandu-Trishuli-Rasuwa highway corridor. The study used
purposive selection of samples by a group of multidisciplinary team comprised of socio-economists
and trout biologist. Data were collected through personal interviews, field observation, informal
discussion with trout producers and other key informants. The study revealed that Lama, Brahmin and
Ghale were the major ethnic groups involved in trout farming with an average family and farm size of
11.0 persons and 10 Ropani (1 Ropani = 500m
2
), respectively. The farmers had a total number of 80
raceways with water surface area of 2.35 Ropanii. The production of trout increased from 8323 Kg to
16069 Kg from 1998 to 2006 where, share of private producers increased from 10% to 75% in total
production. This indicates that there is a high annual growth and adoption rate of trout farming
technology. The gender analysis revealed that participation of men was relatively higher than women,
though women also contributed substantially in trout production activities. Currently, Trishuli (75%)
and Godawari (25%) farms were the major source of fingerlings supply to the farmers. However,
current fingerling production is not adequate to meet the increasing demand for increasing
production. The main problems identified was limited availability of fingerlings, low quality feeds,
inadequate credit facilities, high mortality rate of fingerlings and high risks of production at the farm
level. However, there is still ample scope for enhancing trout production in the study area, in other
suitable hill and mountain, if strong technological, policy, institutional approaches could be integrated
for eco-trout tourism development in the country.

Key words: Eco-trout tourism,, gender, growth rate, production, multidisciplinary

1. Introduction
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) production is a recent initiative around Kathmandu-Trishuli-
Rasuwa road corridor in private sector. Trout in Nepal was first introduced in 1969 from India. Later,
the queen of Great Britain presented 10,000 fingerlings of trout but both of these stocks could not
survive due to lack of appropriate technology (Joshi et al. 1997, FRD 2005). At the third time 50,000
eggs of rainbow trout was presented to Fisheries Research Center, Godawari in 1988 by Fisheries
Experimental Station, Kobayashi Branch, Miyazaki Prefecture, Japan. With that stock Nepal
Agricultural Research Council continued research on technical, social, managerial, economical aspects
of rainbow trout farming practices in Godawari and Trihsuli.

Rainbow trout is one of the best known fish for commercial farming in cold waters. The flesh of
trout is considered high quality products because of its specific composition, which supports healthy
cardiac function and memory sharpening. The commercial cultivation of trout was started as early as
in 1853 in USA (Bardach et al. 1972). The preferable size of table fish is between 200-300 g, which
becomes ready after 14-15 months of culture period in Nepalese condition (FRD 2005). Trout is high
value, exportable agricultural commodity consumed in urban area by resource rich people, however,
efforts are needed to make the trout available to everyone. Earlier about two decades back in Nepal





84
chicken was also considered as rich person food, however, presently chicken meat are sporadically
available regardless of urban and rural areas.
The present report is based on a comprehensive field study on trout farming for evaluating problems,
potential, gender prospective associated with trout production. The main objective of the study was to
analyze socio-economical performance of emerging trout fish farming around Kathmandu -Trishuli -
Rasuwa road corridor.

2. Materials and Methods
The study was specifically focused under the outreach research command area of FRD, Godawari and
FRS, Trishuli in Kathmandu-Trishuli-Corridor, where 8 farms adopted trout farming for last 2-5
years. A standard questionnaire was prepared to collect the information from individual trout farmers
on socioeconomic condition, trout farming system, marketing, and gender concerns. Primary data was
collected through complete household enumeration. The study was conducted by a group of
multidisciplinary team that consisted of socio economists (Socioeconomic Agricultural Research
Policy Division (SARPOD) and researchers from Fisheries Research Division (FRD) Godawari and
Fisheries Research Center (FRC), Trishuli. The household survey was carried out in December 2006.
Collection of data was done through personal interviews, direct field observation, informal discussion
with trout producers and other key informants. Field data obtained through the household survey was
compiled, coded and analyzed using SPSS. Relevant information on trout production and adoption
were collected from published reports and on going research programs.
3. Results
3.1 Agro-ecology and Production Systems
Rainbow trout farming in private sector was found successful in mid hill (1100-1950 msl) gentle to
steep slops where cold running fresh water is available. The farmers in the area had a total number of
80 raceway ponds with the total water surface area of 2.35 Ropani. The total production of trout was
estimated 6817 kg, average household production was estimated 973 kg and per Ropani was 426 kg
(Table 1).

3.2 Socio economic profile of trout farmers
The detail of the socioeconomic perspectives of trout farmers has been described in Table 1. The
average level of education among all trout fish farmers was SLC (63%), however, their experience in
trout fish farming was 3.38 years. There was no significant difference in the average age and family
size among the trout farmers. The total population of the 8 surveyed households was 88 with an
average family size of 11.0 persons in each. The average size of land holding of the household was
estimated 10 Ropani. There were three types of raceways viz own (75%), leased in (12%) and contact
based (12%). During the survey, farmers were reported that the total number of raceways is 80 with
the water surface area 2.35 Ropani. Some of the raceways were constructed by owners and rented out
and some farmers take a pond as a contact basis. Lama was the largest ethnic group interviewed
followed by Brahmin and Ghale.

The total number of labor is used 50 where family labor contributes 62% and non- family labor 38%
for trout production activities. There are mainly three activities for which family labor engaged is
engaged; production (68%), marketing (26%) and hatchery (5%) for trout fish farming (Table 2).













85

Table 1: Biophysical and production systems analysis





































3.3 Production Level
Trout production from private sector was started since 1998 when the share to the overall total trout
production from the research farm was 90%. But in the year 2006, the contribution to the overall total
production from FRS Trishuli, FRD Godavari and private farmers were 19%, 7% and 75%,
respectively (Table 3). Now, the private farmers have been the major trout producer and supplier to
the market. Recently, private farmers have been involved in trout breeding activities. In eight years
interval (1998-2006), production of trout has almost doubled from 8323 kg to 16069 kg. The share of
private farmers in total production has also increased from 800 kg to 12000 kg.

Trout production in the farmers field was estimated to be 6817 Kg in the fiscal year 2005 (excluding
Shreeman Lama, farmer at Kakani). This indicates that the survival rate of fingerlings was low due to
high mortality rate. The average household production is estimated 973.86 kg. The estimated mortality
rate of fry and fingerlings is about 10-20% (Table 3).







86
Table 2: Socioeconomic characterization of trout farmers
































The annual growth rate analyses for FRC Trishuli, FRD Godawari, private farmers and total
production showed that the trout fish production has a significant growth. The annual growth rate of
FRC, Trishuli, FRD, Godawari, private farmers and overall production is 17.39%, 12.66%, 35.11%
and 32.32%, respectively in the given year. The data indicates that there is a high annual growth rate in
the private farmer's level in between (1998-2006) as compared to the government farms because the
farmers were adopting the technology and marketing opportunities as compared to other fish farming.
According to the farmers the appropriate month of the breeding activity is from December to
February because of very cold fresh running water. During the survey farmers were reported that
there is a high demand of trout fish in the months of September to January. In these months, many
social occasions and special days are in these months and low demand is in April, May, June, and
August months.

3.4 Major issues on trout production are observed in the following aspects:
i. High mortality rate
ii. Lack of better rainbow color
iii. Slow growth rate
iv. No appropriate harvest time for table fish
v. Size of table fish identified according to consumer demand
vi. Reduce long duration of production cycle






87
Table 3: Trout production trend from 1993-2006 (in kg)




















Source: FRS, Trishuli and FRD, Godavari, 2006 (Figures in the parentheses indicate the percentage to
total trout production)

3.5 Fingerling stock
The total number of fingerlings stocked was 77000 in the year 2005. The average number of
fingerlings stocked per household was 9625. Now, farmers are fingerlings stocking on an average 65
trout fish in a 1 sq. m but research has recommended the 100 trout fingerlings can be stocked in the 1
sq.m. with sufficient running water for trout production.

At present FRS Trishuli and FRD Godawari are supplying fingerlings to the farmers. The size of
fingerlings is distributed about 2-5 grams at Rs 2 per piece. The availability of trout fingerlings is
limited because of load shading, silt and sand deposit in the farms ponds. The demand of fingerlings
has increased. To increase the suppky FRS Trishuli farm has distributed 700 female and 100 male
trout to 2 farmers for breeding purpose. The target of fry and fingerlings production is estimated 1
lakh and 5 lakh from Nuwakot and Dunche, Rasuwa respectively.

3.5 Major issues on trout fingerlings are observed in the following aspects:
i. Other trout species need to be to studied
ii. Growth and survival in spring and snow water management need to be studied.
3.6 Feed
Feed management is one of the major activities of trout fish production. Most farmers reported that
2-3 times of feeding a day. According to them, trout are marketed when they attain individual body
weight of approximately, 100-150 grams within 11-12 months. The survey revealed that the average
rate of feed to produce 1 kg of trout was about 2.97. The average cost of feed was estimated Rs 63
per kg. There were no serious problems to make feed for trout. Mostly farmers purchased raw
materials from the Kalimati Bazar, Kathmandu and transported to farmers, Nuwakot.

The feed contains, generally, more than 35-40% crude protein (CP) is necessary for trout and growth
will not be satisfactory with feed contain less than 20% animal protein (Joshi & Westlund 1997).
Farmers reported that for trout pellet production they use shrimp (29%) mixed with wheat (22%),
soybean (15%), oilcake (15%), rice bran (18%), vitamin mixture (0.5%) and minerals (0.5%).






88
3.7 Technological support
Scientists and technical officers from NARC provide technical services related to raceway
constructions, water management, fry, fingerlings and harvest and marketing. Technical officers from
FRD and FRC successfully transferred the hatchery activities in collaboration with the farmers (Mr.
Daman Lama and Mr. Padama Lama).

3.8 Distribution of consumption pattern
Majority of the farmers reported that about 68%
(4385 kg) of their trout production sold directly to
consumers and 3% (1900 kg) of the product was
sold to traders/middle men (Fig 1). It showed that
high percentage of production was sold to direct
consumer followed by sold to traders/ middlemen.
It indicates that fish farmers are actively engaged in
the marketing in their restaurants where many people
from Kathmandu visited these places to taste trout.
Fig. 1: Distribution and consumption pattern of
trout

3.9 Gender roles and participation
The analyses of labor allocation to different activities
showed that majority of male and female were
engaged in trout farming and related enterprises.
Members of the family were the chief source of labor for trout fish farming.

Overall, the involvement of female labor is lower than the involvement of male labor in the trout
farming. The major activities such as brood and hatchery management, watering, harvesting,
weighting and handling, diseases and parasites and packing for marketing were major activities of
male. Transportation of the products into the market was exclusively dominated by male. Fry rearing,
feed management, fish grading and cleaning were the major activities of female. It was observed that
male spent longer period than female in the trout fish farming. Females were engaged in the business
activities of restaurant besides the trout fish farming.

Table 4: Gender involvement in labor allocation in the different activities

























89
Note: Figures in the parenthesis refer the responded of the household.


3.10 Market and price
In the study area, the farmers usually sold fish directly to
the consumers. There are some farmers who have their
own motor cycles and sell their produce directly to big
star hotels: Yak & Yeti, Himalayan, Soaltee Crown Plaza,
and Hayatt Regency, and Godavari Resort, Restaurants at
Darbar Marga and Bhatbateni department store when
they gave order. But the farmers and consumers reported
that they are not able to fulfill the demand of sizable trout
regularly.

The farm gate price of trout ranges from Rs. 450 to 750
per kg depending upon the location and opportunities.
Price of trout fish vary from location to location and
fluctuation was due to supply and demand in a market.
The average selling price of trout fish is Rs.567.86 per kg.
The marketing channels of fingerlings and table trout fish
shown in the flow chart (Fig 2).


3.11 Common problems encountered
The farmers reported different types of commonly encountered problems. The most significant
constraints were the inadequate fingerlings supply (100%), high input cost (87%), high interest rate
(62%), skilled labor problem (62%), and low water supply (37%) in the dry season and lack of feeds
(37%). Most farmers reported that the inadequate supply of fingerlings was the major constraints for
increase trout production. The other major socio-economic problems are lack of technical known
how (75%), lack of capital (62%), lack of land (50%), lack of fresh and cold water (37%) and credit
availability (37%). The major problem to the farmers is the running capital for carrying out the trout
fish farming in the large scale. It was observed that the most of the raceways were constructed in
marginal lands with high steep slopes where cold fresh stream at the top were available. So, evaluation
of the marginal land for collateral into the bank was low compared to plain land. There is no
insurance policy to covered the damage on trout farm. The rate of interest for trout fish farming is
12.5% per annum and there is no subsidy on it however, this farming is very high risk.
Conclusion and recommendation
Trout is a new product in Nepal, and the species is still unknown to most of the Nepalese. Nepal has
suitable agro-climatic conditions in hills and mountains to produce trout wherever adequate fresh cold
running water is available. The socioeconomic context is encouraging for trout farming in Nepal.
Both men and women can contribute in various levels of production and marketing activities.
Technology is not a major problem, but promotion of these technologies in farmers field in suitable
agroecological regions is urgently required. Trout farming has been carried out in the marginal land.
Since trout farming utilizes marginal land, therefore, from scaling-up perspective it seems high
potential for trout commercial production. Currently there is a small production and small-scale
marketing system which means that generally trout can only be sold in the area close to the trout
farms and around Kathmandu valley. There is some sale to few star hotels, restaurants and stores in
Kathamndu, but demand is very high and most hotels asked to supply trout products from farms
because they require high quality processed products. Many wealthy people belonging to do family
visited the trout farm for recreation and taste trout in farmers restaurants. They even can enjoy the
trout harvesting by themselves in farmer's pond. This situation provides a healthy business





90
atmosphere and in reality it has a multiplying effect on the economic condition of the rural people
because both the owner and non-owner derive income from the same area. To increase the trout
production following recommendations have been proposed:

i. There is need to establish additional hatchery and breeding program in the farmers level in
collaboration with the farmers and department of fishery in Dunchha, Rasuwa district.

ii. For the marketing improvement, private farmers should manage an insulator van for
supplying trout fish demanded by consumed star hotels, restaurants, and big store in
coming days.

iii. NARC's fisheries farms should develop and support infrastructure for nursery farm in the
farmers level. After 4-5 years, trout fish can be exported by the farmers to neighboring and
third countries where demand is very high.

iv. In NARC research system, there is no cold water breeding export so that scientists and
technical officers must be given high level education along with knowledge on fisheries
economics and marketing disciplines.

v. The allocation of credit to trout farming is low and the rate of interest for the investment
in trout farming is high so that government should provide the loan on subsidy and also
minimize the risk management through insurance policy on trout fish farming.

vi. Government and private trout fish farmers should use mass media for trout marketing and
promotion within the country.

vii. NARC should not limited trout fish activities in the center hill area but also extend this
activity under the command area of ARS, Lumle and ARS, Pakhribas by assigning a fishery
staff in the each station.

Acknowledgement
We express our gratitude to the Fisheries Research Division, Godawari for offering this study
opportunity to Socioeconomic and Research Policy Division (SARPOD). Dr. Tek Bhadur Gurung
and his supporting staffs are also thankful for providing logistic support to carry out this study.
Thanks to Dr. Mina Nath Paudel, Senior Scientist, Outreach Research Division for kindly reviewing
the paper. We extend our sincere thanks to the fishing farmers who provided us valuable information
for the study. Last but not the least; our special thanks go to Mr. Bisawamber Man Singh Basnet,
Administrative Assistant of SARPOD, who contributed greatly in the field work to carry out this
study.

Reference
Bardach J. H., W. O. Ryther & McLarney W.O (1972) Commercial culture of freshwater salmonids,
genera Salmo, Thymallus, and Hucho. In: The farming and husbandry of freshwater and marine
organisms. John Willey and Sons. pp. 397-449.
FRD (2005) Annual Technical Report 2004/05: Nepal Agricultural Research Council and Fishery
Research Division, Godawari. Lalitpur, Nepal
Joshi P. L & Westlund L. M (1997) Production Technology and Prospects of Trout Farming in Nepal;
Proceedings of the National Symposium on the role of Fisheries and Aquaculure in the
Economic Development of Rural Nepal, 15-16 August, 1996





91

Prospects of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming commercialization in
relation to global context in Nepal

Tek Bahadur Gurung, Neeta Pradhan, Dharni Man Singh
1
, Tek Bahadur Thapa
2


Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Lalitpur
1
Directorate of Fisheries Development, Balajoo, Kathamndu
2
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Singh Durbar, Kathmandu

Email: tek_fisheries@hotmail.com

Abstract
The total trout production in Nepal is meager totaling about 18 mt in 2005 from 3523 m
2
area,
suggesting that there is need of technological, administrative and financial improvement for increased
trout production. Among these the primary goals of technological development of trout farming have
been achieved recently. The private sector has recently been started to produce trout seed as a part of
participatory research. The present scenario of trout cultivation in hills showed that trout farming has
been successful though various management shortcomings are yet to be overcome. The preliminary
feature of trout cultivation in Nepal Himalaya might be taken as one of the strength for its scaling-up.
Considering the remarkable progress on trout farming achieved around the world in diverse socio-
economic conditions, potentiality and future of trout commercialization can be expected in Nepal.
However, to establish trout as a commercial aquaculture commodity a "paradigm shift" would be
necessary in extension, research, social mobilization, financing and policy strategies of existing
fisheries sector. So, the theoretical potentiality of commercial trout production in the country could
be solicited into the practical reality.

Key words: commercialization, trout, multiplier effects, private sector, global trout production

1. Introduction
Commercialization is a process by which any product is systematically enhanced, supported and
shaped to establish its value chain from production level to market channeling for sustaining
livelihood and business of people associated. Commercialization brings product into the market for
business. However, understanding the ways how a product could be commercialized is highly
interesting field of study. Recently, farming of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) has shown promising results
(Rana 2007a, Rana b) and prospects in hills and mountains of Nepal, having possibilities of multiplier
impacts.

Rainbow trout farming is one of the commercial activities especially in temperate and tropical
countries, such as USA, Russia, Japan, Norway, Denmark, Iran, India, Pakistan etc. Trout basically a
North American cold water fish is one of the best studied fish in aquaculture sector. The advantage
of trout cultivation is its possibilities of rearing in cold waters densely with high water exchange rate.
Trout aquaculture was started some 100 or more years ago; however its commercial farming is more
recent, started more intensively after 1970 in the world (Brannon 2000).

In Nepal, the potentiality of trout was realized earlier, thus, the attempts of introduction began in
1960 and '70s without success. Later again in 1988, trout were introduced from Japan. This stock has
been successful for breed and cultivation. Recently, the farming of trout among many hill farmers
and taste among the consumers has popularized trout. As a result trout has been one of the most
demanding commodities among farmers as well as consumers. If farming of trout would be expanded
by overcoming the present constraints of fish seed production. It is anticipated that trout would be
commercialized soon in Nepal.





92
2. Concept of trout farming commercialization
Fishery food products are a potential answer to the growing problem of world dietary animal-protein
shortages (Helfrich 1997). Aquaculture has been demonstrated in past to be one of the solution of
food deficit, income and job opportunities and social inclusion in Nepal (Gurung & Bista 2003,
Gurung et al. 2005). However, aquaculture practices further needs to be commercialized for better
economic development, income and job opportunities. For commercialization of aquaculture
conceptual frame work has been proposed in past. One of such oldest concepts has been developed
by Bardach et al. (1972). According to which the commercialization of aquaculture products mainly
comprising of four important stages (Fig 1).
































Fig 1: Schematic diagram showing interplay of biological, social and economical and other factors on
the development of a species for commercialization (after Bardach et al. 1972).

Stage 1 and Stage 2 are major steps of screening of aquaculture species to be produced commercially.
In these two stages the species goes through ecological, economical, social and life history feasibilities
in local climatic and environmental conditions. If any of the factors constraint the potentiality of
commercialization of the product, the species could be rejected in these stages. However, the
potential candidates passing theses stages moves ahead for stage 3 and 4, where aquaculture
potentiality are tested in research station and piloting of the species for cultivation may take place. In
stage 4, commercial trials begin possibly in conjunction with business and industries (Fig 1). The
farming of trout in Nepal can be considered in between the phase 3 and 4 currently.






93
3. Brief Global Review
Origin place of trout is known to be North America, which later distributed to most of the countries
including that of equatorial regions mainly for farming and sport purposes (Stickney 1991). Trout is
one of the excellent fish suitable for commercial production in cold waters. Therefore, trout has been
one of the most cultivated fish in countries having abundant cold water resources. The present global
production is known to be 510,000 Mt in 2001 (Hardy et al. 2000, Hinshaw et al. 2004; Abdulhai &
Ghomi 2005). The United States of America alone produced 24,699 Mt of rainbow trout in 2002.
Other European and American countries are Chile, Norway, Denmark, France, Italy, Spain, Germany
and UK. Australia contributed about 5743 Mt of rainbow trout in 2002. In Asia, Japan, Iran, Korea
and Taiwan are the countries, which have achieved recent successes in the commercialization of trout.
Iran is known to produce 23,137 Mt in 2003 where commercialization took the momentum after
sensation (Abdulhai & Ghomi 2005). Rainbow trout is also cultivated in India and Pakistan (Yakoob
2002). In China, rainbow trout has been successfully reaching to produce 10,000 Mt in year 2000
(Zhaoming & Yuhui 2002). In Thailand, nearly 20,000-25,000 eyed eggs were supplied from Nepal in
year 1998.




























