A Quick Guide to Using UTM Coordinates

Standing at the road junction marked with the star on the topographic map pictured above, a GPS unit set to display position in UTM coordinates, would report a location of:

10 S 0559741 4282182
The 10 S represents the zone you are in. The zone is necessary to make the coordinates unique over the entire globe. The top set of numbers, 0559741, represent a measurement of East-West position, within the zone, in meters. It's called an easting. The bottom set of numbers, 4282182, represent a measurement of North-South position, within the zone, in meters. It's called a northing.

The map has Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid lines spaced every kilometer or 1000 meters. The vertical grid lines determine East-West position and the horizontal grid lines determine North-South position. Look along the bottom edge of the map at the labels for the vertical grid lines. 559 and 560000 mE. The label, 560000 mE., reads "five hundred and sixty thousand meters East." The label, 559, is an abbreviation for, 559000 mE. The two grid lines are 1000 meters apart. The horizontal grid lines are labeled in a similar manne Getting to Know the Metric System If the metric system gives you heartburn, here are a few tips to help you out.

The Truth
(to within 3 or 4 significant digits)

What you can remember

(You'll be about 10% too short.) 1~= 3 feet meter ~= 1 yard ~= 100 yards 100 m ~= length of a football field 1000 ~= 1/2 mile m

1 meter

= 3.280 feet = 1.094 yards

100 m = 109 yards = 1 kilometer = 1 km 1000 m = 0.621 miles ~= 5/8 mile

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Shorthand for UTM Coordinates Most land navigation activities focus on a very small portion of the globe at any one time. Typically the area of interest to an outdoorsman is less than 20 miles on a side. This focus on a small area allows us to abbreviate UTM coordinates. The zone information and the digits representing 1,000,000m, and 100,000m are dropped. The 1m, 10m and 100m digits are used only to the extent of accuracy desired. A GPS unit might read

10 S 0559741 4282182

Using a notation similar to the one found on a USGS topographic map, this would be written as: Zone 10 S 559741 mE. 4282182 mN. An abbreviated format for the same coordinates would look like: 59 82 Describes a 1000m by 1000m square. 597 821 Describes a 100m by 100m square. 5974 8218 Describes a 10m by 10m square. 59741 82182 Describes a 1m by 1m square. The 100m abbreviated format, 597 821, and the 10m abbreviated format, 5974 8218, are the most commonly used. Notice that the easting is reported first, followed by the northing. Remember the phrase "read right up" to help you remember to read the easting from left to right, followed by the northing from the bottom up. Also notice that when you abbreviate coordinates you should not do any rounding. 0559651 becomes 596 not 597. This ensures that your position is still within the reported square. As accuracy decreases, the square gets bigger. Using a UTM grid overlay tool If you want to find your location with more precision than is available from the grid lines on the map, you will need a tool that is marked in finer divisions. One such tool is a grid overlay. The grid overlay is placed on the map with its edge aligned with the grid lines. Then the position of the mark can be determined using the tool's additional precision. Additional precision is available by either by "eyeballing" or by using a UTM Corner Ruler with finer markings. For many land navigation situations 100m precision is quite adequate.

The example shown here locates the to a precision of 100m. The 10,000m and 1,000m digits of the coordinate are taken from the map. Thus the coordinates 59 82 locate the 1,000 meter square containing the star. The grid overlay is placed over the grid and the 100m digit is determined. Remember to read the Easting followed by the Northing.

In 100m abbreviated format the coordinates of the

are 597 821.

The "pocket sized" UTM grid overlay shown here is available from Map Tools.

Pocket Sized" UTM Grid Overlays

"Pocket Sized" UTM Grid Overlays Fast and easy UTM plotting These easy to use grid tools divide a 1 kilometer grid square into 100 meter squares. Align the tool on the map grid and read off the easting and northing values. The 1:50,000 scale tool is sized for a 2km grid spacing. The tools also have a compass rose along their outside edge. This makes plotting or measuring a bearing a snap. The small size of these tools will allow you to keep them handy in your pocket.

New for 2009 We have added a band of white ink around the edge of the 1:24,000, 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scale grid overlays. This makes reading the compass rose and grid numbers easier and also keeps the tool from "disappearing"when you place it on the map. In the center of each 100m square, on the 1:24,000 and 1:25,000 scale tools, we've added a small dot, which makes it easy to read the coordinate with a 50m precision. One last thing, we also added a lanyard hole in the upper left corner. Printed on 30 mil plastic stock the tools are about the thickness of a credit card. The ink is coated to protect it from abrasion. Size 2.75 x 2.75(7cm X 7cm).

The 1:24,000 Scale "Pocket Sized" UTM Grid Overlay is also available with the instruction booklet " Using your GPS with the UTM Coordinate System" For instructions on using a UTM Grid tool visit this page of our UTM Tutorial.

1:100,000 Scale UTM Grid Overlay A 1:100,000 scale UTM grid overlay. The grid can be used to break down a 10km map grid into 1km subdivisions. Additionally, by using a straight edge and the 100m tics along the edge, it is possible to locate a point with 100m precision. Printerd on 30 mil plastic stock with a protective coating. Approximate size is 5" by 4.5" (12.5cm X 11cm). Item description Price Add to Cart 1:24,000 Scale Pocket Size UTM Grid Made in USA, Part Id: UTMGrid24 1:25,000 Scale Pocket Size UTM Grid Made in USA, Part Id: UTMGrid25 1:50,000 Scale Pocket Size UTM Grid Made in USA, Part Id: UTMGrid50 1:100,000 Scale UTM Grid Made in USA, Part Id: UTMGrid100 1:24,000 Scale Pocket Size UTM Grid - Pack of 25 Made in USA, Part Id: UTMGrid24-25Pack 1:25,000 Scale Pocket Size UTM Grid - Pack of 25 Made in USA, Part Id: UTMGrid25-25Pack 3.00 3.00 3.00 5.00 49.95 49.95

1:50,000 Scale Pocket Size UTM Grid - Pack of 25 Made in USA, Part Id: UTMGrid50-25Pack Copyright 2008 MapTools All Rights Reserved For more information feel free to Contact Us Try it out using your overlay and the following map...

49.95

Click on the map to get a pdf file containing this exercise.

Your GPS unit reads... 10 S 0294324 3925702 Plot your position on the map. What would that be in 100m abbreviated format? Locate the following on the map...

943 265 948 264 9375 2702

Report the positions of the following symbols in 100m abbreviated format...

You should have come up with the following results... Your plotted position should be just north of the 5784 elevation mark on Sawtooth Ridge. That would be 943 257 in 100m abbreviated format.

943 265 Canyon 948 264 Dawson Spring 9375 2702 x5862

5400 ft level in Burnett

946 272 948 255 951 263 954 276

Why Use UTM Coordinates The UTM coordinate system offers the following benefits: A square grid UTM Provides a constant distance relationship anywhere on the map. In angular coordinate systems like latitude and longitude, the distance covered by a degree of longitude differs as you move towards the poles and only equals the distance covered by a degree of latitude at the equator. Since land navigation is done in a very small part of the world at any one time using large scale maps. The UTM system allows the coordinate numbering system to be tied directly to a distance measuring system. No negative numbers or East-West designators Grid values increase from left to right and bottom to top

This is just like the X Y Cartesian coordinate system you learned high school math class. Simple Cartesian coordinate mathematics can be used. No spherical trigonometry is required! Coordinates are decimal based Ones, tens, hundreds and so on. No more minutes and seconds to convert. Coordinates are measured in metric units All UTM coordinates are measured in meters. Most of the world has already adopted the metric system. Now you won't need to remember how many feet are in a mile. And what's that in yards? More details about the UTM coordinate system The Universal Transverse Mercator projection and grid system was adopted by the U.S. Army in 1947 for designating rectangular coordinates on large scale military maps. UTM is currently used by the United States and NATO armed forces. With the advent of inexpensive GPS receivers, many other map users are adopting the UTM grid system for coordinates that are simpler to use than latitude and longitude. The UTM system divides the earth into 60 zones each 6 degrees of longitude wide. These zones define the reference point for UTM grid coordinates within the zone. UTM zones extend from a latitude of 80 S to 84 N. In the polar regions the Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) grid system is used. UTM zones are numbered 1 through 60, starting at the international date line, longitude 180, and proceeding east. Zone 1 extends from 180 W to 174 W and is centered on 177 W. Each zone is divided into horizontal bands spanning 8 degrees of latitude. These bands are lettered, south to north, beginning at 80 S with the letter C and ending with the letter X at 84 N. The letters I and O are skipped to avoid confusion with the numbers one and zero. The band lettered X spans 12 of latitude. A square grid is superimposed on each zone. It's aligned so that vertical grid lines are parallel to the center of the zone, called the central meridian. UTM grid coordinates are expressed as a distance in meters to the east, referred to as the "easting", and a distance in meters to the north, referred to as the "northing".