Fig 1. Production of trout worldwide since 1950. Sources: Hardy et al. 2000; Hinshaw et al. 2004.

For further global expansion of trout production, Iran claims that in future the trout production will
skyrocketed further to meet huge national and international demand. However, in USA, availability of
abundant clean water of desirable temperature and quantity for aquaculture, environmental rules and
regulation; and low cost import of trout have been supposed to be the barrier for further expansion of
rainbow trout farming (Hinshaw et al. 2004). Some of the salient features by which commercialization
could be achieved is considered due to:






94
i. Abundant cold water resource
ii. Year round supply of trout seed
iii. Availability of dry pellet feed
iv. Development of automated feeders, graders, and fish pumps
v. Evolution of concrete raceways
vi. Market

4. Present Status of Rainbow Trout Farming in Nepal
There are two government farms and 9 private trout farms in Nepal. These all trout farms are located
in between 610 m to 1950 m above the sea level. Climatically, an elevation of 610 m is considered not
suitable for trout farming as water temperature would be higher, however, in such altitude, if water
originated from glaciers are available then trout might be grown successfully. The Trishuli Fish Farm
which is located at 610 m elevation from the sea level receiving water supply from River Trishuli
originated from glaciers present this evidence. The oldest trout farm in private sector was established
in 1998 located in Kakani Village Development Committee, Nuwakot. Among all private farms 7 are
located in Nuwakot district, 1 in Kathmandu. One trout farm in privates sector has been started in in
Mustang district, one research farm is presently located in Lalitpur District. At present these farms
altogether producing nearly 18 Mt of trout. These farms are supported from Trishuli Fisheries
Research Centers and Godawari Fisheries Research Division for technical backstopping, fingerlings
and feed technology (Rai et al. 2005). The most recent technological achievement on trout farming in
Nepal has been highlighted by Rana (2007 a & 2007 b).

4. 1 Status of Seed Supply and Mechanism
Trout fingerlings were exclusively supplied to farmers from two fisheries stations. The total annual
fingerling capacity is about 0.3 million per annum at experimental level. Since, there are no other
governments farms for supporting trout seed supply, private sector farmers have been strengthen for
trout breeding in private sector. Now onwards breeding technology is gradually to private sector
through participatory trout breeding programs (Box 1) from 2006. This program is sponsored by
Japan International Cooperative Agency (Box 2).

Box 1: Participatory Trout Breeding Research Program

This approach of breeding of trout has been designed to evaluate the performance of trout
brood in different geo-ecological region of mid and high hills. The experimental location ranges
from 610 meter elevation (Trishuli) to 1950 meters of Rasuwa. In this participatory research
program 3 private farms and 2 fisheries research station have been included as project site. The
main aim of this research is to increase fingerlings production of trout, enhance farmer's capacity
in technical skill of trout breeding, fry rearing, feeding and producing robust seed for increasing
trout production using the facilities of their own farm. Using the experience farmers can switch
over to trout breeder. In this participatory breeding farmers have been supplied with trout
broods to rear in different locations in their farms in November 2006 for ova and milt
production. The process of brood rearing, stripping, fertilization, incubation, larvae production
skills have been taught to farmers under the scheme. Altogether 700 broods have been used. It is
expected that from now onwards these associated farmers would gain capabilities to performed
trout breeding for producing require number of fingerlings in their own farms. The fingerlings
produced by these associated farmers would not only used by the owners but they would also
share and sell their products to near by farmers. This is one of the steps to make trout farming
sustainable in their own farm. The concept of the programs has been designed as a result of
inadequate water quality resources in existing research stations.






95
Box 2: JICA support on Soft type follow up project of Natural Water
Fisheries Development Project
Fisheries Research Division, Godawari and Fisheries Research Center Trishuli have recently
received a grant of nearly 1.67 million Nepalese Rupees for scaling up of trout farming. The main
objective of this grant is to enhance the trout production in Nepal especially from Rasuwa and
Nuwakot districts through community participation. Till now the technology and facilities of
trout research and production are within the fence of research centers, therefore under this
project various stakeholders associated with trout farming will be trained for better technological,
managerial, and marketing aspect. The project would also tentatively work out on the market
demand of trout, so the production and research strategies in future could be stream lined. The
fund of the JICA project would also be used to supply hatchery supplies to farmers,
demonstration program, prepare training materials to farmers. The technological and social
aspects of trout farming would also be publicized using different media among policy makers,
business communities, farmers and technicians. This project would also encourage women
participation in trout farming aspects

There are increasing trends of trout seed demand, therefore, a new hatchery has been proposed in
high hill area, which is expected to supply about 2 million fingerlings from year 2009 (Box 3).

Box 3: Establishment of Rainbow trout Genetic Resource Center in Dhunche,
Rasuwa for scaling-up of trout farming
Rasuwa is one of high hill district having plentiful of freshwater resources. Rasuwa in local
language means (=leaking, moist, juicy), its name suggesting the place is highly moist due to water
springs. Dhunche is the district headquarters located about 1950 m above the sea level. Rasuwa
district also possess the Langtang Conservation Area, where several hundred external as well as
internal tourist visit this area. Dunche is situated about 115 km north-east, nearly 6 km drive from
Kathmandu. Transportation through pebble road is the means of transportation. All season
transportation may be interrupted during monsoon for few kilometers; at that time porter may be
the means to link the break. However, Rasuwa district is adjoining with Tibet, in near future road
link with China may add the future potentiality of the region.

Recently, to support the declaration of Ministry of Finance, government of Nepal, Ministry of
Agriculture and cooperative have allocated 10 million Nepalese Rupees for construction of a
trout hatchery in Rasuwa. The main aim of the hatchery would be production of trout fertilized
ova and fingerlings for supporting trout production program in the area. This hatchery would be
jointly operated by Nepal Agricultural Research Council and Department of Agriculture under
the coordination of Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.


4. 2 One Village One Product (OVOP) movement for trout production
The concept of "One Village One Product" is originated from Japan and has been implemented to
promote commercialization of local products in Thailand, Philippines and other countries. Recently,
Government of Nepal has declared Rasuwa and Nuwakot Districts as trout growing district, under
"One Village One Product" program where trout farming will be prioritized to promote the local
farmers by using cold water resources and local tourism. The products have specific natural taste
being produced in the Himalayan water. Thus, can be competitive in international market as
"Himalayan Trout"





96
Box 4: One Village One Production (OVOP) Program

One Village one Product is one of the program under which any local product is branded for
enhancing its value chain. The concept of OVOP was originated from Japan and known to be
successfully implied in Thailand and Philippines. Recently, this concept has been implied in four
agricultural products of Nepal. One of the products is rainbow trout. Since, trout is Nepal is
produced in higher altitude using cold, unpolluted glacier, lake and spring waters, therefore, the
taste considered unique. In OVOP program following organizations are the members for
promoting rainbow trout production.
- Local farmers and companies
- Local chamber of commerce and industry
- Local District Development Committee
- Directorate of Fisheries Development, DoA, MoAC
- Fisheries Research Division
- Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli
- Agro Enterprise Centre, FNCCI
- National Planning Commission
- Ministry of Industry Commerce and Suppliers
- Nepal Rastra Bank, Ministry of Finance
Recently a one day workshop was organized in where it has been resided that at present the main
bottleneck for further enhancement is availability of trout fry. If the constraints of trout seed
could be solved then trout production could be enhanced under OVOP program.


4.4 Strength, weakness, opportunity and threat of trout farming
(A) Strengths:
i. Climatically suitable for production
ii. Abundance water supply for production, in general
iii. Trout from high Himalayan water have specific taste & blend
iv. Several feed ingredients locally available
v. More demand than supply
vi. Existing private sectors' performance praiseworthy
vii. Declaration of the trout village by local community
viii. High market price
ix. Local bodies & chamber of commerce and industry proactive
x. Government's previous experience at a local level

(B) Weakness
i. Inadequate seedlings
ii. Inadequate technique for feed formulation & production
iii. Inadequate awareness among local communities
iv. Lack of feed, ice plant & other market infrastructure
v. Inadequate marketing channel
vi. No brand promotion
vii. Labor intensive, require high investment initially

(C) Opportunities
i. More demand than supply
ii. Local bodies & communities highly enthusiastic
iii. Adequate feasible area for trout production
iv. Private sector to be involved in fingerlings production
v. There are two research farms in the public sector
vi. One more public hatchery is under construction in the area





97
vii. Technological infrastructures & inputs for efficient use can be localized

(D) Threats
i. Seed production program does not get implemented timely
ii. High cost of ice factories establishment
iii. Biodiversity damage may occur, if attention is not given
iv. Local consumers do not get adequate message
v. Due to natural calamities high cost may loss for ever

5. Process need to be focused for commercialization
i. Awareness at local level
ii. Provide quality seed and feed production technology
iii. Provide services and subsidies
iv. Diagnostics & extension service,
v. Increase production
vi. Loan, technical services from pond construction, market coordination and linkage, post-
harvest technology, ice plants, accessories and delivery van etc
vii. Promotion as local brand

6. Existing support on trout farming
i. Nepal Agriculture Research Council (Fisheries Research Division)
ii. Japan International Cooperative Agency (JICA)
iii. Private sector initiatives/investment locally

7. Major problems/obstacles
i. Inadequate seed available for commercial production
ii. Lack of extension resource center
iii. Inappropriate hatchery facilities
iv. Inadequate market infrastructure and marketing channel
v. High interest rate or no loan available for trout production
vi. High investment but low collateral value
vii. High risk and no insurance

8. Necessary environment/ Missing points for further development
i. Strong Public and Private Partnership
ii. Awareness in local communities for production enhancement
iii. Detail inventory of suitable water availability
iv. More supply to meet local demands
v. Trout seed availability
vi. Trout feed preparation and storage facilities
vii. Cold storage for market channeling

9. Research challenge for commercialization
i. Year round supply of seed through day light control and bio manipulation
ii. All female or sterile population
iii. Balanced pellet feed industry
iv. Market destination for mass scale consumption
v. Market products
vi. Feasible area for commercial production
10. Possible strategies for future commercialization
Throughout the world, trend of farmers involvement in trout commercialization have been appeared.
Trout has been successful in private sector, its commercialization could bring substantial changes, and





98
commercialization could be possible in the country as it will be supported by the abundant water
resources in the country. There might be two ways of commercialization

a. Through community participation approach involving several groups forming cooperative
b. Involvement of big companies for commercialization production
c. Involving family run trout companies and small scale enterprises as such modalities have
been more successful abroad.
d. Involvement of large business group in trout farming,

In USA, the total trout production is contributed by 561 farms operating in 42 states, major
production site located in Idaho (70-75% of domestic production) and only few small scale
enterprises (Hinshaw et al. 2004). While in Iran 562 farms producing 23137 Mt. Considering such
trend it is likely that larger companies may dominant the trout production in future, contrary to the
trend most of the farm operators are low to medium level farmers in Nepal. The goal of trout
commercialization could be achieved either by establishing high investment through private
companies, however, the goal of commercialization could be developed through mass participation.
In near future the most important part would be the government policies for trout farming
commercialization in the country. The current cold water aquaculture technological development in
Nepal could bring "paradigm shift" on the modern aquaculture production in Nepal. At present
nearly 50 hills and mountain district seems feasible for trout production from the climatic perspective.
However for providing technical support to these areas the present fisheries extension and research
network would not be sufficient. Therefore, the present set up which has been generally adopted to
provide services for warm water carp aquaculture in limited area might need be extended, reshuffled
and restructured for 'paradigm shift' to achieve substantially high commercial level fish production
using warm water as well as cold water aquaculture technologies in the country.

Conclusion
Henry IV, King of France, promised in 1589 "a chicken in every pot (Bardach et al. 1972), at the time
it seemed an extravagant offer, to-day in the United States and other effluent countries, a politician
making the same offer would be accorded a blas reception, for through streamlined production
methods, chicken has become one of the cheapest meat. Trout may soon achieve the same position
among quality fish production. Seeming the enthusiasm and commitment, market, 'one village one
product' program and farmer in future, indeed Nepal could be one of the destination for trout
commercialization to fulfill the demand not only from domestic market but also from international
market. In future the Nepalese trout production will require technologies for year round seed
production, easy transportation and reliable water supply system for trout hatcheries and production
sites.

Acknowledgement
We express our thanks to all staff of Fisheries Research Division, Lalitpur for their kind cooperation
during the preparation of the manuscript. We are also thankful to Fisheries Research Center Trishuli
for providing information. Funding for present study was provided through Japan International
Cooperative Agency.






99
Reference
Abdulhai H & M. K. S Ghomi (2005) Rainbow trout culture in Iran: development and concerns. In:
Aquaculture Asia magazine, Vol. 10. No. 3. pp. 34-38. July-September 2005
Bardach J. E, Ryther J. H & McLarney W.O (1972) General principle and economics. In :
Aquaculture, The farming of freshwater and marine organisms. Willey Inter Science, A division
of John Willey and Sons. Pp. 1-28
Brannon E. L (1991) Rainbow trout culture. In: Stickney R R (Ed) Culture of salmonid fishes, CRS
Press Boca Raton Ann Arbour, Boston, London, pp 189
Gurung T. B & Bista J. D (2003) Livelihood improvements through fisheries in the Pode community
in Pokhara, Nepal. STREAM Journal 2(3): 12
Gurung T. B, S. K. Wagle, J. D. Bista, R. P. Dhakal, P. L. Joshi, R. Batajoo, P Adhikari, Rai A. K.
(2005) Participatory fisheries management for livelihood improvement of fishers in Phewa Lake,
Pokhara, Nepal. Himalayan Journal of Sciences. 3. 47-52
Hardy R.. W, G. C. G. Fornshell & Brannon E. L (2000) Rainbow trout culture. In: R. R. Stickney,
editor, Encyclopdia aquaculture. John Wiley & Sons. New York, NY 716-722.
Helfrich L. A (1997) Planning for commercial aquaculture. Extension Fisheries Specialist,
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia Tech, and Donald L. Garling, Extension
Fisheries Specialist Michigan State University
Helfrich L. A (1997) Planning for commercial aquaculture. Extension Fisheries Specialist,
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia Tech, and Donald L. Garling, Extension
Fisheries Specialist Michigan State University
Hinshaw J. M, Fornshell G, Kinnunen R (2004) A profile of the aquaculture of trout in the United
States, USDA Risk Management Agency, Federal Crop Insurance Corporation, Mississippi State
University, pp 1-42.
Yakoob M (2002) Cold water fisheries of Pakistan. In: Cold water fisheries in the trans-Himalayan
countries, FAO Fisheries technical Paper 431. (ed): T. Petr & D. B. Swar, pp 101-106..
Rai A. K, R. C. Bhujel, S. R. Basnet, Lamsal G. P (2005) Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
culture in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal. A success story, Asia Pacific Association of
Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI), FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
Bangkok, Thailand.
Rana C (2007a) Rainbow trout: an agricultural breakthrough. The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007:
97-99. www.readtheboss.com
Rana C (2007b) No, fishy business! The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 76-77.
www.readtheboss.com
Stickney R R (2000) Salmonid life histories. In: Stickney R R (Ed) Culture of salmonid fishes, CRS
Press Boca Raton Ann Arbour, Boston, London, pp 189.
Zhaoming W & Yuhui Y (2002) Cold water fish culture in China. In: Cold water fisheries in the trans-
Himalayan countries, FAO Fisheries technical Paper 431. (ed): T. Petr & D. B. Swar, pp 97-100.





100
Linkage need among research, development and private institutions for
commercializing rainbow trout farming in Nepal

Kiran Raj Joshi, Sudha Sapkota, Gopal Prasad Lamsal, Sudeep Gautam
Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Kathmandu, Nepal
Email: kiran_raj_joshi@yahoo.com

1
Fisheries Research Station Trishuli,
2
Socio-economic & Agriculture Policy Research Division, Khumaltar

Abstract
The study highlights the need of linkage for promoting rainbow trout as one of commercial
commodities among main stakeholders such as Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Department of
Agricultural/Directorate of Fisheries Development, Agriculture Development Bank, Department of
Road, Agro-enterprises, Private enterprises, I/NGOs, Agro-Enterprise Center, Farmers/Producers,
Insurance Company, marketing and consumer etc. Major linkage should also be considered among
local, national, regional and international markets channels. Private entrepreneurs have been more
eager on dissemination of trout breeding in private sector for rapid commercialization of trout
production. This fact is important in prevailing condition of meager seed supply capacity of
government sector contrary to increasing demand of trout seed among farmers willing to expand trout
farming in mountain regions of the country. It is recommended that the private sector should be
strengthen in seed production systems for expanding trout farming in hills and mountains areas.

Key words: Linkage, rainbow trout, private institutions, enterprise, commercial

1. Introduction
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is one of the excellent fish for commercial production in cold
waters (Bardach et al. 1972; Yamazaki 1991). The breeding, rearing and production technologies had
been developed nearly one decade before in Nepal (Gurung & Basnet 2003). Recent studies have
shown that trout farming is one of transferable technologies developed by Nepal Agricultural
Research Council. This is the reason that trout farming has been one of demanding farming
technologies among the farmers. Trout grow well in lower temperature ranging from 10-20C. Trout
attains commercial size (200 300 gm) in a period of 14-17 months in Nepalese hills. The present
domestic trout market is limited to certain hotels, restaurants, international organization and some of
the diplomatic offices in Kathmandu. The export markets of trout is virtually unknown, however,
considering the regional trend of aquaculture production in south-east Asia, it is assumed that Nepal
could be suitable production site considering the availability of cold water resources and labor force
available in the country. However, besides these potentialities a comprehensive linkage among
various institutions would essential for taking the relative geographical, technological, ecological and
socio-economical advantages of the country. The aim of the present paper is to evaluate and highlight
the importance of linkages among various stakeholders for promoting commercial farming of rainbow
trout in Nepal.

2. Materials and Methods
This study was conducted in the areas including both research and private farms where trout are
grown, especially in Nuwakot, Rasuwa, Kathmandu and Rasuwa districts. A questionnaire was
developed to collect the primary and secondary data to evaluate the production trend, demand and
supply, cost of production, and growth rate of trout farms in the area. Later group discussion were
held incorporating farmers. Market information was collected from agro-enterprise and other related
institutions.





101
3. Result and Discussion
Trend in adoption of rainbow trout farming in hills
In total, the trend of rainbow trout production is increasing in Nepal. The cost of production of
rainbow trout was found NRs. 285 in research farms. Due to high meat quality, tasty and easy to eat,
the demand of rainbow trout is high in local market. On, private trout producers are getting
maximum profit as trout could be sold easily in market.

Linkage for promoting rainbow trout commercialization
Fisheries Research Division, Godawari and Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli are involved in
technological package generation of rainbow trout since 1988. Till now trout production in the
country was only on trial basis depended on Nepal Agricultural Research Council for scaling up.
However, now onwards the generated technologies should be disseminated through Directorate of
Fisheries Development; District Agriculture Development Office and several other line agencies in
coordination. For further exchange of ideas and commercialization of trout farming for promoting
trout farmers following stakeholders should play much interactive roles in Nepal.

Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
Strategy and policy of Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative should be focused on rainbow trout
farming in hills and mountains regions as commercial farming. Programs for piloting of trout
production should be tested according to the concepts of pocket package program. Emphasis should
also be given on establishment of trout hatcheries in suitable locations.

Directorate of Fisheries Development of Department of Agriculture
Directorate of Fisheries Development should take the responsibilities of extension of trout farming
technologies all over the mid and high hill districts. There responsibilities should include all aspect of
trout production from hatcheries to marketing management.

Agricultural Development Bank
Agricultural Development Bank should provide loan at minimum rate of interest for trout farm
construction to suitable farmers in hill and mountains. They should provide financial support in close
co-ordination with other concern line agencies for insecure their investment.

Department of Road
Accessibility of road is one the most important components of successful trout farming. Agriculture
roads can provide support to trout farming program together with other agricultural products. If road
accessibility could be available near-by farming area, producers can send their products at the market.

Agro-enterprises
The roles of agro-enterprise have support to the producers by providing market information from
national and international level. Thus, agro-enterprises should also promote rainbow trout farming
commercialization in suitable areas. Agro-enterprises should play much proactive role in national,
regional and international market channeling of trout byproducts.

Private enterprises
Private enterprises can invest capital for rainbow trout farming. Rainbow trout products can be
exported to the overseas countries. This helps to earn foreign currency.

I/NGOs
Joint programme among Nepal Agricultural Research Council, District Agricultural Development
Office, International Organization and Non-government Organization should add rainbow trout as
one of the important agricultural commodity for poverty alleviation in hills and mountains areas.
Insurance Private Company Ltd





102
In general, trout farming involves high capital investment. So any accident may cause big loss to
farmers, therefore, trout farmers are in view to formulate insurance policy for trout farms, so their
investment could be assured. Such policies would also encourage promotion of commercial
agriculture production of high market values.

Major linkage for commercialization trout production with local, national, regional and international markets Nepal
has squeeze suitable climate in its mountains to high hills for high quality trout production. It is
encouraging to note that the 13
th
SAARC (South Asian Association Regional Countries) summit
recognized the need of strengthening the trade facilitation measures for enhancing intra-regional trade
and other economic activities among SAARC countries. Nepal obtained World Trade Organization
(WTO) membership in 23 April 2004. Nepal recognised WTO as an institution that ensures fair, and
inclusion trading regime of all the countries small and big, rich and poor for international trading. In
this context besides several other products trout could be one of the commodities from Nepal for
trading in international market that would help reduce poverty from hills and mountains.
Border markets are very much open for trade deals with open borders to India and Tibet (China).
High value rainbow trout products could be sold in these border markets. Rainbow trout products
could be exported to Indian, Tibet/China borders, SAARC countries and overseas after required
processing.

4. Lessons learned from rainbow trout producers in the country
In general, all trout farming farmers complained on insufficient fingerlings supply for
commercialization of trout farming. To overcome this problem participatory breeding activities have
been put forward. As a result, private entrepreneurs have been much more conscious on trout
breeding and hatchery management. Hopefully the problem of short fingerlings supply would be
resolved soon.

5. Recommendations/Suggestions
Commercial trout farming should be promoted to increase trout production
Marketing should be studied in context of national, regional and international markets.
Government. policy and strategy should emphasize rainbow trout farming
commercialization projects
Rainbow trout farming should be extensively expanded in hills and mountains in integrated
approach by adjoining and linking all concern major stakeholders for commercialization.

Acknowledgment
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. N. P. Shrestha, Executive Director, NARC for his
encouragement and supports. The authors also like to acknowledge Dr. Tek Bahadur Gurung, Ms.
Asha Rayamajhi, Ms. Neeta Pradhan of Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Lalitpur and Mr. S. R.
Basnet, Chief, Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli, Nepal for their technical input and encouragement
for preparing this paper. We sincerely thank to Mr. P. L. Karna, Directorate of Crop and Horticulture
Research, and Mr. S. B. Pandey, Directorate Planning Division, and Dr. B. P. Tripathi, Liaison
Scientist/Manager, Nepal-IRRI office, Nepal for their help. Thanks to all rainbow trout farmers
groups in Nuwakot and Kakani, Districts of Nepal for providing information.

Reference
Bardach J, J. H. Ryther & McLarney W. O (1972) Aquaculture: The farming and Husbandry of
Freshwater and Marine Organisms, Wiley Inter-Science, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 868pp.
Gurung T. B & Basnet S. R (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal:
constrains and prospects.
Yamazaki T (1991) Culture of Foreign Fisheries, farming Japan, 25
th
Anniversary, Vol. 25- 1, 41- 46.







103


GIS based evaluation on potential sites of cold water fish, Rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming in Nuwakot, Nepal

Suresh Kumar Rai, Tek Bahadur Gurung
1
and Gopal Prasad Lamsal
2

Soil Science Division, Khumaltar
Email: ringdoo@rediffmail.com

1
Fisheries Research Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council
2
Fisheries Research Center, Trushuli

Abstract
Nepal is predominantly a mountainous country where nearly 83% of its part is known to be
mountainous with world renounced fresh water resources having multitude of potentialities for use.
These water resources might also be used to develop commercial cold-water fish farming. At present
to use these cold water resources, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) could be one of the most
desirable candidates to cultivate. Before planning, however, it is essential to estimate the suitable area
where such activities could be implemented. In general, GIS (Geographic Information System) is
considered to be the most effective tool for such evaluation. Thus, in present study a GIS based
evaluation has been presented on the estimate of potential sites for cold water fish farming in
Nuwakot district. First, we set some simple criteria related to rainbow trout farming, such as sources
of water, accessibility to road and use of land which includes some cultivated land as Scenario 1, and
without cultivated area as Scenario 2. The analysis showed that according to the Scenario 2 about
1183 ha of land might be suitable while according to the Scenario 1 the potential area for trout
farming exceeds more than 4 times high than Scenario 2.

Key words: GIS, potential sites, cold water, mid hills, water quality, altitude

1. Introduction
Nepal is rich in its inland water resources, where there are about 6000 large and small rivers
originating from high hills and mountains (Gurung et al. 2006). Trout prefers cold and high oxygen
content water for their growth and survival, which are abundant in Nepal, particularly in the hills and
mountain area. The farming of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal was started after its third
introduction from Japan in 1988. Now, the technologies have reached to the farmers field. There are
several farms engaged in trout production with technical supports from fisheries research stations.

Rainbow trout in Nepal is gaining considerable importance as one of the highly delicious cold water
fish. Now the farmers have started producing trout in their own efforts. In near future the area under
trout cultivation would be increasing. To supply the fingerlings to the farmers, the government has
recently established a hatchery at Dhunche, Rasuwa. With such development more and more potential
areas need to be identified within the region for trout production. In this aspect, Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) can play a vital role for identifying such potential area. All we need to have
a strong database of the district related with trout production. Many organizations in the country or
abroad are making use of GIS technology for making effective and efficient planning. In this study
our objective was to identify potential sites for trout production in Nuwakot district by using GIS.

2. Material and Methods
2.1 Study Area
Nuwakot district is located in Central Development Region in Bagmati Zone, extended to an area of
1121 sq. km. between 84
0
58 to 85
0
30 E longitude and 27
0
48 to 28
0
06 N latitude. It is surrounded





104
by Sindhupalchowk; Kathmandu, Dhading and Rasuwa districts. The elevation varies from 518 to
4876 meter. The district has sub tropical to mid temperate climate (NIDI 2006) (Fig 1).

To work with GIS we developed certain
critarion keeping in mind the pre requisites of
the trout farming. Information collected
during various farmers site visit has also been
incorporated in the study. The study was
carried according to the following steps:

2.2 Criteria Setting-up
Primarily, an assessment for trout fish
cultivation was carried out after consulting
with trout farmers and related scientists. This
covered basic requirements essential for
successful trout farming such as water,
infrastructures, land use pattern, soil, climate
that have influence on trout growth and
production. These parameters were carefully
discussed in a group of experts on ways of its application. Some parameters to be used in the study
were taken from available digital information of the study area. These also included the information
collected through various sources such as farmers and field workers. Based on the experts discussion,
some criterion was set up for identifying the potential sites in the study area as follows;
a) Water - permanent source, near to the fish farm within the periphery of 500 meters from
the rivers, stream or spring
b) Access to road - site near to road within the periphery of 200 meters (vertical distance) of
roads
c) Use of marginalized or non-agricultural land

2.3 Information/Data collection
This constitutes the collection of data/information about Nuwakot district. This is mainly the
collection of digital or analog maps that are related with the parameters that would be used in the
study. Some information about the study area could be collected from various sources, which are as
given below;

a) Administrative map Department of Survey, Nepal
b) Road maps do
c) River maps do
d) Landuse/Land cover map do
e) Elevation map ICIMOD, Nepal

2.4 GIS analysis and map production
Using analysis tools in GIS, various maps were produced from the available thematic maps and spatial
data. These maps were overlaid onto each other to produce the final map of the potential sites.
Potential site refers to the locations that best match with the criteria set forth for potential trout
production site for the targeted district. The GIS analytical works were done using ArcView 3.1
program package. Some other GIS software; Ilwis 2 and Idrisi 3 were also used.

3. Result and Discussion
3.1 Development of thematic road map
There were various types of roads in the road map of Nuwakot district. This study concentrated
mainly on to those types of roads where vehicle transportation was possible. Therefore, only major
roads were selected excluding all other minor roads such as foot trails and non-motorable roads. Then






105
by buffering process in GIS, the areas around the roads within the distance of 200 meter were
identified in the maps. Such area would represent the potential site based on road accessibility (Fig 2).

3.2 Development of thematic river map
Except digitalized major and minor rivers, the available river map does not contain any other
attributes about the rivers in the district. For example, perennial or seasonal, water temperature, pH
and, so on. Even the numbers of minor rivers were very high and located very close to each other in
the map. So in order to reduce the complexity and make the analysis easier, some of the rivers, which
were closer (<100 meters) were excluded from the study. Next, only those rivers within the range of
1000 meters from the major roads were selected. After selection of the rivers now the area covered by
those rivers within the range of 500 meters (Buffering) were identified in the maps (Fig 3). Some
existing trout farms brought water from the rivers up to 1000 meters away. So in this study a distance
of 500 m from rivers were decided to be used for the analysis (Fig 4).















3.3 Development of thematic elevation map
This map was prepared using the contour lines of the altitude. From the contours, a digital elevation
model (DEM) was prepared in ILWIS at an interval of 100 m, which was then exported to IDRISI.
After some conversion, it was again exported back to ArcView format (Fig 5). The area and the
percentage of the coverage under different elevation have been presented in the Table 1. From this
elevation map, first area lying above 1100 m was extracted and later based on this map; rivers lying
above 1100 m were identified. The annual water temperature of the rivers used by the existing trout
farmers were usually below 20
0
C, a favorable temperature for trout farming. All of these trout farms
were located above 1100 m altitude. In the absence of the information about rivers and its quality, this
assumption had to be made using the knowledge of farmers and experts working in this field. After
the identification of rivers lying above 1100 m altitude, now the area covered by these rivers with the
distance of 500 m (as above) was identified in the map.












Table 1. Area (ha) under different elevation classes in Nuwakot district







106



















Table 1. Area (ha) under different elevation classes in Nuwakot district
























3.4 Thematic Landuse/Land cover map
From this map, only those land were selected which do not make differences to other agricultural
sectors, if used for trout cultivation. For this purpose, bush/shrub, grass, ponds/lakes, sandy area,
waste and barren land and water bodies were selected to be included in the study. Table 2 shows the
various landuse/land cover of the study area in 1999. Regarding the cultivated area, two scenarios
were constructed; one in which the cultivated area included with others as mentioned above, while in
scenario 2 cultivated lands were not included.









107
Table 2. Area under different Landuse/Land cover in Nuwakot 1999
















3.5 Overlaying
In this process, different map layers created in the above steps were overlaid onto each other to
identify the locations that fall within the criteria set forth. The sites where all the layers meet are the
site for potential trout production. Only such potential areas were later clipped out from the overlaid
layers that represent the potential sites. However, this potentiality depends on the criteria, based only
on road and river accessibility, and land use type.

Twenty five VDCs of Nuwakot district shows the potentiality for trout production with a total area of
4985.4 hectares under Scenario 1(Including cultivated area) and 1183.3 hectare under Scenario 2
(Excluding cultivated area) (Table 3 and Table 4). The maps have been presented in the Fig 6 and
Fig 7.
Table 3: Potential area under Landuse in Nuwakot

























Fig 6. Potential sites in Nuwakot including cultivated land Fig 7. Potential sites in Nuwakot excluding cultivated land








108

3.6 Limitation of the study
Most hindering part of the present study was the unavailability of the data in digital or analog format.
Data plays the vital role based on which various maps are produced in GIS. For the study various
information such as river, electricity were very much essential which could have helped to produce
more effective and realistic results, if used.

Conclusion and recommendations
As stated earlier, this potentiality is not
complete in itself due to fewer numbers of
parameters taken into consideration however,
the information generated through this study
could be equally important. Instead of going
through the entire district for site selection,
these areas can be focused and by collecting
additional information say for water and other
not included in the study the efforts can be
made more precisely and effectively for the
success of the trout farming in the district. This
study could further be improved with the
integration of left over spatial information of
the study area. The spatial information about
the water temperature, rivers types and other
important data need to be collected in the
future to make such study more meaningful and
effective.

Acknowledgement
Authors are grateful to Department of Survey,
District Local Government Support Program,
Ministry of Local Development, and Agri-
Business Promotion and Statistics Division,
Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, and
ICIMOD, Nepal for providing the necessary
digital data of the Nuwakot district. Due regards
are to those all who have contributed in the
study without which this study would have not
come to this shape.

Reference
Gurung T. B, S. R. Basnet & G. P. Lamsal (2006) Rainbow trout farming in hill terrace of Nuwakot,
Nepal. Aquaculture Asia Magazine, April - June. p 17-18.
Nepal A. P, S. R. Basnyat, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & R. M. Mulmi (2002) Economics of rainbow
trout farming in Nepal. In: Petr T and Swar D. B edited "Cold water fisheries in the trans-
Himalayan countries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 431 Rome FAO, p 376.
NIDI (2006). Nepal District Profile (2006) Nepal Development Information Institute, Nepal.





109
GIS Based Potentiality of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Farming in
Northern high hill Rasuwa, Nepal

Saroj Prasad Aryal, Mahendra Nath Paudel

GIS Section
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
Email: sarojaryal@moac.gov.np

Abstract
Abundant fresh water in Nepal could be used for aquaculture along with generating hydropower, and
supporting irrigation for the prosperity of her people. The water resources located in high mountains
area might be used to develop cold-water fish farming using fish like rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss). Recent works on rainbow trout farming in Nepal suggest that trout could be one of the
potential fish species to rear in mountain area. However, it is not clear yet how much of the hill and
mountain areas are suitable and among those what area could be used for cultivation of cold water
fish. It is indeed difficult to assess the exact potential areas, but recently to evaluate such potential
areas GIS tool has been considered as one of the important method of estimation. Therefore, to
evaluate the potential sites for cold water fish farming in Rasuwa, a mountainous district we used GIS
as a tool. The analysis showed that huge area could be utilized under trout cultivation in this high hill
mountainous district.

Key words: high altitude, rainbow trout cultivation

1. Introduction:
Nepal is one of the major countries for having vast fresh water resources in the world. These
resources could also be used for the purpose of aquaculture development to support rural livelihood
besides hydropower generation and irrigation etc. The contribution of fisheries to the total AGDP is
still very negligible and estimated as 1.6 percent in the fiscal year 2004/05 (CBS 2005). Therefore,
Nepal government has given due emphasis on the trout production in mid and high hills of the
country considering the promising prospects of cold water fisheries as well as its high value in the
market (FRD 2005).

Trout is a cold water fish and its cultivation is viable to utilize the vast cold water resources of the
country originating from glaciers in Himalaya (Joshi & Lovfall 1997). To promote cold water
aquaculture in the country, two fisheries research stations, Godawari in Kathmandu, and Trishuli in
Nuwakot were involved. Under these method of trout cultivation in Nepal was tested especially in
the context of Nepal's socioeconomic conditions. These farms developed the rainbow trout
cultivation technology which were tested in farmer's field under collaborative research programs
involving farmers located in Nuwakot, Rasuwa and Kathmandu districts. These studies suggest that
trout could be cultivated in hill and mountains region. However, despite of such potentiality the
identification of the actual potential areas has not yet been carried out. Therefore, in present study it
was aimed to identify GIS based potential pocket areas of trout farming through examining physical
and other resources in the district

2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Study site and location : Rasuwa District
Rasuwa district is located at 27
o
2 27
o
10 North Latitude and 85
o
4585
o
88 East Longitude with
an area of 1544 Sq. Km (Fig 1A). The district lies between the altitude of 600 meters to 7246 meters
and Dhunche is the capital of the district has an altitude of 1950 meter above sea level. The district is
situated in the Central Development Region of mountain areas of the country and surrounds Peoples
Republic China in the north, Sindhupalchowk in the east, Nuwakot in the south and Dhading in the





110
western part. The major rivers of the Rasuwa district are Trishuli, Falakhu, Bungkhola, Chepare
Khola, Dhobi khola and Chahere Khola. Also, religiously very popular and other tourist destinations
such as Gasain Kunda, Langtang Himal, Ganesh Himal, Tatopani, Parbati Kunda, Langtang Natinal
Park are located in the district. The principal socio-economic and other indicators of Rasuwa District
are as follows (Table 1):

Table 1. Principal socio-economic and other indicators of Rasuwa District (Source: CBS 2004)















































111
Rasuwa district is the least populated district compared to other of the Central Development Region
(Fig 1 B). There are altogether 9 agriculture and livestock service centers that has covered all 18
village development committees. The details have been presented below in Table 2.

Table 2. Service Centers and
VDC in Rasuwa districts Table 3. Land use pattern











2.2 Land use
In order to achieve final output of the study such as maps of potential areas, charts and tables etc;
various types of data (spatial and non spatial) processing and analyzing steps have been adopted
(Table 3)

2.3 Data Sources
Survey Department, DLGSP/Ministry of Local Development, Central Bureau of Statistics, District
Agricultural Development Office (Rasuwa) as well as Fisheries Research Division, NARC is the major
data source agencies for spatial and non spatial digital as well as hard copy data for the study.

2.4 Data Collection, Compilation and Entry
All relevant spatial/base map and non spatial digital data used in the study are collected from
secondary data sources. Also, data compilation, and entry works have been carried out in a designed
database format required for the analytical works.

2.5 Standard Technical Parameters of rainbow trout
In order to achieve the desired output of the study, the entire GIS based analytical works is based on
standard technical parameters developed by the concerned subject matter specialist. The technical
parameters that have been used in the study are as follows:

2.6 Standard Parameters
2.6.1 Assumptions of study
In fact, trout farming is highly associated with the good quality cold water and its regular supply
whether it is perennial or spring water. The fluctuation or obstruction in the water supply may cause
heavy loss of the trout farming because it involves more investment and costs as compared to other
fish farming. Considering the fact, the following assumptions have been made for the current study
and are as follows:

a) Glacier and major rivers have been considered as a main target study area considering quality and
regular cold water supplying source for the trout. The spring water and minor rivers have been
excluded in the present study.
b) All observed value of the water quality of Trishuli river/glacier as given below in Table 4 have
been found within the limit of highly potential required value of the technical parameters.
Therefore, Trishuli and other glacier rivers are considered as highly potential water supplying
source for the trout farming.






112
Table 4. Water quality parameters in
Trishuli River Table 5














2.6.2 Scope and coverage of study
The study has mainly focused on potential pocket areas/growth centers for the rainbow trout farming
in Rasuwa district. Also, it has tried to provide glimpse of resources such as physical features, social
characteristics, Agricultural service centers, road network, etc.

2.7 Computer hardware and software
The Dell PIV workstation and Software ARC GIS Version 9.0 along with GPS (Silva Brand) have
been used for the whole package of GIS works in the study.

2.8 Data processing and analysis
To find out the trout potential areas, firstly; concerned thematic spatial and their attribute digital data
have been joined together and
then query builder tool has
been used to detect exact
highly potential geographic
locations for the trout
farming on the basis of
recommended technical
parameters. The simulation
works has been carried out
one to one basis to make
analytical works more result
oriented. Also, the
consistency check of the
results has been done with
the information collected
from the concerned district as
well as field visit for the
ground truth also has been
made.

During data processing and the analytical works, the following thematic and attribute data have been
taken into account such as Administrative area, transportation, land use, topography, utilities
(electricity), temperature, population, services etc Also, the steps used for the analytical works have
been shown in the flow chart which is given below (Fig 3)







113
2.9 Quality Control and Field verification
In order to make the qualitative output, the study team members have been made necessary
consultation and interactions during the field visit at FRC Trishuli farm, Dhunche new Farm (DOFD
and NARC), Nuwakot and Dhunche (Gyalpo) farmers trout

2.2 Limitations
The study is completely based on secondary data source and all data are considered as consistent.
Also, equal weights have been given to all technical parameters while analyzing the data.



















Fig 3. Land use pattern in Rasuwa district

3.0 Result and Discussion
Potential areas for trout cultivation based on several assumptions showed that following places in
Rasuwa district possess, in general, the potentiality for trout cultivation. The potential sites have been
shown in Fig 3 and 4. The areas are:
Dhunchhe (Near Himal Spring Water Factory)
Thulo Markhu
Moga Gaun
Sole Gaun
BokaJhunda (Waterfalll)

4. Opportunities:
High Demand/Value
Agro tourism (Trout, off season Veg.
irrigation facilities)
Integrated with livestock and poultry,
hotel and restaurant business)
Use of natural and other resources
Rural employment and income
Mitigation of rural urban migration
Spill over (irrigation, electricity, water
grinder, etc.)
Reverse flow of fund
Low rate of virus outbreak in cold water






114
5. Constraints for adoption
High price of inputs
Inadequate fingerlings supply
High technology and management
Low technical skill of virus management
Risk of disease outbreak
Investment cost

6. Risk
High price of inputs
Inadequate fingerlings supply
High technology and management
Low technical skill of virus management
Risk of disease outbreak
Investment cost

7. Recommendations and conclusion
Effective training, research work, breeding and adequate supply of fingerlings should be
undertaken by NARC and other motivating and extension works should be carried out by
DADO/Rasuwa.
The ongoing joint (DOFD/ NARC) project of Dhunche should be completed as early as
possible.For this, necessary follow up should be made with the officials of Langtang
National Park.
DADO/Rasuwa should be made more accountable and responsible for the enhancement
of the Trout farming in the district rather than DOFD and NARC.
Initial matching fund (at least 50 percent of total construction costs) should be provided by
the Government as a subsidy other wise farmers can not bear the whole costs and will not
be motivated.
Insurance policy for the Trout farming should be introduced in the district.