Eastings UTM easting coordinates are referenced to the center line of the zone known as the central meridian. The central meridian is assigned an easting value of 500,000 meters East. Since this 500,000m value is arbitrarily assigned, eastings are sometimes referred to as "false eastings" An easting of zero will never occur, since a 6 wide zone is never more than 674,000 meters wide. Minimum and maximum easting values are: 160,000 mE and 834,000 mE at the equator 465,000 mE and 515,000 mE at 84 N Northings UTM northing coordinates are measured relative to the equator. For locations north of the equator the equator is assigned the northing value of 0 meters North. To avoid negative numbers, locations south of the equator are made with the equator assigned a value of 10,000,000 meters North. Some UTM northing values are valid both north and south of the equator. In order to avoid confusion the full coordinate needs to specify if the location is north or south of the equator. Usually this is done by including the letter for the latitude band.

If this is your first exposure to the UTM coordinate system you may find the layout of zones to be confusing. In most land navigation situations the area of interest is much smaller than a zone. The notion of a zone falls away and we are left with a simple rectangular coordinate system to use with our large scale maps. Frequently, in land navigation, the zone information and the digits representing 1,000,000m, and 100,000m are dropped. The 1m, 10m and 100m digits are used only to the extent of accuracy desired. Note that it's the smaller digits that are dropped in the notation used by the USGS on the edges of their maps. For example 4282000 mN. becomes 82. Because pilots and sailors navigate over much greater distances they still favor the latitude longitude coordinate system. UTM Coordinates on USGS Topographic Maps All USGS topographic maps printed in the last 30 years or so include UTM grid tick marks, in blue, on the margin of the map. For a short time period after 1978 the USGS was printing a fine lined UTM grid on their topographic maps. They have since discontinued this practice. Since most USGS 1:24,000 scale topographic maps do not have grid lines printed on them, you will need to draw them in by hand. Start by finding a flat surface to work on. Use a straightedge that is long enough to draw a line across your map. Two to three feet long is a good length. Line the straightedge up between two corresponding UTM tick marks along the neat line (the edge) of the map. Remember that UTM grid lines are not exactly North-South or East-West anywhere but in the center of a zone. This means that the grid lines will not be parallel to the neat lines. Using a mechanical pencil or a fine pointed pen draw a line between the two tic marks. If you are using a pen, select one that has waterproof ink. In addition, you will want to use a straightedge that has the edges lifted off of the paper. This will help keep from leaving an ink smudge when you move the straightedge. High quality straightedges will often have a thin piece of cork stuck to the bottom. This helps keep the rule from slipping, and keeps the edge off of the paper. A piece of masking tape centered on the bottom of your straightedge will work also. Occasionally wipe of the edge of the straightedge to avoid any ink build up. Griding maps is tedious work. We all wish the USGS would go back to printing the grid on the map. But even then, we would still need to grid our existing maps. As you can see this is not the kind of thing you want to do on the hood of a truck or using a flat rock. Grid your maps before you need them in the field! In a pinch you can fold the map over on itself and use the edge of the paper as a straightedge. Photocopies of Maps