Acknowledgement
We are sincerely thankful to all farmers for interacting us in different matters related to trout farming
in Rasuwa district. Thanks are also to District Agricultural Development Office and Trishuli Fisheries
Research Station for providing information necessary to prepare this paper.

References
CBS (2004) Statistical Year Book of Nepal. Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal.
CBS (2005) Statistical Year Book of Nepal. Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal. 447 pp
FRD 2005: Annual Technical Report 2004/05: Nepal Agricultural Research Council and Fishery
Research Division, Godawari. Lalitpur, Nepal
Joshi P. L & Westlund L. M (1997) Production Technology and Prospects of Trout Farming in Nepal;
Proceedings of the National Symposium on the role of Fisheries and Aquaculture in the
Economic Development of Rural Nepal, 15-16 August, 1996
NCAP 2004: Strategies and Options for Increasing and Sustaining Fisheries and Aquaculture
Production to Benefit Poor Households in India: National Centre for Agricultural Economic &
Policy Research (NCAP), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Pusa, New Delhi,
India





115
A case study on integrated trout farming in hill terrace with other
developmental activities

Gopal Prasad Lamsal, Sadhu Ram Basnet, Padam Bahadur Rumba
1

Trishuli Fisheries Research Center, Nuwakot
Email. srbasnet@yahoo.com

1
Madanpur Village Development Committee, Ward No-9, Nuwakot

Abstract
A case study on integrated rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) cultivation along with horticulture,
livestock, floriculture, bee keeping, water mill and hydro-power in sloppy terrace land is presented.
Mr. Padam Bahadur Lama Rumba's integrated trout farm is located 50 Km far from the Kathmandu
and 25 Km far from Bidur municipality. The most interesting part of the integration is 7.5 KW
hydropower generation using the water discharge from the farm. The electricity generated is used in
grinding and pelleting of trout feed besides other uses. Mr. Rumba, a traditional farmer had an
estimated annual income 147,000 and expenses of 150,000 NRs. per year before adopting trout
integration. Since, the initial expense in trout farming is high construction of trout raceways cost him
nearly 450,000 NRs. In the first year he could sell only 750 Kg trout but it has been increased up to
3600 Kg in 2005. The economic analysis showed after starting new intervention with trout
integration his income reached approximately 1.66 million Rupees in a year. The rate of return
calculated on initial cost is 39.29% and rate of return on operating cost stands about 67.33%. Trout
production contributes about 92% of the total income of the farm. The electricity contributes about
5.7%, remaining 2.3% of the farm income are contributed through livestock, horticulture, water mill
etc. The production cost of trout is 276 Rupees/kg in his farm.

Key words: integration, trout, hydropower, pellet mill

1. Introduction
One of the important aspects of integrated fish farming is high per unit area productivity of farm
land. Integrated fish farming is one of the well known concepts of fisheries (Gooley 2000), however,
integration of cold water fish trout with several other developmental activities is new direction which
has been appeared in Betini Nuwakot (Gurung et al. 2006). Many hill farmers with access to perennial
water resources could use the present example as a model of integration in hills. Nepal is
predominantly a mountainous country with abundant water resources. It is not only the big rivers,
which has shown potential for water resources but smaller tributaries are also potential for small scale
hydropower generation due to sloppy mountainous set up of landscape. Small tributaries are highly
potential sites to get water for rainbow trout farming (Gurung & Basnet 2001; Nepal et al. 2002; Rai et
al. 2005). If these small tributaries water are used for fish farming, the fish production in Nepal can
be increase substantially in future. The present study highlights the integration approach of rainbow
trout with other developmental activities for livelihood enhancement of hill farming community in
Nepal.

2. Study Area
Integrated trout farm of Mr. Padam Bahadur Lama Rumba is situated at Madanpur VDC-9 of
Nuwakot, on the Pasang Lhamu Marg a highway connecting Kathmandu and Nuwakot. The farm is
nearly 50 Km away from Kathmandu and 25 Km from Bidur municipality. In this farm floriculture,
horticulture, beekeeping, and livestock farming along with hydropower generation are the main
activities. Mr. Padam started trout farming in 2058 B.S (1999 AD) in 66.47 m
2
areas with 4 raceway
ponds. It is now expanded to 267.99 m
2
with 21 raceways. Information for this study was collected
from at the time of working with farmer on trout culture practices, some through face to face
interview, his family and neighbors.






116
3. Previous history and source of income with traditional agriculture
Mr. Padam is 28 years old high school graduate (SLC passed). The total land area of the trout farm is
45 Ropani, which is in his father's ownership. The source of the family income is only the land. So
the income generation depend how efficiently they use their land. Earlier, the income from the land is
only sufficient for food, cloth and medicine. The money was not sufficient for further education. So
he had to work as a house worker in Kathmandu to pass SLC. The natural plants in the farm were
the main sources of his family income from his terrace land such as Kaphal, Aishlo and Amrisho.
Limited products of millet, potato, radish and buckwheat are used for main food, vegetable and
prepare alcohol.
Table 1. Farm income and expenditure of the farmers before starting trout farming















4. Trout integration
The raceway area for trout farming covers only 2.5 Ropani of his total land where he has constructed
17 raceways. In rest of the farm land has he grown seasonal vegetables, different fruits, and flowers.
The farm has generated electricity from the used water in raceways for trout cultivation. The farm also
owns local water mill (Pani Ghatta). For trout integration all technical supports were provided from
Fisheries Research Center Trishuli. The loan was offered at the interest rate of 12.5% by Agriculture
Development Bank, Trishuli.

Trout production was the main target of the farm. Initially he had only constructed only 4 raceways
covering 66 m
2
areas (Fig. 1). The water input rate in the farm is about 5 liter/sec. during the dry
season, while the discharge rate increases enormously during the rainy monsoon season. At the time a
large amount of water are flushed from main stream. For fish production the farm capacity has been
estimated to be about 4 Mt/year at his present raceway size. At present this estimate is based on the
assumption of 10 Kg/m
2
production rate. The present production is given in Fig 2. Comparing to
earlier, fingerlings stocking has increased except in the year 2005 when he could stock only 12,000 fry
due to the shortage of the fingerlings. From 2006 the farm has started to produce the fingerling. It is
expected then the farm could produce table fish in its full capacity. The table fish are grown up to
200-250 g size. It takes about 12 months to grow the trout into the marketable size.

5. Feed preparation
The farm its own locally made pellet mill and dryer. He produced trout feed not only for his own
farm but also for near by other two farms. At present he produces about 12 MT of pellet feed in his
farm. The farm also performs grinding and mixing of processes.

6. Trout Hatchery
A trout hatchery for fingerling production has been initiated from this year (2006) in collaboration
with Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli. The hatchery is situated about 100 m above than the
production farm. This year 257 female broods for breeding purpose have been used. The farm has
aimed to produce abut 50,000 fry this year.





117
8. Horticulture
Horticulture is one of his traditional occupation and component of the farm. The farm grows cauli-
flower, broccoli, radish, potatoes, onion, garlic, cardamom, and ginger. The farm has also fruits trees
such as guava, avocado, plum, peach, macadamia nut etc. The annual income from the horticulture
production is estimated to be about 30-40 thousands Rupees. The land coverage under the
horticulture is about 1.5 Ropani. The water from trout raceways are used for irrigation. The vegetable
and fruit are sold in local market. The natural plants in the farm are Kaphal, Aishlo and Amrisho. These
plants are one of the main income sources for him in different seasons. Kafal, Aisheloo and Amrisho are
sold in the market near to Kathmandu. Limited products of millet, potato, radish and buckwheat are
used for main food, vegetable and to prepare alcohol.

9. Bee Keeping
Bee keeping is a new intervention of the farm. The bee keeping was started in 2005. He possesses
about 100 hives. These hive producing about kg of honey per year. The location for bee hives is
highly suitable as the farm is located in pollution free area surrounded by forest area.

10. Livestock
The farm has also been integrated with goats, cow and buffaloes. Goats fulfilled the meat and cattle
fulfilled the milk purpose. In near by fence the grasses like Napier and Amrisho have been cultivated
for cattle feed.

11. Floriculture
The farm grows variety of different seasonal flowers. The flowers are generally sold during Dashain
and Tihar festivals.

12. Local water mill and hydro power
The water discharge of the trout farm is used for two main purposes. For running a local water mill,
this is used for grinding wheat, maize, and buckwheat. Later the same water is used to generate the
electricity. For hydropower generation a turbine has been installed about 50 m down from the last
raceway pond of the farm. The water discharged from the raceway is sent through polyethylene pipe
to rotate a turbine, which produces about 7.5 KW of electricity. The electricity produced from the
farm is used for power supply in the farm for purpose like grinding and pelleting trout feed. The
surplus electricity is sold in near by household.

Table 2. Cost benefit analysis of the integrated trot farm in Betini, Nuwakot distric






















118
Annual operating costs






































13. Economic Analysis of the farm
Cost benefit ratio of the farm after and before trout farming has been presented in Table 1 and 2.
Before adoption of trout in integration the traditional farming system had an income of about 147
hundred thousands, however, after starting intervention with trout integration his income reached
approximately to 1 million 66 thousand Rupees. Trout production contributes about 92% of the total
income of the farm. The electricity contributes about 5.7%, remaining 2.3% of the farm income are
contributed through livestock, floriculture, horticulture, water mill etc. The economic analysis of the
farm showed that the production cost of trout per Kg becomes 276 Rs per kg. The rate of return
calculated on initial cost is 39.29% and rate of return on operating cost stands about 67.33%.






119





















Conclusion
Eco-geographically and socio economically there is higher scope of farm establishment throughout
the country especially in mid and high hills integrated trout. Mr. Rumba has demonstrated that trout
integration can increase the farm land productivity by 12 times higher than the traditional farming. In
several other locations this kind of farms could be developed where trout can be integrated with other
commodities. This type of integrated approach would indeed enhance farm land productivity several
fold for livelihood enhancement and poverty alleviation of hill farmers.

Acknowledgement
We wish to thank all staff of FRC Trishuli, FRD Godawari and trout grower's community. I am
grateful to Dr. Tek Bahadur Gurung to encourage me to write this paper. Thanks to all who have
helped to promote trout farming integration of Mr. Padam Rumba.

Reference
Gooley G (2000) R & D Plan for Integrated Agri-Aquaculture Systems 1999-2004. A report for the
rural industries research and development corporation, RIRDC Publication No 99/153. RIRDC
Project No MFR-1A
Gurung T. B, S. R. Basnet (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal:
Constraint and prospects. Aquaculture Asia, 2003, (Vol .VIII No.4)
Gurung T. B, S. R. Basnet, G. P. Lamsal (2006) Rainbow trout farming in terrace land in Nuwakot
district of Nepal. Aquaculture Asia, April-June. pp.17-18
Nepal A. P, S. R.. Basnyat, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & Mulmi R.. M (2001) Economics of rainbow
trout farming system in Nepal, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 431-179-191
Rai A. K, R. C. Bhujel, S. R. Basnet & G. P Lamsal (2005): Rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss Culture
in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal. APAARI Publication: 2005/1





120
na||c |o|| zca| c|sc |e| o|n| m|o|a|u

+- += =:~
+ -+= +, --+=
:== frdgdr@wlink.com.np

e|z
+=+=- + +-== +-:+ +=--+ += = +-, =-, =+ +, ++ - ~- =+-+ + -+
=== - +- +- -= - +- ==c = =- -+ --+= =-=+ +=--= -===
=== =c +=-+ =- =+ +:c -, === =c +=-= + ==- ===-= +- t --
=- +-= +=--=: === -= ~- =+-= == =- +=++= --+= =-== +=- -
====c -+== ~|+ ==-, ===, --+ =~--, +=-=: === =c +=-+== =-
+-+ +- --=- ==-= ==+-+ =+=-+ == +--- =|+ c


+. o|zua
--+= =-= ==- ===+ =s =-= == |+ - ~-+ -+= |- =+ -+=+ =+-= =
=-= = =-=+ -=-= +c: - ++ c == =-=+ =-++ =+= ~-+ - + -
-=r=+ =--+ ==-~-+ =+ + == === - +=+=- + +-= =-=- +-, =-, =+
+, ++ - ~- =+-+ + -+ === - +- +- -= - +- ==c =-=- -=+
+ -+ --= + +=- ==== +- =- =|+ c - === === ==== ==- =+-
-:-+ ===- == ==-= = = ++- = =-- =- -= ~:-+ +:|+ c- == =-
+=++= --+= =-== +=- - === =c -+== ~|+ ==-, ===, --+ =~--,
+=-=: === =c +=-+== =- +-+ +- --=- ==-= ==+-+ =+=+ == +--- =-
-

e. c|sc |e| oo| |a=o|z||m| c m|s c sco|cn |a u:
-= =+ -+= =+= |+ == |+ =+- +=+= == =+ --+= =-==: === =c +=-+
+ -|+ --+= =-=+ ~==+ =-- =-= == +-+ =+=== ~ + ==
+- +z -+ =- +: -~|+ == =c+ -=-= c; -- ~|+ =c +=- - -- ==
== =-== = =|+ === =c +=- === =-= ===- =+ c + ++- == === -+
=+- - c- -= === - =- ++-= = === - = =-= =+ =~ +- =+ =+
== c=: ~=++ c + =-=+- + =-= +=+ +++ =-=== ==- ~=+ ++- ==
==== -- +: +: -+ ===- =- ==+ = + +:|+ c (FRCT 2005) |+ == |+ =+-
+=+= =-=- === -= =+ =-= ==+ ==-= === =c +=- ===- =-=+-+ ==
|+ ==- =s- ~:=++ =--= --+= =-== =+= =- =--+ === =c =+- -- ==~--
t |+ c -= === ===- =+ ++-= =+- +==-=: --- =- += =+
+- c-

;. |r| |a|e aa|c e|au| o|ro zca| c|sc |e| o:|p= z |on| atu|
= === =c +=-= --+= =-=+ =+-, ++-, =-+ -+= = - = +
++- - == ==== =+- ~: =+- === ===- =+ c- + =-=+- + =-=
+== +++ += = --= === =c +=-+ =~=- c ~- ===- = +=- ++=
a= =-==+ += a= =-= ==++ =- =+ |+ c ==- ~+= -a= =-==+ ==





121
==- ~=+ -~= =|+ + -+= + =+ ~|+ -= +- = += =+ ==- -- ~|+
+- ++-= + -+= +== - + =- ==+- =~: - =:-+ -== +:-+ c

== ===== + -+= += === =c +=-+ == -= === ++=: -= = - -=
+= += +-- ==++ c ~- ++-= +- +==-= =-= ==- =+ - ==== += ~a-
=- =-==-=: +== + c- +==-= =-= ==- - - +- += ~==+ +-= =
+==-=: =-=+ +- += +- =- =++ c- + -+= += a= =-== +- = +c
=== =c +=+ =-+ --= += - ==+ =----= =|+ +--=: = =+- =-
=-c

=-+ -= += - ==
s=- =-+ , +
== === =c +=-
+= =- +- , -, =
=- ==- =- --=
-=- -- -+-= ==
-= + += , ,

+s=:= + = -= +=+= - + = =t =-+ = - =+ -: - = ===
+-= -++ += - == =--=+-+ ===== +s=: ===- + s== ~- =+-
= =: =+- ==- --- =+, ==,, ++, ++=, == -+ --- =- +== ==+ ==
=+- ==- ---= =+- - +-+ -+ =-+ == =|+ | -+=- ==== =-+
+ ==- = -= = ~- =-+ +-+ = = -= -- =+ =
==- ~ = t ~: -+ =-- =+-= =-+ + =:=-, =+ ==- =+ -== - +=
=-= +:c =~ =+-=- +-= +- =-= -= ++ -:= ~|+ == ==- ++ =-
=- =- +- -~|+ - :-

=-- +--= ==-+ |+ =-+ + =-=- + =-= +=+ ==++= += =-=+- +=
+++-+ =-=- =~= === =c +=- == === =-=r=-= +: +- =- =+- -c
~- =~= +=- =-= |== -== = +=--+ -= === =+ =- = ===
= =-== --+ == +=+ =-=+- ++= -- === + -+= + +=== +=
--+== == +=+ +=+ = ,-, += --+- =: + ===- = -= -- +=
=c +=- = + +-== =c =+- = -+ --- ==- =- =+ +:|+ c -= -=+
-== ++ =- , , + |+ c

-== =c +=- === ===- |++- += - =+-, +- ;, -== =+- +=+= ===-
= + - = = -= -+ +==- =+= ~|+ c- +==- -+ --= + = --- = +-
=-+== + - -= ==- -- =+-= - === =c ==== +++ =----= +
+-- -=|+ c =-= -= == |== ===:+=, -- |== -== c ===+ += +-
; ===+ += -== c -= =:=+ =+ |+ +:== -c ==+- +:= =-- +c
~- =- =- ~|+ c |+ =--=, =--- +++ =-- =- +c =-+- = -:- + -+:
+- ==: === +- =---c, =-+- = - + -+: -- += =- -c += - ==+
-- ==- +== ~|+ - =-+ ==: + = +- =+- -== =-=- =+ c

== ==+= |== +--- =-= =- =+=a sc --= +-+= -:-== |+ =-= =+c- = =
== -+:+ =-- == -- = - = |== = =c - =+- | === +-+== =-+ | |==
= =c --= -+:+ == =+= =+ = =-- --c === + ++- =| ~c- = -===





122
+=+ =-- == -- = - -= =+= === - =+- =, == =-+ - =+ c |== =+=
=== --= -+:+ == =+= =+ +=+ =-- ~ --c - ==: |== =+ +---+ ==~-
~= = +- = =-= =- =-c -== -+ c =++= ~-= +=+-- -+== +- += =
+ c- Micro Level = += =- ~-= = ~:-= ~- =+ c- -+== += c|+ c =-
=- +c ---= ~ += += c|+ c-, =- =- +c ==+ == - -+-- +-
: ~|+= ==+ ==== =- +- + ~|+= =, === +- =- +- += -
== |+ =--- ++ -- =-= =+- ====: : =- + =--- += =+ c- + -+= +
+= =-+ =aa +=-+ +=- =c =-== === =c +=- =- - =- ==- ==
++-+ +- =-== +== +== = =-= =-=+- =-= === =c +=- +=+= --+
== =+ =+ +==+ -=a += |+ : ~+ + =- ++=: === +- =+-
=+ -:= =++ |+ == |+ =+- +=+= + +~-= =++- ==- = === =-=+
=+ -+== =- +- =

+ -+= +=: === =c += -+-= ==- =- +- =:++ --=- ==-=
==+-+ =+=-
+ + -+= += --=- += =- ==- = ++ ==-=-
= =-== ===- =-+ == ~+ ==+ =-=+- +=- =+= ---
- =c+ = -- -=+-
++-= ==- +=- =+= +- - -=+-
+- +=- =+= - -=+ += =-=+- =-= ==- =- -=+-

==+-+ =+=-
= = =+ ++- ~| =-- -=+- +- =c+ -= -- =- -- +c
- +- +=-+ == +- ===- +c ~- =-- ++= +- +=: +=- =+= +- - +c
=== =c +=-+ == =+= +- === =-- - =- =- +c

=-=,
--=- += =+ =- =++ -:= --+= =-==: |+ == |+ =+- +=+=+ -=a
=+= =| =|+ +=+==: == -=- --=- = ===: +=== =+ ==- - +=
- == =-- =--= , ==-= = + ++- : = === =c +=- +==: ===+
+= ==: t=- =+= --+= =-== =+ -+== +c +- +- +

||z
= +=++ =r- +-=- ~|+ =-= =-=+-= ==- ==+- +-++ +=--=: =~ =+- =-
=-c =, === =c ==+ +== =s+ ===+= += -+- = c


ecc
FRC (2005) Annual Technical Report. Published by Trishuli Fisheries Research Center,
Trishuli, Nuwakot
Gurung, T.B, S. R. Basnet and Lamsal G. P (2006) Rainbow trout farming in hill terrace of
Nuwakot, Nepal. Aquaculture Asia Magazine. April-June. pp.17-18.





123
|e| o|n raae|a| |r| |a|e a| m| m|n| n||o ou| o|u:a|

=+ += ~=
=- ~=, + -+= +, =- +, +s=-:
:== frdgdr@wlink.com.np

e|z
=c +=-=: |+ =++ =-==+ += =:|+ +:c -+, ++- ===- =-= +-++-=:
=c =-==+ == + -+= += += ==- += +-- =c ~- =-= -- =+c -=, ==
=== =c +=- =-=== + -+= ++ =- ==- -- - ++= c=+= --- =-
+ =|+ c

+. o|zua
=c +=- +-++ += == +-= =-==+ --+ =-= =-== -- =+- +++ -- -===
=+ ~|+ - (Gurung et al. 2006) - +== == +-= =-= +=- +++ +== =-=
=-=+- =- =- =-= =-=+- + +=+ =-=-= ~=+ -+ c = +-+ ==
+++ ---= +- ++ == ++ +==-= s= ==- +==|+ c- (FRC 2005) +=--+ =
-= +-+ -- ++ == + =+ =+ =-==+== +=-- + +=- ==+ c- +
+=-=: ++ + =c +=- =- ++ +-- ++= c ~- = +=+ =-+ -
== =+= = +--- -= =|+ c + ++ -+=+ == == -+= += =+=+
==- === = -- = + -+= ++ -+- ~|+ - + -+=+ == =+ - --=
=- ==- += +=+ += -- =- ==+ +=~+ ++= - =|+= -=+ -= = +
+=+-= +-- ~|+ c == += - += -+ +==: =+=- = + ==- - ==
+-= ==- ~- === += +-- = ==- =--+ += === =- +=|+ c

e. |e| ou| uz o|n m|
+ -+= += -+-+=- ++-+ === - += =c +=- =-== = - =c -
~ =+- +==-+ == =- =+=+ == =|+ c ==~=-+ =+= =c ===- -==-,
+c-, ===, =, =- = =-- === +=-= +- += +- =- += == -|+ c

;. | o|ro|| ||m pnon a|+ao|
+ -== - -= -+- =- ++= =c +=--+ -== =|+ - == ==+ -- + ~|+
+=+=-+= =c +=- =-== = =|+
= =c+ + =-- - =c ++- ==+ =-=+ -- ~|+
=a+=+=+-= ==+- -+== =-== - = :==-++ =|+ -==- --+- =+
z -=+ +- +-+ +: = -+
= =-=+ +- - =+-, --==- ===- =+-
c s= +==-+ -+= ==~=- +--- =-- +==- +--- + =- =+- =- ~|+
= -+= -=+ ~: +-- =-= += +=- ==
~ =+-= -+== ==~=- +--- =-- =+ +-





124
s. | m|n| mn e|n e|ra |up= z |r|p=
+ -: |- ~+ =+ =- +-= -+- =-+ =c-+ == =--, ++=-+ =c- =:-=,
+=-, ::=-, == =
+-: ~=- == +-= -+- ==+- =-+ =c- =-- ===, -, += =c =
= =- ==- =- +-
~ -+-- -== -=-
~ -+=- -= + -=-
- =c =+- =- + -=-
+- + ==- =-
-= -=== :-+=+= =c +=- =-
+- -= =c +=- =-
+- +, -= -== s++= =: =c +=- =-
- --=- =+==, +== =- =-
t-- =+- =-
== := =- =-
=c + =-
-= + - -==+ == : +=+== =:- =-

s. o mnon |aza |m|op=
+ +- - ==+ ==+=, - -+ =, -+ -+=, += == =-+ -=+-+ +-=+ -
+- +=
+= == =- +=+=+- ~|= - +=-++, + - +=-++, +-+++ - -==-=
===+-+ -
= =- == =-+ +=-
-=- =- , =- ++ -+= - ==- =-=-
z -+|+ ==~ = += == ~|= ==~=- ===- =--+ +==- +---
= ==+- -+=+ +-++ ==~=- ==+ =+
c ==-= - =a+ == ==+ +==- -=+- +=-++
= ==- - == =-=+ +==-- =:= +=, +-++ =+
~ -= -== s++= =: =c +=- =- ~| ===- +=+ == =+++ s++ ==~-+
+==- + =-

e. |uo| eacu| raatu|
+ =-+ == - +==- +- =:-
=-+ +- = -+- ~|= +-- === ==-=+ +- =-
+==- -= =-+ - --+- +- r- +-
= +=+- ===+= =a=- ==-- -+-
=+ - = ++ =- ++, == -= - ==-- +- +-+ += =- =+-
z :- +- + -==-= =-=+- = ==- -=+= = +-+ =-= +== =-
= +- - , =-, == =- -=- ~|+ ==-+ = =-+-
c |+ +- --+ -=-=+ ==-=+ +- - +--~ t -- ---

a. | ta|o ca oc|n o|u:a|
+ =-=+ +==- == =-
==- +- -- +- =-=+-
= +==- +--- ===- =-





125
+==- ==+ +-++ - a= ==++ =+=+ | += ==-= + +=
==-+ = +-- === += --+-
z +- ++=-++ - -==+ =:-
= =++= +==- -
c -==-=+ =- -+, +--:- -+ ==+ = ==-
= +==-+ ++- =-= --+- += |++=+ - +-- +--= =+=+ =:-
~ |+ +--+ =+==- -- = = +-- +- =-

c. m|| oz| mnon op=
+ +- =|+ += =- === = = +- =+== =-+-
+==-= =-+= - +--=== +=-= +- --==- ===- +-
= +==-=: -==- += +- =-= ===- =-+-
==+ += == + =- +-- ~=- +-

e. m| o:|n| a|u
+= =c +=- =-==+ == - |- ===- +== =- ==- =- - = ~a- =-+ ==
+=: -=--= -- c
+ - +=+ == - =-- ===+ == =-+ =-- === =- ~a- =-+ :- c

===- += += ~+ =a =- - == =a = --+- =- =+- c

+c. ra|cz eacu| raatu|
+ =c +=- =-==+ == - +-- =+- == -+|+ c =+ =:- =-=
+-= -- =c
==+ += == ~ --: =- +-- ~= =|+ ++=: |+ +c === =-+
+== ++ =- +: : - +--= = +--=== == += =- c
= ==+ == -~|= === == =- +--+ ==- ~ -|= =-= == =:- c
=+-= =-+ =- += + +== - +-- == :- c

++. |ar| e|au|p=
+ =-+: +- =-+=: +-+ ==- - +--+ == +-- =+ -
=-+: +- =a=: += +=+ - +-- - ==== =- += -c =- -+
+= ~+ += :-
= ===- +==: =:- =+ +:== - =+-
=-+: --:=: ======= +-+- =-

||z
= +=++ =r- +-=- ~|+ =-= =-=+-= ==- ==+- +-++ +=--=: =~ =+- =-
=-c =, === =c ==+ +== =s+ ===+= += -+- =c

ecc mcup=
FRC (2005) Annual Technical Report. Published by Trishuli Fisheries Research Center,
Trishuli, Nuwakot
Gurung, T. B, S. R. Basnet & Lamsal G. P (2006) Rainbow trout farming in hill terrace of
Nuwakot, Nepal. Aquaculture Asia Magazine. April-June. pp.17-18.







126

Recipes for Dish Preparation of Rainbow trout in Nepal

Bharati Moktan
Proprietor
Fall and Trout Fish Farm, Kakani, Nuwakot
Email: frdgdr@wlink.com.np

Abstract
This paper deals with recipes for dish preparation of rainbow trout. Recipe of 5 dishes have been
presented namely, trout curry, grilled trout, steamed trout, deep fried trout, and shashimi of trout,
according to the local taste and food tradition but keeping the original taste of trout.

1. Introduction
Nepal is rich in tradition of varieties of food preparation in various occasions, as the country is rich in
culture, tradition, religion, and ethnicity. It is known that climate, altitude, cleanness, and many other
factors may add flavor to food due to several reasons in high hills. One can only speculate that some
special minerals may add special flavor in the food. Cultivation of fish is an art (Bardach et al. 1972),
but more importantly, the preparation of dishes out of trout in special occasions is also the most
significant part of the story. Here, my aim is to present recipes of trout cultivated in high mountains
water received from glacier and springs in Nepal. The recipes for special dishes out of trout are
presented. The recipes of the dish are:
i. Trout curry
ii. Grilled trout
iii. Steamed trout
iv. Deep fried trout
v. Shashimi of trout

i. Trout Curry
The curry in general is one of the favorite dishes for Nepali consumers (Fig 1). Since, Nepalese are
also one of the best consumers of rice products, therefore, the way we consume the steam rice,
preparation of dish with rich in gravy along with various spices had been always a favorite dish for
most of us. Here, a method is described how trout curry full of gravy with Nepali spices should be
prepared. Please try as follows:

Required Ingredients
Trout fish - 600 gm
Onion 250 gm
Tomato 250 gm
Garlic paste 1 tea sp
Ginger paste tea sp
Turmeric power tea sp
Coriander leaves chopped 2 tea sp
Salt according to your taste
Chilly power -1/2 tea sp
Cumin power tea sp







127













Fig 1. Trout curry
Procedure
Cut the fish into three pieces. Heat the oil in a wok or deep frying pan. Let the smoke come in. Put
the fish until it is brown. Now chain it out. Heat 5 tab sp oil put. Chopped onion, when it is brown
put garlic, ginger, onion power, turmeric power salt and chilly power. Cook for a while then put
chopped tomato cook until it is a thick paste. Add 1 cup hot water cook for a while put the fried fish
into it garnish with coriander leaves. Curry is ready. Serve 3-4 persons.

ii. Grilled trout
Grilled trout could be preference for those who often does not prefer to intake much oil in the trout
(Fig 2). One can avoid oil using the grilled trout. Here, a recipe for preparation of grilled trout is
summarized as, please give a try:

Required Ingredients
Trout fish 600 gm
Tomato paste 4 tab sp
Garlic paste 1 tea sp
Soya sauce tea sp
Salt tea sp

Sauce
Kikkomen 2 tab sp
Ginger paste 1 tea sp
Garlic paste 1 tea sp
2 chopped green chilly mix together













Fig 2. Gilled trout







128
Procedure
Clean the fish with head & tail intact with sharp pointed knife cut inside vertically from head to tail so
that the fish should be flat from both sides mix garlic paste, tomato, salt, soya sauce in a in a swallow
bowl rub the fish inside and outside with the mixture and keep aside for 125 min. Place the fish on a
hinged double racked holder which makes turning the fish easier cook slowly about 6 in above the
heat turn the fish frequently for 10-12 min until the fish is cooked. Garnish with challots and
coriander leaves. Serve 2-3 persons.

ii. Steamed trout
The steamed trout could also be good for those wishing to avoid much oil (Fig 3). This is one of such
preparation where most of the natural ingredients and taste of trout remain intact in this dish. Pleas
try, this is simple,
Trout fish 600 gm
Tomato paste - 4 tab sp
Garlic paste - 1 tea sp
Soya sauce - tea sp
Lemon juice - tea sp
Salt - according to your taste

Dipping sauce
Garlic paste sp
Ginger paste tea sp
1 chopped chilly
1 tab sp Kikkoman sauce

Wash the fish and pat it dry using sharp knife make 3 or 4 slightly diagonal slits across 1 inches
apart. Across the both sides of the fish mix all the above mengredients in swallow bowl working the
mixture well into the slits and inside the stomach for 20-30 minutes. Warp in an aluminum toil or
keep in a plate the water to boil. Boil water in a steamer place the fish in a steamer and cover the fish
cook for 15- 20 min if the fish is white it ready to serve. To prepare sauce mix all the above
ingredients sauce in prepare for dipping.

ii. Deep fried trout
For those who love oily stuff with crunchy taste of trout deep fried dish could be recommended (Fig
5). This preparation can be served at parties, home and special festivals to friends, family members,
especially to young members. Please try this.
Trout fish 600 gm
Lemon juice - tea sp
Salt - according to your taste
Oil - 500 ml.

Procedure
Cut the fish into three pieces. Mix it in lemon juice.
Add some salt. Heat the oil in a deep frying pan.
Let the smoke come in. Put the fish until it is brown.










129
ii. Trout Shashimi
A healthy food for all ages, however someone may need to cultivate the taste of shashimi (Fig 6).
This dish is very popular in Japan, China, Thailand, Korea, USA and; perhaps all over the over. One
may find all natural ingredient of trout intact becuase this dish does not pass through any cooking
process. One may need fresh live fish from very clean and cold water sources for preparation of this
dish.

Procedure:
Trout fish 600 gm
Sashimi soya sauce 1 tab sp
Wasabi paste - 1 tan sp, available in Japanese shop Akey

Cut head and tail fish make fillet with sharp knife. Mix soya sauce and wasabi paste.
Deep fried with kokkom on sauce.
















Fig 6: Shashimi of trout


Acknowledgement
Thanks to all staffs of Fisheries Research Division and Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli. Mr. Gopal
Lamsal kindly took the still photographs for the dishes. Mrs. Neeta Pradhan kindly translated the
transcript into the English. Thanks to Mr. Sadhu Ram Basnet, Chief of Fisheries Research Station,
Trishuli for his generous supports.

Reference
Bardach J. E, Ryther J. H & McLarney W.O (1972) General principle and economics. In : Aquaculture, The
farming of freshwater and marine organisms. Willey Inter Science, A division of John Willey and Sons. Pp.
1-28






130
Best Management Practices (BMP) for aquaculture of rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal

Surendra Prasad, Jay Dev Bista & Suresh Kumar Wagle
Fisheries Research Station, Pokhara
E-mail: g43sdp@yahoo.com

Abstract
Best Management Practices (BMP) is employed to achieve possible higher production of fish without
impairing biodiversity and environment. Aquaculture of rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss) is gradually
emerging in Nepal. Trout cultivation, in general, is an intensive type of farming system which requires
more input compared to other aquaculture practices Being water intensive and feed based culture
system, trout farming require better management practices. Trout is a carnivore fish; thus, trout might
be harmful if released into open water. The strategic plan for improvement of aquaculture practices
and regulatory measures for responsible and sustainable development of aquaculture system have
been discussed. Social and environmental issues associated with expansion and commercialization of
trout industry and their mitigating measures have also been suggested.

Key words: Best management practices, code of conduct, resources, trout cultivation

1. Introduction
Farming of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal has relatively short history. It is introduced
from Miyazaki prefecture of Japan in 1988 (Rai et al. 2002). After its introduction and adaptive
research works in Nepal, gradually the farming technology is disseminating among private farmers in
hill and mountains of Nuwakot and Rasuwa districts, Nepal. Existing trout production operations in
Nepal indicate that trout farming is viable and has tremendous potential to produce high quality fish
products for domestic and export markets. It is hoped that trout aquaculture will continue to expand
rapidly. Currently its demand is increasing for commercial culture. Increased profitability from
existing trout farm are the biggest factors driving the demand for this species. However, farm
operators are cautioned against the excitement it has, because aquaculture is unlikely to sustain itself
based on economic viability alone but will need to ensure social and environmental sustainability as
well (Kutty 1997).

At present world aquaculture community is increasingly confronted with environmental issues such as
environmental degradation resulting from irresponsible practices (Barg et al. 1997) by some
entrepreneurs engaged in culture of various species which may bring risk to the whole sector into
dispute. Several aquaculture organizations in many countries have formulated code of practice
based on FAO code of conduct (FAO 1995) for mitigating negative environmental and social
impacts in commercial oriented intensive farming. In Nepal also it is crucial that trout farming, being
a feed based intensive system takes note of such controversies and potential repercussion, if it is going
to meet its scaling-up goals.

Trout culture is intensive type of farming require more input resources compared to other species for
survival and growth. The feasibility of achieving required production naturally depends on a number
of factors including seed, feed, health management and environmental consideration. Potential
success in trout production requires better governance and significant improvements in the
management practices. Therefore, it is necessary to have strategic plan to address technical, social and
environmental constraints. They include the availability of high quality seed at an affordable price,
good quality low-cost feeds, control of disease, and efficient use of water resources. At the same time
regulatory measures or code of practice is prerequisite for responsible practices of trout aquaculture
with a view to ensuring the production of trout in profitable and sustainable way. This paper reviews
present status and provides concept and guidelines to manage and promote trout scaling-up program
in the country based on available research findings and experience.





131
1. Aspects of best management practices
In order to achieve the goal of scaling-up program of trout it is quite necessary to focus on improving
existing technology or developing new ones for increased and sustaining production. It is generally
accepted that better farm management can increase production from aquaculture operations.
However, use of improved breeds of fish can make further significant improvements in production.
To date, most effort in trout culture has been directed towards improving diets, water quality
management and to lesser extent health management. As important as they are, strategy to increase
genetic potential of the population is scarce. Trout farm in Nepal maintaining old populations,
possible degradation of parent stock than their wild cousin can not be ignored because no progress
has been made in improving the breeds until quite recently. Thus, research should undertake for the
genetic improvement of present stock and reduce inbreeding. Genetic improvement by selective
breeding, cross breeding and application of other genetic technology (Mair & Beardmore 1999) such
as use of cryopreserved sperm of fish from selected sources to avoid inbreeding and use of monosex
(female) population may help increases the production. Production of fish seed from pure line breed
can only assure quality fish seed. One of the regulations of hatchery management should be to
incorporate basic genetic and breeding concept into routine hatchery management in order to
maximize the biological potential of fish.

1.1 Assurance of seed supply
In fact lack of seed has been a problem constituting a serious restriction to scaling-up of trout
farming. Early efforts focused on public sector production and distribution of seed. However seed
production of Government farm rarely meets demand. Current projections of supply and demand to
the incoming year indicate that gap between supply and demand will continue to widen, if trout
farming continues to progress in future which is inevitable. Government should try to promote
establishment of trout hatchery for the assurance of sufficient and consistent supply of fry before
recommending new establishment of private farm for sustaining growth of trout industry. Although
seed supply will be met by establishing trout hatchery in private sector, there is no standardization of
seed quality and seed certification of trout seed and other fish species as it is practices in many
agricultural commodities. This is often detrimental to production. It is essential that protocols for
certification of seed be developed and implemented for marketing of product and increase consumer
confidence.

1.2 Feeding and nutrition
Fish feed is a significant factor in increasing the productivity and profitability of trout aquaculture. At
present, the cost of production is high (Gurung et al. 2006) mainly due to high cost of feed. It is a
major factor limiting the development of trout and is likely to remain so in the near future. Therefore,
nutrition research, that helps to reduce the cost of feeds without reducing their efficacy, will be crucial
for the successful development and scaling-up of trout. At present fish meal is one of the major
components of trout feed formulation. However, there is wide spread concern over the increasing use
of fish meal in aquaculture sectors (Naylor et al. 2000). A move towards the use of upgraded vegetable
protein (e.g. soybean. oil cakes, etc.), as a partial replacement of fish meal would help to reduce cost of
production.

Balanced formulation, good storage, quality and consistency of fish diets improve nutrition. Probiotics
are now gaining acceptance for the control of pathogens in aquaculture (Green & Green 2003).
Hence, feed formulation with use of probiotics, consideration of immunological parameters in
nutritional studies for increased immunocompetence and disease resistance would further benefit.
Since feed is the biggest source of nutrient loading in trout production, regulation is necessary for feed
waste and nutrient discharge. Development of feed which are more palatable and digestible are much
effective and give rise to much lower level of effluent, most notably suspended solids, BOD,
phosphate and ammonia (Boyd & Tucker 1999). Although some local effects due to discharge are
inevitable, this should be minimized by discharge control and advances in husbandry.






132
1.3 Fish diseases prevention
Disease plays a key role in sustaining aquaculture. Most of the disease in trout culture reported from
Nepal belongs to parasite, fungal and bacterial among infectious, and few nutritional disease in non-
infectious group (Gurung & Basnet 2003). Viral disease has not been reported till now, however, its
presence can not be overlooked. Although the reported disease is no longer causing major losses in
the past, the threat that these disease pose is sufficient to warrant continuous attention. Farmers are
not prepared for disease problem and practices crisis management of disease control. In comparison
to veterinary medicine, the diagnosis of disease problems among fish in Nepal is relatively in infancy
stage. The eventual findings of causative agents are not always very definitive; moreover, there is lack
of technique to identify the viral infection. It is evident that viral disease such as infectious pancreatic
necrosis (IPN), viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS) and infectious haematopoietic necrosis (IHN)
(Andy 1993) cause large scale mortalities in fry and fingerlings of trout in many countries. This
indicates the need for special attention to work with viral disease.

The main strategy of disease problems should be to reduce the level of risk and accelerate the trout
farming by good health management which includes water quality management, nutrition and
sanitation. However, in case disease problem occurs, timely action is essence of success in controlling
epidemics of mortality through improving diagnostic methods, safe therapeutants and effective
disease control methodologies. Research strategy should also focus on development of resistant
variety.

Disease and health guidelines are important for better survival rate in hatchery and growth of fish in
rearing ponds. Government should develop site specific protocols in this area in association with
concerned stakeholders. Policy requires on that all groups of fish pass a certified inspection for
bacterial, viral infection and parasites prior to sale or release for stocking. Code of practice for
maximum acceptable levels of infection and parasites in the hatchery populations need to be
established. Improper use of antibiotics and chemicals can have adverse effects on health of
consumers and environment. It is essential that drugs used should be categorized into safe and
harmful group and regulation should be enforcing to minimize or control the use of harmful
chemicals and antibiotics.

1.4 Diversity in production system
Currently, cemented raceways are the dominant production system for trout cultivation in Nepal. A
major portion of public sector research and development effort has been directed towards increasing
the productivity from raceway culture. It may provide limit opportunity for expansion as these involve
high investment cost. Strategy is necessary to develop technology for a wide variety of production
system. Research and development should be geared towards improving and understanding other
production system such as cages, ponds, tanks etc. at various level of intensity as practiced in many
other countries, which would help achieve national goal.