Frequently, you may use a photocopy of a small portion of a map rather than the entire map. This cuts down the wear and tear on the original map and allows several copies to be distributed among a group. Make sure you transfer at least the large-print portion of the UTM grid markings onto the photocopy. It's also helpful to provide scale and contour information. Preprinted scale bars on Post-It note paper are available or just make a copy of the scale bars and "cut and paste" Avoid the temptation to change the scale of the map with the zoom on the copier. If you use maps often you will have a good sense of distance. Alter the scale and it will be harder to judge distances. Plus your overlay tools will no longer be useful. If you do change the scale using the copier, be sure and copy the scale bars at the same time, so they will correctly reflect the new scale. If you are marking roads, trails or boundaries on the photocopied map, avoid obscuring the underlying feature with the mark. Pencil lines will usually allow the feature to show through as will highlighter pens. There is nothing more frustrating than needing to know what is under a big black mark on your copy of the map. Using a UTM Corner Ruler A UTM Corner Ruler consists of two scales at right angles to each other. UTM Corner Rulers will typically provide an additional digit of precision beyond a UTM Grid Overlay. On a 1:24,000 scale map you will be able to determine a position to within a 10m square. The trade off is that the Corner Ruler is somewhat harder to use. Start by placing the top right corner of the Corner Ruler on the SW corner of the UTM grid that contains the feature. The ruler edges should extend to the West and South. To find the UTM coordinates of a feature marked on your map slide the rulers North and East until the corner is on top of the feature to be measured. Read the UTM coordinate values from the starting grid lines. To locate a UTM coordinate on the map slide the ruler North and East until the desired distances are indicated at the grid lines. If the grid square you are using is on the edge of your map, you may need to start from a corner other than the southwestern one. You can still use the corner ruler, remember that UTM coordinate values increase from West to East and from South to North. You should return to the exercise and try it using a 1:24,000 scale UTM Corner Ruler.

If you are using an odd scaled map or if you left your UTM tools behind, you can quickly make a simple corner ruler using the scale bars on the map. Start with the corner of a scrap of paper. Mark off a one kilometer distance and the 100m subdivisions using the metric scale bar. Repeat this process along the other edge. Number both rules starting from the corner which would be zero.

Overlays containing UTM corner rulers for several different map scales are available from MapTools. Using a UTM Slot Style Tool

Click the diagram for a larger image. Position the base of the tool on the southern grid line. Slide the tool E-W until the target is centered in the slot. Read the Easting value for the grid from the edge of the map. Read the additional Easting digits from the E-W ruler where it crosses the western grid line. Read the Northing value for the grid from the edge of the map.

 Read the additional Northing digits from the N-S ruler where it crosses the target. Overlays containing UTM Slot Style Tools for several different map scales are available from MapTools. Map Datums A datum describes the model that was used to match the location of features on the ground to coordinates and locations on the map. Maps all start with some form of survey. Early maps and surveys were carried out by teams of surveyors on the ground using transits and distance measuring "chains". Surveyors start with a handful of locations in "known" positions and use them to locate other features. These methods did not span continents well. Frequently they also did not cross political borders either. The "known points" and their positions are the information that the map datum is based. As space based surveying came into use, a standardized datum based on the center of the earth was developed. Every map that shows a geographic coordinate system such as UTM or Latitude and Longitude with any precision will also list the datum used on the map. The Global Positioning System uses an earth centered datum called the World Geodetic System 1984 or WGS 84. WGS 84 was adopted as a world standard from a datum called the North American Datum of 1983 or NAD 83. For all practical purposes there is no difference between WGS 84 and NAD 83. Most USGS topographic maps are based on an earlier datum called the North American Datum of 1927 or NAD 27. (Some GPS units subdivide this datum into several datums spread over the continent. In the Continental United States use NAD27 CONUS.) In the Continental United States the difference between WGS 84 and NAD 27 can be as much as 200 meters. You should always set your GPS unit's datum to match the datum of the map you are using. On a USGS topographic map the datum information is in the fine print at the bottom left of the map. The datum will always be NAD 27. There may be information on how many meters to shift a position to convert it to NAD 83. Think of this as the error that will be introduced if you leave your GPS unit set to WGS 84. A dashed cross in the SW and NE corners of the map gives a visual indication of the difference between the two datums.