1.5 Ensuring safety of the environment
Environmental consideration is most concerned issue worldwide for sustainable aquaculture. Hence,
technique for reducing adverse environmental impacts and enhancing sustainability is needed to be
applied throughout the industry. Any sort of development project activities have environmental
impacts, both within and outside the project area. Aquaculture, if not properly planned and managed,
can affect the environment through pollution from effluents and chemicals. The best strategy for this
problem is to reduce the amount of waste water generated from every activity as much as possible.
Water exchange is high in trout culture and their discharge contains nutrients, organic matter and
suspended solids that can be sources of pollution in receiving waters. Feed is the biggest source of
nutrient loading in trout production. Moreover, therapeutants misuse should not be overlooked. It is
necessary to ensure that environment is not affected due to lack of proper planning and safeguard.
Water quality standard for waste water from operating farm should be standardized. In some
countries aquaculture is regulated as to maximum allowable concentration of BOD level 10mg/L





133
from effluent discharge (Boyd & Tucker 1999). Regulation of best management practices (BMPs)
instead of relying upon water quality standard (Schwartz & Boyd 1996) is also more effective to
prevent discharge or assure that effluent do not cause pollution or other environmental damage.
Development of technology of better management practices such as chary stocking and feeding rates,
use of better feed and feeding practices would be beneficial to improve effluent quality. Enforcement
of provision of passing the discharge water through settling ponds, waste water treatment, operate
farm on close system, use of bio filter etc would also help to minimize pollution. These systems may
be used to comply with local legislation.

1.6 Maintaining biodiversity
Detrimental environmental impacts have not yet been reported as a result of trout introduction in
Nepal (Gurung & Basnet 2003). Since trout needs specific habitat to spawn so there is less chance of
trout to breed in natural water of Nepal. However, negative impact of predation (Shetty et al. 1989) by
escapee trout from farms on potential endemic species such as Asala (Schizothorax sp.), can not be
ignored. Hence, policy is vital for the possible loss of biodiversity as a result of accidental escape from
aquaculture would likewise a major issue. Regulatory measure to prevent escape of trout in natural
water should be enforcing as precautionary measure.

1.7 Social aspect and minimization of resource use conflict
It is more difficult to evaluate the claims of social conflicts between aquaculture industry and local
inhabitants. These conflicts can be avoided by more careful planning and better management in favor
of social benefit for the future benefit to themselves and society as a whole. Resource use conflict is
common to any kind of development including aquaculture that may be perceived to impact on
others. Development of aquaculture has to compete for primary resources such as land and water on
equal basis with all other stakeholder (De Silva 2001). Trout require plentiful water which is generally
extracted from natural water used for various purposes. Human population is tending to rise over
time. Societal demand for land and water would be expected to increase. Therefore, policy is
necessary to assure that aquaculture development does not compromise the livelihood of and access
to resources by local communities. Strategy to give preference and involvement of local community in
different aquaculture activities would contribute building up an attractive image of proposed project
by providing opportunities of employment, poverty alleviation and food security.

Regular dialogue among all vested interests, and greater readiness on the part of farm operator to
react quickly particularly in situation of adverse and unpredictable changes would be more effective.
The move to co-management increases the likelihood of such progress. Awareness program,
transparency in decision making, regulation of prior approval from local authority and local
community can greatly influence the attitude of neighborhood community to the proposed farming
and their future cooperation. A system approach would be useful to analyze and develop the solutions
required for more sustainable use of primary resources. At the same time there must be effective
enforcement of existing legal and administrative frameworks to protect the water resources to be
degraded due to deforestation, sedimentation and chemical use which are issue of resource use
conflict.

1.8 Food Safety
There is currently widespread concern about food safety and this is a legal requirement in some
countries (Pillay 1993). Food hygiene and safety standard strategy is required to maintain product
quality acceptable to the world market. International standards, guidelines and recommendations are
to be taken as reference to establish a sanitary protection. It is necessary to increase knowledge and
sense of responsibility among farmers regarding food safety to gain consumer confidence. Regulation
is necessary for improved management, prudent use of drugs and chemical. All the chemicals and
drugs used should be regulated by registering from an authorized institution prior to distribute as it is
regulated for human beings. Certification scheme of product be promoted for maximum allowable
concentration of particular drugs.





134
1.9 Market and trade
Current trout production and demand suggest that there is a high market demand for trout which
support scaling-up program. Opportunity for expansion of trout farm is enormous in hill and
mountain region, because much of suitable water resources of area are untapped at present time.
However, research is required to study market demand and supply, with projection for the future, and
how farmers should target consumer group for the future success of trout industry. Opportunity for
expansion based on existing market may be limited. Plan and strategy is essential to establish
wholesale market and export center to keep pace with increasing production of trout in future. Nepal
is now a member of world trade organization (WTO). Therefore, technology to produce trout at
competitive price, adding value to processed trout and regulation to maintain product quality and
sanitary standards acceptable to world market is inevitable.

Generally trout are supplied to market either fresh or frozen. Food safety and sanitary standard
should be maintained beginning from the fish harvested until delivered to consumers. Regulation is
very vital to ensure the food safety of trout through particular care before and during harvesting, on-
site processing, and value addition of product, proper storage and transport of the products before
dispatch.

1.10 Policy support
Conducive policy atmosphere is essential to expand and sustain trout aquaculture. There is need to set
up a core center to provide technical support and assist investors, as part of its aggressive approaches
to develop trout aquaculture and related business. National fisheries plan has already been made to
develop aquaculture including trout aquaculture but due to poor strategies and lack of allocation of
adequate resources such as technical and financial support, these policies actually do not benefit the
farmers in field condition. It is important that these policies be properly implemented. The
government should increase investment to update technology and to promote adoption of
technology. The existing aquatic animal protection act is mainly intended to natural waters and do not
normally address aquaculture. It should be amended or draft new regulation to address concern of
possible environmental impact occurred by intensification of aquaculture systems.

Currently trout farmers have fragmented production units. Policy is required to promote for collective
production and marketing in pocket area to ensure that inputs transportation and delivery of
harvested fish to markets at a cheaper price.

It is also necessary to encourage farmers for formation of producer group or associations. Successful
story of association of fisher group for management and production of fish from Lakes of Pokhara
Valley suggest that associations are beneficial for the collective procurement of inputs and marketing
of products.

The development of human resources should form part of any national aquaculture development plan
(Pillay 1993). Considering increasing demand of trout farming in Nepal, human resources are meager
to sustained development of trout aquaculture. Hence, priority should be given to increase researcher
capabilities and technical personnels in the field of genetic improvement, feed technology and feed
management, minimization of waste production, water recirculation technology, health management
and food safety of product etc. Sometimes site specific protocols are required to overcome disease
and day to day problems. Therefore, strategy to train farmers to tackle problems and work seriously
around disease by monitoring the health status of fish as part of farm management is warranted.

Conclusion
Trout culture is intensive type of farming which might confronted with environmental issues unless
responsible way of culture technique is practiced. Potential success in trout production requires better
governance and significant improvements in technology and the management practices. Improvement
in genetic quality of brood stock for quality seed production, improved feed technology and feed





135
management, reliable diagnosis and effective disease control programs, and maintaining hygiene and
sanitation of harvested product have led to increases in production efficiencies. Farmers should
encourage adopting code of practice for mitigating negative environmental and social impacts.
Conducive policy, strong efforts in human resource development to increase researcher capabilities
and education program for technical personnels as well as farmers are equally important.

Acknowledgement
We extend our sincere thanks to all of our staffs at Fisheries Research Station, Pokhara for their
cooperation during the preparation of this paper. Thanks to Japan International Cooperative Agency
for their cooperation and support.

References
Andy H (1993) The veterinary approach to trout. In: Rydia Brown, ed. Aquaculture for Veterinarians:
Fish Husbandry and Medicine. Pergamon Press Ltd. Oxford. pp.230.
Barg, U.C., D.M. Bartley, A.G. Tacon & Welcomme R. L (1997) Aquaculture and its environment: A
case for collaboration. In D. A. Hancock, D.C. Smith, A. Grant and J.P. Beumer eds. Developing
and sustaining world fisheries resources: The state of science and management. 2
nd
world Fish.
Congress. CSIRO Publishing, Australia. pp. 462-470.
Boyd C. E & Tucker C. S (1999) Aquaculture Water Quality Management. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Boston. pp.541-575.
De Silva S. S (2001) Human resources development for sustainable aquaculture in the new
millennium. In: R.P. Subasinghe, P.B. Bueno, M.J. Phillips, C. Hough, S.E. Mc Gladdery and J.R.
Arthur eds. Technical proceedings of the conference on aquaculture in the third millennium.
NACA/FAO. pp.43-48.
FAO (1995) Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Rome, FAO, pp.48.
Green A & Green M (2003) Probiotics in Asian shrimp aquaculture. Asian Aquaculture Magazine.
March/April. pp. 28-29.
Gurung T. B, S. R. Basnet & G. P. Lamsal (2006) Rainbow trout farming in hill terrace of Nuwakot,
Nepal. Aquaculture Asia Magazine. April-June. pp.17-18.
Gurung, T. B & S R. Basnet (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal:
constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia. Oct-Dec Vol. VIII No. 4
Kutty M. N (1997) What ails aquaculture? Aquaculture Asia. 2:8-11
Mair G. C & Beardmore J. A. (1999) Aquaculture genetics in development. AARM Newsletter, Vol. 4,
No. 4.
Pillay T. V.R (1993) Aquaculture :Principles and Practices. University Press. Cambridge. pp.12-22.
Naylor R. L, R. J. Goldburg, H. Mooney, M. Beveridge, J. Clay, C. Folke, N. Kautsky, J. Lubchenco, J.
Primavera & Williams M.. (2000) Natures subsidies to shrimp and salmon farming. Science 282:
883-884
Shetty H. P. C, M. C. Nandeesha & Jhingaran A. G (1989) Impact of exotic aquatic species in Indian
waters. In: S.S. DeSilva ed. Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asian Fish. Soc., Special
Publication No. 3. pp. 45-55.
Rai, A.K., S.R. Basnet, A.P. Nepal, R.M. Mulmi & Roy N. K (2002) Potential of Asla and Trout for
economic enhancement of the people in the hilly region of Nepal. Proceeding of International
seminar on mountains-Kathmandu. March 6-8. pp. 441-446.
Schwartz M. F & C.E. Boyd (1996) Suggested management to improve quality and quantity of
channel catfish pond effluents. Leaflet 108, Auburn University, AL.





136
Extension strategies for Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
aquaculture development in Nepal
Dharni Man Singh, Shankar Prasad Dahal, Bikash Chand Shrestha, Rama Nath Mishra
Email: dharnimsingh@gmail.com
Abstract
Rainbow trout farming technology is rapidly expanding in the hills of Nepal. Recent research
achievements on rainbow trout farming have demonstrated that trout, a cold water fish can be
successfully cultivated in Nepalese hills and mountains. Considering its potentiality of expansion and
analyzing the present network of fisheries extension network, we proposed a more dynamic and
effective fisheries extension network in the country for better benefit to farmers in hills and
mountains.

Key words: Extension, rainbow trout, hilly district, mountains, cold water aquaculture

1. Introduction
Rainbow trout farming is one of the commercial activities in temperate and tropical countries around
the world (Bardach et al. 1975). Present stock of trout was introduced from Japan in 1988 (Gurung &
Basnet 2003). Recent research activities indicated that rainbow trout is one of the suitable fish for
commercial farming in cold waters regions of Nepal (Rana 2007a, 2007b). NARC has developed a
package of practices for trout farming in mid-hills and high mountain areas. It provides employment,
income generation and supplementary source of high value protein to economically deprived
mountain communities. Therefore, it is high time to make a strategic plan for scaling-up and
expansion of trout farming in Nepal. The objective of this paper is to evaluate the present status of
fisheries extension activities and recommend the strategic framework and a working model for trout
extension strategy.

2. Present status of aquaculture extension
Traditional pond aquaculture practices are known to exist since 2006 B.S, but the modern aquaculture
started about three decades ago in Nepal. The modality of present form of fisheries extension was
adopted focusing on the development of warm water aquaculture production in Terai during
Aquaculture Development Project Phase I and II around 1980s. Thus, the present form of extension
service absolutely focused on warm-water aquaculture. At present there are three t research farms
(one is in the process of establishing with research and development objectives).

Table 1. Existing Fisheries Extension Personnel under existing extension services





137
Thus, the present extension structure actually has not been visualized to function for the extension of
cold water aquaculture in the country. The present human resources working for the extension of
aquaculture development is given in Table 1. From the given structure it is clear that 74.3% of total
fisheries extension human resources are involved southern terai region and 23.7% in mid hills
including those of working in centrally located mid hill headquarter in Kathmandu. The table also
shows no presence of fisheries extension services in high hill districts despite of the fact that high
potentially of cold water aquaculture development exist in mid and high hill districts.

In present scenario, it is not the extension network involved in trout farming extension, however, the
NARC's fisheries stations have been involved in uptake pathway and scaling up activities. Since, it has
been now proved that trout farming is one of the promising aquaculture activities in the country,
especially in high and mid hills, therefore, it is high time that the fisheries extension service should
develop the structure so the areas under cold water regions could be addressed by the presence of
fisheries extension services.





















Fig 1. Existing Model of Trout Extension

3. Recommended model of trout farming extension
Since Nepal has the comparative advantages over other countries for the development and expansion
of cold water aquaculture (Table 1), therefore deputation of extension personnel in mid hill and high
hills are highly recommendable. It is clear that the present form of extension service cannot provide
substantial extension services for increase trout production in the country. Therefore reformation and
addition of extension personnel will be indispensable for trout production and income generation
through agriculture development in the country.

To add the fisheries extension personnel in mid and high hills we recommend the deputation and
linkage as shown in Fig 2. In this structure, Fisheries Development Centers in different potential
regions have been envisaged. Similarly, subject matter specialist (SMS with the staffs) in potential
District Agriculture Development Offices including in Agriculture Service Centers (ASC) has also
been proposed (Fig 2). It is expected by such scenario cold water fisheries could be promoted in
clusters or trout farming companies could exist with the support of extension services.





138
























Fig 2. Proposed extension service structure to promote cold water aquaculture in Nepal

4. Strategic framework for trout extension
The strategies of trout extension should be based on following themes:
- Participatory Extension
The extension services in the country for the development of all commodities should be participatory
based on public-people-partnership.
- Decentralized Service Delivery
The service delivery including that of seed and other services should be decentralized.
- Partnership and Complementary Approach
The extension approach should be based on partnership approach and the relationship among the
srakehilders should be complementary to each others.
- Optimization of local resources
For extension of cold water aquaculture technology strategic plan should be use local resources as
much as possible for fish production.
- Use of pocket approach
Instead of providing services in isolation, rather pocket approach should be taken as usibg this
strategy limited specialist could provide their services of expertise in clusters more efficiently.
- Farmer to farmer extension
An approach of farmer to farmer extension should also be taken as this would be more reliable way of
extension service.
- Use of Information Technology
Information services should be provided through modern systems to share the information for the
benefit of farmer's community.
5. Thrust of trout extension strategy
Rainbow trout is considered as one of the high value product. In general, capital cost involvement is
relatively higher than other agricultural commodities for trout farm establishment. Therefore, the
main thrust for trout extension should be income generation, food security, equity and inclusive, value
addition and ensuring quality production, commercialization and environment friendly. These aspects
are considered to provide sustainable production of targeted communities in more reliably.





139
6. Constrains for trout expansion
- Inadequate awareness among local community
- Inadequate seed supply and lack of quality feed factory
- Late realization for its scaling-up and extension
- No trout resource centers under DOA for providing support services to the
farmers/entrepreneurs
- Lack of trained human resource in trout extension
- Inadequate infrastructures such as road, electricity, ice plant in potential areas
- Financial aspects of the existing technology needs further study
- Limited study on demand and supply and inadequate marketing channel
- Low collateral value and very high investment

7. Conclusion and recommendation
The characteristic of the trout extension services should be;
- focused on potential areas
- Holistic and integrated approach
- Encouraging better cooperation amongst stakeholders
- Facilitating the use of local resources
- Public sector should play a facilitators role
- Mass awareness program for local NGOs, CBOs, VDCs, DDCs, political organizations and
participatory extension approach through these organizations
- Inventory preparation for feasible trout farming sites/locations, categorization of natural
resource rich areas and resource poor areas and provide extension services accordingly
- Incentives, soft loans and tax assumption on capital investment for establishing trout
hatcheries/nurseries
- Project approach
- Integrated approach e.g. with hydropower
- Provision of seeking external financial resources
- Competitive grant system for trout extension services
- Capacity building and human resource development
- Upgrading existing DOFD into warm-water and cold-water two directorates
- The strategy should open opportunities for the inclusion of retired exports, experienced
farmers, researcher and village resource persons

Acknowledgement
We extend our sincere thanks to all of our staffs for providing support and advices for the preparation
of this manuscript. Thanks are also to support provided by Mr. Mukund Bahadur Thapa for
secretarial services and his numerous other supports.

Reference
Bardach J. H, W. O. Ryther & McLarney W.O (1972) Commercial culture of freshwater salmonids,
genera Salmo, Thymallus, and Hucho. In: The farming and husbandry of freshwater and marine
organisms. John Willey and Sons. pp. 397-449
Rana C (2007a) Rainbow trout: an agricultural breakthrough. The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007:
97-99. www.readtheboss.com
Rana C (2007b) No, fishy business! The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 76-77.
www.readtheboss.com
Gurung T. B & S. R. Basnet (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal:
constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia 8 (4):16-18





140
Constraints and potentialities on scaling-up of Rainbow trout farming
practices in mid and high hills of Nepal: Farmers Perspective

Aditya Raj Khanal & Resham Gautam
Local Initiatives for Biodiversity Research and Development, Pokhara, Nepal
Email: akhanal@libird.org

Abstract
Rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss) farming practice is expected to have high potentiality to be scaled
up in mid hills and mountainous region of Nepal. Despite of its potentiality, the farming is restricted
only to a very few farmers of Nuwakot district. Successful trout farming demands high skill, expertise
and specific managerial requirements which might pose problems to find out appropriate site for trout
farming. It might be the reason that some of the trout farmers have perceived trout farming as one of
high skill work. To examine how the associated farmers have perceived the trout farming activities in
present socio-economic perspectives a schedule interview in Nuwakot district was performed. High
demand of trout with the lucrative market price makes the trout farming a viable enterprise in the
mountains and hills of Nepal. Possibility to utilize abundant sloppy land, natural spring water, link
with hotel business and agro tourism were the potentialities realized for rapid scaling up of trout
farming in the country. Difficulties in availability of fish fry, technical aspects of farming, high
starting and production costs, difficulties in availability of feed were considered the major constrains
for scaling up of trout farming technology at farmers level. Farmers mostly prefer easier provision of
financial support with low interest rate and appropriate valuation of their trout farming lands for loan
sanctioning. Intensive technical trainings for starter farmers, effective mechanism for availability of fry
fish and group approach in feed management are some recommendations of farmers on scaling up of
rainbow trout farming to the similar areas within the country.

Key words: farmer's perspective, rainbow trout farming, shortage of seed,
sloppy land, high cost

1. Introduction
Nepal is well known for ample rivers, streams and lakes where different types of aquaculture
enterprises could be initiated or established. Fish farming could be an important source of income
generating activities for farmers residing in those areas where water resources are abundant. The
southern plain known as Terai is the main area for warm water pond fish farming, where carps are
produced commercially. In mid and high hill area where cold water is abundant fish farming with cold
water fish seems to be highly potential. Initiative in fish farming activities could be enhanced in the
mid and high hills by providing required technical skills, identifying suitable fish species to their
environment and enhancing their management capacity. This would not only improve the economic
status of farmers but would also commercialize the cold water fish farming in the mid and high hills.

Rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss) is a high value exotic cold water fish. It prefers clean, cold and high
oxygen water for its growth and survival (Gurung & Basnet 2003). On-farm testing of rainbow trout
at individual farmers own management conditions and its economic analysis indicates that trout
farming is technically feasible and profitable in places where suitable agro ecological conditions prevail
(FRD 2005, Rana 2007a, 2007b). Various studies carried out by Fisheries Research Centre (FRC),
Trisuli and Fisheries Research Division (FRD) Godawari revealed that trout farming can be managed
by farmers in raceway ponds (Gauchan et al. 2007; Gurung & Basnet 2003, Nepal et.al. 2002, Rai et al.
2005)
Trout is popular among consumers for its taste. This preference might be due to high quality flesh of
trout. The commercial cultivation of rainbow trout was started as early as 1853 in United States
(Bardach et al. 1972). Moreover, farmers prefer trout because of its higher demand, good price and
sufficient market. Though the trout farming has tremendous potential in terms of market, price and
higher consumer demand, this farming still posses some constraints. There are inadequate research





141
and studies regarding the constraints of farmers managed trout farming in the mid and high hills of
Nepal. These constraints on farmer managed trout farming could best be assessed by farmers who
have initiated trout farming. Root problems and constraints assessed by the farmers themselves, the
potentials of trout farming in their area and recommendations suggested by them could guide the
national strategic directions and planning on scaling up of rainbow trout farming. Therefore, this
study was carried out with following objectives: To assess the potentials and constraints of trout
farming at farmers level in Nepal and provide guideline for the national strategic directions on scaling
up of rainbow trout farming in mid and high hills of Nepal.

2. Materials and Methods
Farmers of Nuwakot district have been involved in the rainbow trout farming. Perception on
potentialities and constrains of rainbow trout farming was taken from individual trout growing
farmers of Nuwakot district of Nepal through interview method. Study covered those farmers who
are growing trout for several years and the farmers who have just started construction of raceway
pond for trout farming. Six out of seven trout growing farmers of Nuwakot district were individually
interviewed and their farms were observed. Present context of trout farming basically on feed,
technical, marketing and managerial aspects on the area was assessed and observed.
Recommendations from farmers to scale up trout farming to the other similar areas of Nepal were
also collected.

3. Result and Discussion
3.1 General scenario of rainbow trout farming in Nuwakot District
Rainbow trout was introduced to the farmers of Nuwakot by Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli in
1998 (FRC 2006). Mr. Purna B. Lama, a farmer resident of Nuwakot district, was the first person to
initiate trout farming at farmers level in the area. He started farming since 1998 with 400 fingerlings
and at present he has raceway ponds of around 40,000 fingerlings capacity. In Nuwakot, seven
farmers are raising trout on their private farm at present and two farmers have just started
construction of pond for farming. Trend shows that trout farming has increased both in terms of area
and household. Most of the established trout growers have their own restaurant where various dishes
of trout are available for sale. Trout hatchery has just started at farmers level under supervision and
technical suggestion from Fisheries Research Division (FRD), Godavari and Fisheries Research
Centre (FRC), Trishuli of Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC). Natural spring water tapped
from the forest area is the main source of water for raceway ponds which is constructed on sloping
lands where trout is farmed.

3.2 Farmers preferred model
Farmers prefer to have an integrated farm for trout farming. Preferred model includes spring water
passing through the raceway ponds of sloping land, which is then utilized for generating electricity and
running Ghatta (water mills) and finally the outgoing water from Ghatta and turbine is used for
agricultural production. Almost all trout farmers of the study area wish to have their own restaurant
adjoining to integrated trout farming.

3.3 Potentialities of trout farming
3.3.1 Natural spring water
Natural spring water tapped from the forest is supposed to be the appropriate water for trout farming.
Spring water is examined technically to know whether it has all the requirements for trout farming or
not. Thus, those areas where year round natural spring water is available could be regarded as the
potential areas for trout farming.

3.3.2 Sloping land utilization
Sloping lands with poor fertility status, which otherwise could not be used for most of the agricultural
crop farming, could be used for constructing race way ponds. Current farming on slopping land





142
shows good result on productivity of trout. It is recommended that sloping land pattern of high and
mid hills could be efficiently utilized for trout farming.

3.3.3 Good annual return to farmers
Trout farming is yielding good return to the farmers. High demand of trout and good market of the
produce are the good indicators for scaling up of rainbow trout at farmers level. There are no cases
reported by farmers about the produce that have not been sold so far. Although the produce has high
price, it is sold from the farm gate. Farmers regard consumers demand of trout dishes in their own
restaurant as very high.

3.3.4 Integrated way of farming
Rainbow trout farming can be managed well in integrated way and some farmers in the study area
have already been practicing it. Water current after passing through race way ponds located on sloping
lands could be utilized for generating electricity and running Ghatta. Electricity is utmost important in
making feed, drying and storage. Farmers responded that micro level electricity generation at farmers
own initiatives is the best way to solve the problem of lower voltage and load shading of public
electricity. Ghatta is essential to grind the feed for trout. The drained water could be utilized for
irrigating agricultural crops as the mid and high hills of Nepal are potential areas for various
agricultural crops. Farmers opined that labor force involved in trout farming could be efficiently
utilized on production of other associated agricultural crops of the area in an integrated way.

Beside these, trout farming could be associated with hotel business and agro tourism. Farmers
involved in such business responded that an adjoining restaurant with trout farm with proper
management earns good profit.

3.4 Constraints at farmers level
3.4.1 Finding appropriate site
Rainbow trout needs some special requirements such as year round supply of clean cold water with
good dissolved oxygen, accessibility of road, communication, electricity and feed source. Thus, finding
appropriate site for trout farming is itself a difficult job.

3.4.2 High starting and production cost
Cost of construction on sloping land is comparatively very high. Cost of machines for feed making
and other management make initial and production cost of farming more expensive. Beside this,
micro electricity generation on own initiative adds substantial cost that an ordinary farmer face
difficulty to manage despite of its requirement for the successful trout enterprises. Depending upon
the public source of electricity is risky due to its unreliability, fluctuation on voltage, and frequent
power cut-off and load shading.

3.4.3 Technical aspects
Trout growing needs a thorough technical knowledge. Most of the farmers are facing the technical
difficulties. It is inferred that trout growing farmers not only need great interest in farming but also
equally be sensitive and serious in technical matters with risk bearing capacity as well. Trout growers
of the study area feel the prevailing technical suggestions are insufficient (Box 1).

Box 1. Experiences of Kanchha Lama Cleaning the Fish Pond Kanchha Lama, trout grower of
Belkot-6, Nuwakot faced some problem on technical clearance. As technician suggested him to
clean pond frequently, he cleaned his raceway pond twice a day assuming that trout needs clear
pond. Mr. Lama suffered to a loss due to over-cleaning of the pond, affected on the performance
of trout and resulted in lower fish yield.






143
In 2060 (B.S.), Bibek Devkota of Jituphedi faced the immediate mortality of about 1500 fry fish at
the beginning of farming due to the un clarity on the technical suggestions he received from the
concerned trout experts/technicians.


3.4.4 Loan sanctioning and valuation of sloping land
Farmers regard loan sanctioning process is one of the constraints to initiate trout farming. As trout
needs about 12-14 months to attain commercial size and substantial amount of money is spent on
initial constructions, it is difficult to pay loans on time. On the other hand, sloppy land of mid and
high hills as collaterals are evaluated as lower price and only a little amount of loan is sanctioned by
the financial institutes and the banks.

3.4.5 Availability of fry fish
Fry fish is not available in adequate amount as demanded by farmers at present context. Almost all
trout growers of the area
have lower stock of fry than actual capacity of their pond due to unavailability of fry fish.

3.4.6 Availability and cost of feed materials:
Feed materials and procedure of pellet making is costly at farmers level. As feed quality is highly
influential in growth of trout, farmers can not compromise with the quality of feed. To own feed
associated machines is advantageous but the cost for those machine is comparatively very high to bear
by a single farmer. High protein rich feed is required for trout among which dried shrimp is the main
component. Availability of shrimp is sometimes difficult as farmers have to rely on traders from
Kathmandu valley and other towns in the country.

3.5 Recommendations as suggested by farmers:
3.5.1 Financial support and loan:
Financial support with low interest rate for starter farmer is crucial to start trout farming at farmers
level. On the other hand, in farmers opinion, rainbow trout potential land should be evaluated
differently from ordinary sloping lands of mid and high hills so that farmer could get more loan from
banks by valuating them as the enterprises. This needs a clear policy from the government side to
promote trout farming.

3.5.2 Intensive technical trainings for starter farmers:
Before starting trout farming, it is better to give intensive technical trainings for interested farmers to
aware about risk and probable difficulties of farming. Since, more technical aspects should be
considered on trout farming, frequent visit of technicians on farmers field would make farming
easier.

3.5.3 Farmers group approach for feed:
As cost and availability of feed is somewhat difficult, it could be managed by group approach of trout
growing farmers. Group approach in feed management such as bringing raw materials and making
pellet could make availability of feed easier. Policy on recognizing the group efforts and more
specifically, promotion of cooperative concept in the potential area would help in promoting the
enterprises.

3.5.4 Hatchery and fry fish production on farmers level:
The supply of fry fish is lower than its demand. Hatchery on farmers level under supervision of
technicians could be the way forward for it. On the other hand, some farmer suggest that to avoid
chances of monopoly and private pricing, supply and pricing mechanism of fry should be strictly
controlled by government.







144
Conclusion
High demand of rainbow trout and good return to the farmers in the study area indicates the
potentiality of scaling up of rainbow trout in those areas where technical and managerial aspects of
trout farming is met. Integrated approach of trout farming associated with hotel business seems to be
more profitable. Intensive technical backstopping for the trout growers and frequent visits from
technicians in the farming areas could help in minimizing technical difficulties encountered by the
trout growers. Government need to formulate appropriate mechanism for easy and adequate
availability of fry fish to the farmers. Farmers group approach in feed management could solve the
availability and high cost of feed. Moreover, promotion of cooperative concept by federating the
interested trout farmers could be an appropriate approach to promote the rainbow trout farming in
the potential areas.
Trout farming is not profitable and feasible for the subsistence farming. For the profitable trout
farming, initial investment is comparatively high which can not be afforded by many small and
medium scale farmers of Nepal. Easy access to the soft loan for establishment of the trout enterprises
is the must to promote the trout farming at commercial level. The sloping land used for rainbow trout
farming should be valued as a part of trout enterprises and thus valuation while sanctioning loan
should be done accordingly. By adopting the integrated approach of fish farming, generating
electricity, running the water mills and using the drained water from the pond for irrigating the high
value agricultural crops, trout farming could be made more inclusive to the community members. The
use of the drained water from the ponds for the high value crop growers, relatively poor members of
the community who can not afford the trout farming, would also promote the social inclusion
process. This will also help justifying the public financial institutions, e.g., agricultural development
banks, that the money is invested for the benefit of all kinds of the farmers including the poor
members.
Acknowledgement
The authors are highly indebted to Dr. Pratap Shrestha, executive director of LI-BIRD for his
encouragement to carry out the study. We are thankful to Mr. Tara Lama, Mr. Diwakar Poudel and
Mr. Arjun Basnet for their inputs on the paper. We highly acknowledge the support provided by Dr.
Tek B. Gurung and Ms. Neeta Pradhan of FRD/NARC. Finally, the authors are thankful to Mr. G.P.
Lamsal of FRC Trishuli and the trout farmers of Nuwakot for their kind cooperation during the field
study.
Reference
Bardach J. E, J. H. Ryther & McLarney W. O (1972) Aquaculture: The farming and husbandry of
Fresh water and marine organisms. Wiley inter-science, A division of John Wiley and Sons, NY,
868pp.
FRD (2005) Annual Technical Report 2004/05. Fishery Research Division (FRD) of Nepal
Agriculture Research Council (NARC), Godawari, Lalitpur.
FRC Trisuli (2006) Short Information on Rainbow Trout Farming in Nepal. Fishery Research Centre
(FRC) of Nepal Agriculture Research Council, Trisuli, Nuwakot.
Gauchan D, N Thakur, B Shrestha, A Rayamajhi, S Gautam & Lamsal G. P (2007) Marketing of
Rainbow Trout Fish in Nepal. Paper presented in First National Workshop on Scaling-up of
Rainbow trout Farming Strategies in Nepal. Fisheries Research Division/NARC, Directorate of
Fisheries Development/DoA, Nepal Fisheries Society and JICA.October December.
Gurung T & Basnet S R (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal.Constraints
and Prospects. Aquaculture Asia, Vol VIII (4).
Nepal A. P, S. R. Basnet, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & Mulmi R. M (2002) Economics of rainbow
trout farming system in Nepal. FAO fisheries technical paper 431:179-191.
Rai A. K, R. C. Bhujel, S. R. Basnet & Lamsal G. P (2005) Rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss culture in
the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal. APARI Publication 1/2005.
Rana C (2007a) Rainbow trout: an agricultural breakthrough. The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007:
97-99. www.readtheboss.com
Rana C (2007b) No, fishy business! The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 76-77.
www.readtheboss.com





145
Role of media for scaling up of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
farming technologies among stakeholders
Bhola Man Singh Basnet

Chief, Communication, Publication and Documentation Division
Nepal Agricultural Research Council
Email: bsasnetbms@yahoo.com

Abstract
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) native to cold waters of the Northern Hemisphere have been
introduced throughout the world. Trout are prized both as sport fish and food fish due to their
excellence in fighting ability and taste, respectively. Rainbow trout accept a wider variety of food,
therefore, considered ideal for farming. Trout is considered a product of high value but low volume
commodity for food and nutritional security. Its farming can be highly beneficial in enhancing
livelihood of hill and mountainous communities by utilizing cold water resources. Nepal has recently
developed full packages of practices for rainbow trout farming, as a result several trout farms have
been established in hilly areas especially near by Kathmandu. On this regard, media have also played
important role in dissemination of trout farming technology not only among interested farmers but
also among donors, government officials, bureaucrats, and policy makers. As an impact trout has been
included in government policies, because media has also played significant roles since last several years
using visuals, audio and print media (radio, FM, TVs). The successful scaling up of the rainbow trout
farming, thus suggest that journalists should also be in-built partners in scaling-up activities with
allocation of budget and program for communications and promotions. Press releases and
conferences can create awareness. Media sensitize not only the farmers but donor, planner, financial
agency, policy maker, social scientist, politician, extension, I/NGOs, CBOs, development worker,
entrepreneur, producer & consumer, marketing agency etc. There are several proverbs relating to
media, which could be instantly used in agriculture sector to translate the knowledge from agricultural
scientist to their stakeholders using the media. For example, it is said "information not published is
not done", "late news is no news", "how new is news ?", "be the first to tell and be the first to
know", "we report you decide like advocate and judge", "putting news first". At the end it is suggested
that all the researchers, extensions/development workers and farmers/clients should be "pro-active",
they should have "salesmanship" and they should be "good communicator" too. However, mostly
researchers lack the salesmanship. Before communicating any message, first the outputs should be
successful, well proven, matured one, or it should have news value, otherwise some time
communication might be counterproductive.

Key words: Communication, media, trout, scaling up, stakeholders, policy makers, livelihood


1. Introduction
Fish is considered as the sign of "Good Luck" in Nepalese tradition and culture. According to the
recent fisheries profile of the country the total fish production was 42,463 metric tones in Fiscal Year
2005/06. In fisheries sector, warm water aquaculture is relatively well developed and forms the
backbone of fish production in the country. Considering the geographical setting cold water fisheries
need to be promoted so the people living in hills could also involved in aquaculture based livelihood
opportunities.
Trout are native to cool waters of the Northern Hemisphere and have been introduced to cool waters
throughout the world. Trout are prized both as sport fish and as food fish because of their fighting
ability and their spectacular leaps when hooked. Rainbow trout takes a wider variety of food, therefore
ideal for fish farmers. Trout is also considered as high value low volume commodity for food security,
nutritional security, profitability i.e. income generation for enhancing the livelihood of hill and





146
mountainous people, employment opportunity, reducing poverty, ultimately helping for agriculture
commercialization and specialization by utilizing cold water resources.

Recently Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) has developed farming technological packages
of rainbow trout suitable to Himalayan ecological conditions. Rainbow trout introduced in Nepal
from Japan is also known as Himalayan Trout among many consumers. Several examples have been
shown demonstrating that the technology generated by NARC has been highly successful in farmer's
field (Rai et al. 1995, Gurung et al. 2003). Since trout farming technology has been proved to be a
successful project, it is considered that this is the right time to transfer this technology to various
other agencies which could promote and scale up this technology to private enterprises for the benefit
of all stakeholders. Here, in this essay my aims are to evaluate the role played by media in enhancing
the knowledge of trout farming and highlight on possible role for dissemination of trout farming
technology among stakeholders in Nepal.

Recently, media have played a greater role for bringing rainbow trout as an important commodity
under "One village one Product" program in Nepalese government's policy because we have been
advocating trout since the last so many years through print and electronic media (radio, FM, TVs),
personal contacts plus exhibitions etc. In this sense journalists also act as one of the development
partners. Therefore, it is argued that budget for publication should be in-built/embed for scaling-up
and promotion of any agriculture-related projects. Media is needed for uptake pathways plus wider
scaling-up too (Fig 1, 2). Press releases and press conferences can be done for sensitizing and creating
public awareness about rainbow trout. Media sensitizes, not only the farmers but donor, planner,
financial agency, policy maker, social scientist, politician, extension, I/NGOs, CBOs, development
worker, entrepreneur, producer & consumer, marketing agency etc. It is said "Not publish/inform
means not done". Donors in the past always forgot this vital issue of development communications.

The persuasion of this author also helped for bringing out publication entitled "Rainbow Trout
Culture in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal: A Success Story" by Asia-Pacific Association for
Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI). APAARI has published success stories in so many
agriculture related subjects of countries concerned. Himalayan Trout so far, is the only one subject
from Nepal. Technology exchange is also done between rainbow trout from Nepal and fresh water
prawn from Thailand. We should not forget that any program to be successful there should be
"research push and market pull". Researcher should not lack in salesmanship/pro-activeness and they
should be a good communicator too for scaling-up of successful technologies.

2. Communication and Agricultural Policies
Nepal wants to promote agriculture-related issues like market price, transfer of technologies etc.,
through the telecommunication media like Radio, FM Radio, and Television. In the long-term
government has plan to establish Tele centres (rural information centres) throughout the 4,000 VDCs
with the facilities of internet, e-mail, printer, fax, photocopy machine etc. Following are some related
information on communication use for agricultural extension and education for farmers and other
stakeholders.

2.1 Telecommunication (Internet, Cellular Telephone for rural development)
Nepal Telecom Ltd. provided telephone service through 195 telephone exchanges by mid-March
2005. These exchanges have a total of 5,25,021 line capacity, of which 4,33,631 lines have been
distributed. Post-paid and pre-paid mobile services customers totaled 75,645 and 1,73,175 respectively
by mid-March 2005. After the expansion of the telecom services in 325 VDCs during this year, a total
of 2,234 VDCs, out of 3,914 VDCs and 58 municipalities have access to telephone service by mid-
March 2005.Cellular Telephone services are provided both by Nepal Telecom as well as Private One
i.e. " Mero Mobile ".







147
2.2. Radio and TV
Established in 1951, Radio Nepal is country's oldest and country-wide electronic media. Its short-
wave broadcast can be received all over the country while its medium wave broadcast can reach to 83
% of the population. To extend its services to areas not covered by medium wave broadcasting with
the cooperation at local level through the use of Frequency Modulation (FM) system has also been
started recently. Radio Nepal also adopted V-sat technology to make its broadcast receivable all over
the country.

Television service of Nepal Television (NTV), as a strong, wider coverage and effective means of
communication, is in regular operation in Nepal since 1984. At present, it has 3 studios and 15
broadcasting centers covering 45 % of the total area of Nepal. Its population coverage is estimated
around 65 %. NTV is using geo-satellite to broadcast its programs countrywide. Now, NTV is
telecasting its program through the satellite of Thailand. It has second channel i.e. the Metro Channel.
NTV has installed the Digital Satellite News gathering equipment and has a capacity of live cast from
any part of the country.

2.3 Print Media for Agricultural Extension and Rural Development Information Services
The normal channel of disseminating agricultural technologies generated by NARC to the
farmers/clients is through Department of Agriculture (DoA) and Department of Livestock Services
(DLS) under the Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperatives (MoAC). International / NGOs, CBOs,
Development Organizations, Print and Electronic media are also disseminating agricultural
technologies. The five Regional Directorates of Agriculture & Livestock are located in five Regions,
similarly 75 district agriculture centers (ASCs/SCs) are respectively established in Nepal. They are all
mandated to provide agriculture development information to disseminate improved technologies
using different methods/media of communications.

Use of mass communication channel is also undertaken in Nepal with the aim of reaching a
considerably large number of farmers. So, it is the mass media which are believed to convey the
updated technical information to farmers, rapidly and regularly with more coverage. The different
mass media presently used in Nepal are Radio, FM Radio, Television, Printed materials, Exhibitions
and Video films. There is daily agriculture program in Radio and Television (Fig 1). Moreover, there
is Teleserial, Farmers' problem and Experts' answer, Studio-based Interaction programme, Agriculture
from Foreign Countries, weekly (Friday) Agriculture News in Television.

2.4 ICT (Internet & Cellular Telephone) use in Agricultural and Rural Development
ICT access, first meant public internet access (telecentres); now being interpreted more broadly to
include radio, TV, phones, and non-networked kit (computers etc). Community Radio (FM) is
working well and needs more resources. Daily agriculture program broadcasted through Radio Nepal
is accessible even in remote areas of the country. Radio is the most effective, affordable and reachable
to the farmers even in remote areas. Rural telecom networks are largely absent, and where present are
not data-capable. Existing non-commercial telecentres are few, little used, often not connected.
Internet access rates outside main towns are prohibitively high (Recently NT has announced the
facility of POP (real + virtual) in 55 district HQs. Private ISPs have trouble getting leased lines.

2.5 ICT use in Agricultural Research and Development
Communication, Publication and Documentation Division (CPDD) under Nepal Agricultural
Research Council (NARC) is responsible for both enhancing accesses to information technology for
the scientists, researchers, technical officers and communicating research results to the extension,
farmers, clients and other potential beneficiaries. NARC's research results including
fisheries/Himalayan trout are to be communicated to its internal and external clients through different
types of technical publication both in print and electronic formats. The library of NARC is also the
National Agricultural Documentation Centre.






148
3. Agriculture Extension and Outreach
The major pathway for disseminating the NARC's generated agro-technologies along with Himalayan
trout is through the extension wings under Department of Agriculture (DoA) and Department of
Livestock Services (DLS). These departments have extension network throughout the nation in 5
development regions, 75 districts through several Agriculture Service Centres & Sub-centres in each
districts. These days, I/NGOs, CBOs, Development Organizations, Media Houses are also playing
greater role for extension activities for reaching the mass of farmers/clients within the short span of
timeframe. At present, the concept of participatory technology development (PTD) is followed in
Nepal. The outreach program of NARC is also the bridge between researcher and farmer with the
help of extension.