If you have somehow set your GPS to use the Borneo Datum of 1818, it's hard to say how far off you position may be. Let's just sat that this "datum thing" is something you need to pay attention to. If you are coordinating with aircraft, they will likely have their datum set to WGS 84, as most aviation charts now use WGS 84. Should you worry about the difference in datums? Typically a pilot will not have any difficulty locating you on the ground if you can get them within several hundred meters of your location. If you are engaged in a mission that requires more precision, then your datums should match.

Knot Tying Guide

Ropes and knots are the main tools for a mountain rescue team. Below you will find many of the most popular knots used in search and rescue rope rescues Figure-of-Eight The Figure-of-Eight knot is probably the most useful of all climbing knots. It is easy to tie, easy to undo after a load has been applied, and puts the least stress on the rope when tied tight. It can be tied anywhere in the rope, but if it's near the end, it should be secured with a stopper knot to prevent the knot from un-doing itself. There are generally two methods used to tie a figure of eight knot. The first method is used when a piece of equipment is clipped into the loop, the second when the knot is used to tie into something, for example, a climbing harness. Figure-of-Eight loop on a bight

Figure-of-Eight Follow Thru

The above re-threaded method is usually used to tie into a harness, and is just a case of making a figure-of-eight on the single rope, looping through the harness, and following the knot back through itself. Double Loop Figure-of Eight

The double loop figure 8 is used in equalizing the load between multiple anchor points, it can be tied either on a bight of rope or as a follow thru knot used with the in-line figure of eight. In-Line Figure Of Eight

The in-line figure of eight is a mid-point loop knot used as a unidirectional tie-in point. The knot can be tied and the tail run through anchor points and then follow back through to create a double loop figure eight. Bowline

The bowline is easy to adjust and untie. Beware, though, that if tied incorrectly in can be unsafe. You should really tie a stopper knot in the loop with the loose end to prevent it from pulling through.

Clove Hitch

The clove hitch is easily adjusted when place, but is not a particularly strong knot. If one side of the knot is to be loaded, place the diagonal underneath. If both sides are to be loaded, place the diagonal at the top. Tighten before loading, as it may run if loaded when loose. Highwayman's Hitch

This knot can bear one's weight on one strand of the rope and can be untied by just pulling on the other strand. End 'B' is the load-bearing end. NOT RECOMMENDED for climbing, but excellent for robbing stagecoaches, when you want to get away quick with your rope. Fisherman's Knot

Probably the simplest knot for joining two ends of rope. Consists of two overhand knots. Double Fisherman's Knot

Better than the Fisherman's Knot, this uses two double overhand knots. Good knot, as it can be difficult to untie. Check regularly for the loose ends getting shorter, and if so, re-tie. Tighten with body weight. Lark's Foot or Girth Hitch

Quick knot, but weak. When tied around an object it is referred to as a girth hitch. Usually used with webbing loops as quick anchor points. Overhand Knot

Probably the simplest knot in existence. Usually used as a stopper knot, but a double overhand is preferable. Double Overhand Knot

Better as a stopper knot than the Overhand, as it is less likely to pull through. Overhand Loop

This knot can be used with slings and ropes, for shorting slings to creating loops in the end of webbing. Once loaded it is difficult to untie. Sheet Bend

Occasionaly used to join the ends of ropes, may be adjusted easily, but can also come undone easily. Tape Knot or Water Knot

Usually used for joing the ends of tapes or slings. Can work loose sometimes, so check regularly, and re-tie if the ends are getting shorter. Tighten with body weight before use. Tails should be at least 2 inches long.

Ascending Knots Five ascending knots are shown in all, each have their advantages and disadvantages. Try them all out, and see which you prefer.

Prusik Loop

Two wrap prusik loop is mainly used for personal use, where a three wrap prusik is used for heavier loads and system rigging. The Kleimheist

The Hedden Knot, also known as Kreutzklem First published in 1960 in Summit Magazine. In 1964, the name Kreutzklem was attached to it by someone in the German mountain troops who was shown it by an officer serving in the US Air Force. The Kreutzklem name (cross-clamp) was applied because the original inventor (Chet Hedden) got lost somewhere along the way when it was shown to different people in Europe.