4. Agriculture Market related information
Agriculture Business Promotion and Market Development Directorate monitor, supervise, evaluate
and make strategy for the marketing of agricultural commodities including fisheries throughout the
country. This directorate also maintains the market related information like recent market price of the
agriculture commodities in different parts of the country and information related to cost of cultivation
of various agricultural commodities etc. Trade Promotion Centre (TPC) deals with import & export
of agricultural commodities.

5. Publicity and mass communication
It is said "Late News is no News", "How New is News ?", "How News is Used", "Be the First to
Tell and Be the First to Know", "We Report you Decide like Advocate and Judge", "Putting News
First". We can follow these principles in agriculture too. All the researchers, extensions/development
workers and farmers/clients should be "Pro-Active, they should have "Salesmanship" and they should
be "Good Communicator" too. However, mostly a Researcher lacks in the Salesmanship. Before
communicating any message, first the outputs should be successful, well proven, matured one, or it
should have news value, otherwise some time communication could be counterproductive too.

There is daily 15-minute "Agriculture Program" broadcasted and telecasted through Radio and
Television plus weekly (Friday) "Agriculture News" telecasted by Nepal Television (NTV) too.
Previously, we were after media, now they are after us for getting latest innovative events concerning
agro-technologies including Himalayan trout/fisheries & aquaculture, which is a good
indication/feedback. Even the reporters from major media houses have created one association
named "Nepal Agricultural Journalists' Association = NAJA".

NTV had telecasted news related with trout six times during 2005 and 2006 including full story once
in 2006. Fisheries & Aquaculture related programmes had been telecasted by NTV during 2005-
second week of January 2007. Television like Image Channel and Channel Nepal telecasted Himalayan
Trout's activities of Nuwakot and Rasuwa on December 28, 2006 and December 29, 2006
respectively. HBC 94 FM also broadcasted interview about trout on December 8, 2006.

For promotion of trout Agriculture Exhibition/Fair has also been also effective tool. The "Press
Conference and Press Releases" are other ways of creating or sensitizing public awareness about the
development of successful agro-stories and technologies. NARC Newsletter covered activities about
Himalayan Trout 9 times, 15 times about fisheries and aquaculture within the span of 1994-2006.
Advertisements in agriculture are equally important for publicity. Subject-specific Campaigns can also
be done successfully. Recently held CAN INFO TECH-2006 in Kathmandu is worth mentioning.
South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) had one workshop about "SAARC's
Trans-Himalayan Fisheries" on 26-27 November 1996 in Kathmandu. SAARC's Workshop on
Fisheries and Aquaculture was held on 13-14 December 1994 in Kathmandu. Hatchlings from Fishery
Research Division, Godawari and Egg/Hatchlings from Agriculture Research Station, Trishuli had
been exported to Pakistan and Papua New Guinea (PNG) respectively during 1994.

6. Further ahead in information and communication management
There has been growing need of improving communication and management system in NARC
without which, the works being carried out by NARC scientists cannot be managed properly, the





149
technology developed cannot be disseminated and appropriation of resources cannot be efficiently
done. Today, computers are playing very important role in communication, publication,
documentation and management of research. The e-mail and internet is profoundly affecting research
systems in all countries of the world and information and knowledge can no longer be controlled in
the ways it used to be in the past. The use of electronic media for the exchange of research outputs,
literatures, submission correction, publication, data analyses and collection of references for papers.
Now, NARC has its own website (e.g. http://www.narc.org.np) and E-mail addresses
(cpdd@mos.com.np cpdd@narc.org.np). Therefore, in order to increase NARC research and research
management efficiency, all staff must learn to use these computer-based techniques. Even if we are
academically sound, when we don't know how to operate computer then it is said "Educated
Illiterate ".

Some of the suggestions for scaling-up of Himalayan trout through Media
Give major thrust on " Successful Stories/Technologies "
Successful package of practices
Successful modes of communications
Production and collection of Video Films about successful technologies
Technological Exchanges
Strong link with Print & Electronic and other media
Organize and participate in Exhibitions (e.g. AGRO EXPO NEPAL-2006)
Telecentre concept
E-Publications
Publication of Popular articles
More sensitize public awareness about the importance of Himalayan Trout
Networking
Exchange of Publications
Scientists-to-Scientists/Farmer-to-Farmer/Business-to-Business contact
Visit & observation tours by information and communication persons

Conclusions
Until and unless NARC generated programs are not appropriate and suitable to the requirements and
feeling of the farmers/entrepreneurs/clients, it will be very difficult to adopt and disseminate. In
scaling up activities technologies beneficiaries must be involved in the whole process to give the
feeling of their ownership. They should be active partner and NARC should play the role of
facilitator. These days focus is given for participatory technology development (PTD) and
dissemination. Therefore, project should consider journalists as one of their development partners for
dissemination, sensitizing or creating public awareness and scaling-up of rainbow trout. Moreover, the
budget and program for communications must also be in-built/embedded in the project. At last but
not the least, let us exchange/share our ideas/experiences/ knowledge/technical know-how about the
successful agricultural stories and technologies concerning Himalayan trout for the benefit of
extensionists/development workers/entrepreneurs/farmers/ and other clients.
Acknowledgement
My sincere thank to all journalists, who had been helpful for me to disseminate agricultural
technological innovation to various stakeholders. I would also like to thanks my subordinate staffs
working in information and documentation Division, NARC.

Reference:
Rai A. K, R. C. Bhujel, S. R. Basnet & G. P. Lamsal (2005) Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) culture
in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal- A success story. Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural
Research Institutions (APAARI), FAO, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok,
Thailand. 33 pp
Gurung T. B. & S. R. Basnet (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal:
constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia 8(4):16-18






150












A B



















C

Fig 1. Some news publication by print media on trout farming and products (A-E).






151










D























E
Fig 2. A booklet on rainbow trout farming research in Nepal published by APAARI.






152



"One Village One Product" (OVOP) program with special reference to
Rainbow trout farming and marketing perspective in Nepal

Kiran Raj Pandey
Agro Enterprise Centre/Federation of Nepal Chamber of Commerce
Email: kiranpan@yahoo.com


Abstract
This paper gives a brief introduction on rainbow trout farming perspective in "one village one
product" scheme. Rainbow trout produced in Himalayan water has higher market probability. The
major objective of the OVOP program is to cater local as well as international market opportunities
by means of product development and value addition of local productions for assisting in the poverty
alleviation and economic development of local communities. The overall target of OVOP trout
program is o achieve 400 mt of production by the end of 2009. The working modality of OVOP
program is based on a public private-partnership.

Key words: SWOT analysis, public-private partnership, Himalayan rainbow trout


1. Introduction
Nepal is an agrarian society with agriculture representing the major share of GDP (38%) and the
majority of the population living in rural areas and depending mostly on agriculture for their
livelihood. Since last decade many agricultural sub-sectors like cardamom, ginger, tea, coffee, honey,
floriculture, fishery, vegetables, fruits, etc. have gradually come up in a commercial scale. Many small
and medium enterprises are depending on local agricultural and forest resources and are generating
self-employment opportunities and raising income of rural population. Nepalese agricultural products
need to increase value addition that will help realize better market and prices for the poor farmers for
which a program like" One Village One Product" movement can bring positive impact.

The success of "One Village One Product" program (OVOP) movement in Oita Prefecture of Japan
from where it started in 1979 as a local campaign and similar programs in many other countries,
especially in Thailand, involving local community and utilizing local resources towards attaining a
prosperous economic development have inspired the Federation of Nepalese Chambers of
Commerce Industry (FNCCI), an umbrella organization of the Nepalese private sector, to initiate
"One Village One Product" in a form of a national prioritized program jointly with the Government
of Nepal. The program will encourage local people to become more motivated, to feel greater pride
in their communities, and to become more involved in the activation of their local community
through their own efforts to produce local specialties. It strongly believes that economic
development programs linked with rural communities particularly focusing on the agriculture and
potential employment generating economic activities have got to be the major program thrust areas
for Nepal. Currently FNCCI and the Government of Nepal, especially the Ministry of Agriculture
and Cooperatives, are working together in a public private partnership approach in carrying out
OVOP program in Nepal (AEC 2007, 2008).

Major objective of the OVOP program is to cater local as well as international market opportunities
by means of product development and value addition of local productions for assisting in the poverty
alleviation and economic development of local communities. Other objectives of OVOP program in
Nepal are provided below:





153
Create jobs and thereby increase income for local communities.
Strengthen communities in individual thinking and action in local development.
Promote local wisdom, use of local materials and labor as main resources.
Promote human resource development and capacity cultivation of people in community.
Promote creative thinking of communities in product development in line with life style and
objectives.

2. Development of OVOP movement in Nepal
Since last two year FNCCI has been engaged in planning to initiate OVOP movement in Nepal. Some
officials of FNCCI and members of different chambers of commerce and industries had participated
in a study tour of "One Village One Product" program in Thailand. For a good initiation and effective
implementation of this program, FNCCI had proposed the Government of Nepal an effective public-
private partnership modality. Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperatives and Ministry of Industry,
Commerce & Supplies have shown great interest in supporting OVOP movement in Nepal for the
upliftment of rural farmers. Currently, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has two committees
at the central level: High Level Committee for policy support under the Chairmanship of Honorable
Minister of Agriculture & Cooperatives, and another implementation committee under the
Coordination of the President of FNCCI. Both of these committees have members representing
different ministries. Agro Enterprise Centre of FNCCI bears entrusted responsibilities of the
Secretariat for OVOP movement.

The Centre coordinates the formulation and effective implementation of initial programs. Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperatives and AEC/FNCCI had engaged in preparing working procedures of the
OVOP program in Nepal. Inputs from other ministries had been received in finalizing the document.
The Government of Nepal formally incorporated OVOP concept in the National Program and
Budget for the fiscal year 2006/07 and recently approved the Working Procedure 2063 for the
implementation of OVOP program. This Working Procedure has special features like implementation
of programs on a rolling basis, establishment of basket fund where resources from different sources
can be pooled in to carry out programs; resources will not be freezed at the end of the fiscal year, and
ample flexibility in making necessary changes in programs, if required. Pilot programs in about six
districts for four agricultural products (sweet orange, lapsi, bel & rainbow trout) have been approved
in a public private-partnership modality. Rainbow trout farming will be promoted as OVOP program
in Nuwakote and Rasuwa districts.

3. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming as OVOP movement
Rainbow trout as food fish among consumers and commodity for farming among farmers, especially
in hills is becoming popular in Nepal. The farming of trout succeeded recently (Gurung & Basnet
2003; Rana 2007a, 2007b) after the intervention of Nepal Agricultural Research Council for its
technological generation Details of technological packages of trout farming were developed in
Fisheries Research Division Godawari and Fisheries Research Center, Trishuli. At present eight
private sector entities have established small to medium level trout farms on the way to Balaju-
Kakani- Nuwakot route. Trout have specific natural taste being produced in the Himalayan water and
can be promoted in the international market as "Himalayan Trout from Nepal". According to the
evaluation of Rana (2007a, 2007b) the success of rainbow trout farming in Nepal is a breakthrough by
NARC in technological development.

Experts from fisheries sector and AEC/FNCCI worked together to develop a plan under OVOP for
the promoting trout. Two districts, Nuwakot and Rasuwa have been selected to promote trout
farming under the OVOP program. This was because existing trout production cannot cater
increasing demand of trout. Public sector entities such as NARC's Research Centers like, Nuwakot
and Godawari, can provide technical backstopping required for enhancing trout production in private
sector.





154
OVOP program has targeted to scale-up trout production up to 400mt by the year 2009 involving
local communities. Production will be complemented by modern processing, packaging, cold chain
distribution system, and effective marketing programs for high quality products. Although the
program seems ambitious, the target is achievable if the program prepared by the Directorate of
Fisheries Development and AEC/FNCCI gets adequate resources and the hatchery at Rawuwa get
started timely. In order to formulate effective strategies for the implementation of this program
SWOT analysis

has been carried out, which is illustrated below:

Strength
Climatically suitable for production.
It is produced in the natural glacier and spring water having some specific natural taste, both
districts Nuwakot and Rasuwa have abundance water supply for the production.
More demand than supply.
Several feed ingredients are locally available.
Government's previous experience at a local level.
Existing private sectors' performance praiseworthy (small scale).
Declaration of the trout village by local community of Nuwakot district.
High market price.
Proactive approach of NARC Research Centre in Nuwakot and Rasuwa districts and chamber of
commerce and industry.

Weakness
Not enough seedlings.
Not adequate technique in the quality of feed formulation and production.
There is not enough awareness among local communities.
Lack of feed mill plant, ice plant and other market infrastructure.
Marketing channel is not developed.
No brand promotion.
It is labor intensive and requires high investment in the initial phase.
Some chemicals are not easily available and also cost high.

Opportunities
More demand for product than supplies.
Local bodies as well as communities are very much enthusiastic.
There is adequate feasible pocket for rainbow trout production.
Private sector to be involved in fingerlings production.
There are two research farms in the public sector.
Technologies & Infrastructures for efficient use of inputs can be localized.


Threats
NARC's fingerling production program in Rasuwa does not get implemented timely.
High cost of cold chain development.
Biodiversity damage may occur if exotic species introduced without proper attention.
Local consumers do not get adequate message.
Due to natural calamities high cost during establishment cause loss for ever.

Hence, from the SWOT analysis presented above Rainbow Trout program's situation analysis has
been assessed based on the analysis TOWS Matrix has been illustrated below (Table 1) to formulate
alternative strategies showing external opportunities and threats facing Rainbow Trout program that
can be matched with that of program's internal strength and weakness.







155
Table: 1 TOWS Matrix




























Strategies mentioned in the TOWs Matrix address all programs of Rainbow Trout OVOP program.
Major actors who will be involved in the trout OVOP program are categorized into two components:

At policy level Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative (Department of Agriculture
(Directorate of Fisheries Development), Nepal Agriculture Research Council (Fisheries
Research Division), National Planning Commission, Ministry of Industry Commerce and
Suppliers, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Local Development, Nepal Rastrya Bank,
Federation of Nepalese Chamber of Commerce and Industry will guide the OVOP
Program.

At implementation level District Chamber of Commerce and Industry, NARC (Fisheries
Research Station-Nuwakot), District Agriculture Offices, Rasuwa; Local District
Development Committees, Municipalities and Village District Committees, Local financial
institutions, Office of Small and Cottage Industry, Farmers' groups, small & medium
entrepreneurs, Exports, NGOs, Donor communities will participate in the program.

Conclusion
The Working Procedure 2063 of OVOP program has pointed out major activities that will be carried
out for the next three years to meet the set production and marketing target. The program will focus
on the existing rich experience of research sector and that of some of the private sector entrepreneurs.
Theirs experience could be enriched by marketing capabilities based on the total value chain approach
(from farmers' groups, to processors for handling and packaging by marketers) to cater the increasing
demand of local market. Besides, the program will also facilities the government in the establishment
of trout hatchery in Rasuwa. Recently a district implementation committee has been formulated to





156
plan and implement program at a local level, where the President of the Nuwakot Chamber of
Commerce and Industry is the Coordinator with District Agriculture Officer, Local Development
Officer of the District Development Committee, Chief of Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli
(NARC) & Chief of Agriculture Development Bank as the members. The program is envisaging
increasing production of trout up to 400 mt by the end of 2009, thereby involving many local farmers
and raising their income. An effective public-private partnership at local and at central level can make
OVOP movement in scaling up of rainbow trout production in Nuwakot and Rasuwa districts.

Acknowledgement
I am thankful to AEC/FNCCI for providing me information on the present subject matter. Thanks
to all of my staffs for their support during the preparation of the manuscript.

Reference
AEC (2007) Presentation on Concept note of "One Village One Product program" prepared by Agro
Enterprise Centre/FNCCI.pp
AEC (2008) Working Procedures of One Village One Product program-2063 approved by the
Government of Nepal.
Gurung T. & Basnet S.R. (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss in Nepal:
Constraints and Prospects. Aquaculture Asia, Vol VIII (4).
Rana C. (2007a) Rainbow trout: an agricultural breakthrough. The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb
2007: 97-99. www.readtheboss.com
Rana C. (2007b) No, fishy business! The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 76-77.
www.readtheboss.com
Subedi J. R. (2007) -- +, Article by Mr. Jaya Ram Subedi (in Nepali) Samacharpatra of 6
th

January, 2007.





157

Rainbow trout farming in hills of Nepal in relation to gender perspectives

Sudha Sapkota Kiran Raj Joshi
Planning and Coordination, Nepal Agricultural Research Council
Email: sudhasapkota@hotmail.com


Abstract
With the aim to evaluate the role of gender in rainbow trout farming, we studied Madanpur and Kakani
Village Development Committees of Nuwakot District, a place known as trout production area. To
evaluate the situation questionnaire was designed for interview. Our study revealed in rainbow trout
farming women were mainly involved in raceway construction, brood selection, feed preparation,
feeding fish, removing dead eggs during incubation, preparation of dishes and several aspects of
marketing activities. After the introduction of rainbow trout in the study area, opportunity to share
their leisure time on trout farming activities have been generated among the rural women to support
livelihood and income generation.

1. Introduction
A large portion of rural women performs unpaid work in agriculture sector, especially involved in
works related to household activities. Women's roles in family and society may differ according to
geographic zones. In the mountain areas, women participate in traditional activities. In hilly and terai
area women are involved in agriculture as well as other type of professional works. However, mostly
women receive lower pay than men for the same or equivalent work.

Rainbow trout is a cold water fish and feed on aquatic insects, small crustaceans and small fishes in
natural environment (Huet 1971, Bardach et al. 1972). Trout was introduced in Nepal to meet many
needs, such as substitution of fish import, use of cold water resources, to increase the income of the
farmers from barren, sloppy fields where both the production and the productivity level of the other
crops are poor. Recently trout farming is gradually has been popularised in mid hill region of Nepal.
The scaling up strategies of rainbow trout has been developed from various, biological, ecological,
environmental, social, and economical perspective. To develop the commercial viability of agricultural
commodities their evaluation from gender perspective is also highly valuable. Therefore, in this study
we examined and analyse how gender perspective could intervene in trout production in the country.
For example what would be womans role in trout production? What responsibilities in decision
making? What are the works that they perform and differ from males attitude in different activities
etc.

2. Materials and Methods
This study was done from Nov-December 2006 in Madanpur and Kakani Village Development
Committee of Nuwakot District as this place is known as trout producing area. To meet the purpose a
questionnaire was developed to collect primary and secondary information to assess the gender role in
trout production.

3. Result and Discussion
The result of the interview with several farmers in the target areas reflected that hill women are mainly
involved in different activities of trout farming such as:

i. Raceway construction: During the preparation of raceways for trout cultivation, women of
Madanpur and Kakani participate in labour work of carrying stone, cement and other materials
used for construction.





158
ii. Fish grading: Women participated to segregate trout on the basis of fingerlings size. This is one
of the important activities of trout fish cultivation because there should be equal size of fish in
each raceway to avoid competition among smaller and bigger, equal opportunity to feed to all
fish for equal growth.

iii. Fish harvest: Women were also found to participate in the harvesting of trout.

iv. Post harvest activities: Male also participates in cooking and serving fish but a dominating role
were found to be played by women. Smoking was a part of post harvest.

v. Collection, cleaning, grading, winnowing drying and mixing of feed ingredients:
Both men and women buy feed ingredients on the basis of need. Women involve in the cleaning,
grading and winnowing the feed ingredients for trout. Women do drying the feed ingredients to
escape from the fungal infection and to increase the durability of storage of the feed ingredients.

vi. Separation of dead eggs and selection of brood: During the period of incubation, dead eggs
have to be separated. During the phase, soft handle will be preferred more and seen positive
result also. In such case, female's participation shows a good result perform better than male. A
trend of male and female engaged for the brood selection and breeding of trout is presented
below.

In general, with the initiation of trout farming in the project area involvement of women has been
relatively increased than before.

Conclusion and Recommendation:
Rural women play a fundamental role in decisions regarding the household, including decisions
regarding production, use of resources, and expenditures. However, women's decision-making role
tends to be marginalized outside the household, especially in public decision-making bodies.

A project to promote the transfer of trout production technology to peasant communities in the
mountain as well as hilly areas has to promote the participation of women in extension, and carried
out sensitization workshops for trout production programme and project designers. Research should
be carried out on: Women's contribution to the fisheries economy; the role of indigenous women in
the management of natural resources and the environment; the effects of structural adjustment on
women.

Acknowledgement
The authors are pleased to express their deep appreciation and sincere gratitude to farmers for their
valuable time spent during interview. They would also like acknowledge Mrs. Bhavana Shrestha for
her help.

Reference
Rai A. K, R. C. Bhujel, S. R. Basnet & Lamsal G. P (2005) Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) culture
in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal- A success story. Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural
Research Institutions (APAARI), FAO, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok,
Thailand. 33 pp