The French Prusik

The Bachmann

KN

A Selection of Knot Diagrams for Introductory Climbing Courses

1982 - 1994 Cyril Shokoples Unauthorized duplication by any means is strictly forbidden.

Warning:
Learning knots and systems from a printed page or a computer screen can be a dangerous practice. Using a knot or system properly or improperly, or tying a knot incorrectly, can lead to property damage, injury or even death. Be sure to learn proper knot tying and systems from a qualified and experienced instructor or guide.

RING BEND a.k.a. TAPE KNOT This is one of the few bends which is suitable for use in flat material such as webbing. When tied with rope, it is most often referred to as the "Ring Bend". The bend is begun by tying a simple overhand knot in one end. The second running end is then traced back over the first knot in such a manner that the ends finish facing away from each other. Care should be taken to be sure that the strands of rope or webbing run parallel to each other along their entire length. As always, leave adequate tails on the ends of the bend, especially with webbing, which has a tendency to slip.

OVERHAND LOOP A simple loop for quickly securing a rope end. It is easy to adjust but suffers from a lower strength than some other loops and can be quite difficult to untie if loaded. Nice to know as a good backup knot to use when you need a loop fast.

FIGURE EIGHT LOOP a.k.a. FIGURE EIGHT TIED WITH A BIGHT The standard knot for attaching a climber to an anchor. The knot is simply tied by forming a figure eight knot with a bight of rope! Take care to be sure that the strands run parallel to facilitate adjusting the knot and to ease untying if the loop is loaded (as in a fall).

completed loop

ONE & A HALF GRAPEVINE LOOP a.k.a. FISHERMANS LOOP a.k.a. SWAMI LOOP

An alternative to the Figure Eight Loop for tying into a climbing harness, this knot is compact, secure and quick to tie. It can become difficult to untie if fallen upon repeatedly. This loop starts with an overhand knot. The running end is then properly feed through your harness and comes back out through the center of the overhand. The loop is then completed with the second half of a double fishermans bend. It may be prudent to back this knot up with an overhand as well. Be sure an adequate tail is left at the end of the knot.

SINGLE FISHERMANS BEND

This is the first of the family of Fishermans bends (knots for joining two rope ends) that includes the single, double and triple fishermans bends. This bend is the quickest to tie as well as being the weakest and least secure of the bunch. Even so if properly tied, dressed to make the ends tight and then secured with additional overhand back-up knots as shown, it is often used in many situations. For more permanent, secure and stronger bends move to the double or triple variety.

...then dress the bend to complete it.

GRAPEVINE BEND a.k.a.DOUBLE FISHERMANS BEND

Probably one of the most commonly used bends in climbing when it comes to joining two ends of rope, accessory cord or even tubular webbing together. It is very secure if long enough tails are left protruding from the bend. Both running ends of the rope are tied identically around the standing part of the opposite rope and the knot is dressed by pulling the ends and standing parts alternately until a very compact "barrel" shaped knot results

Appearance of completed bend

"S" BEND a.k.a. TRIPLE FISHERMANS BEND

By taking one extra turn around each side of a Grapevine Bend, the "S" Bend results. This is the strongest and most secure bend known for some types of rope. Some manufacturers of Spectra accessory cord state that this is the only bend to be used for joining two ends of Spectra. In large

diameter cord, it is a bit bulky, and more difficult to tie and untie, but if you have slippery cord or want high strength, go for it!!

MUNTER HITCH A good technique to learn for belaying. The Munter hitch has a tendency to twist the rope if you are not constantly vigilant in your rope handling. Note that the rope running to the climber should be on the side of the solid backbone of the carabiner, not on the gate opening side. Munter hitches are best used on large locking pear shaped carabiners, but can be used on any locking carabiner in a pinch. In an emergency, you can lower an injured partner or even rappel using a Munter hitch, but once again it twists the rope.

CLOVE HITCH Another of the standard means for attaching a climber to an anchor. Easy to tie and rapidly adjusted, you should take care to secure the hitch well before trusting it. They have been known to slip on occasion before grabbing and are probably best used on a locking carabiner. A good knot to add to your bag of tricks. It can be tied with one hand. Practice that plenty before you try it on a climb.

TWO - POINT LOAD DISTRIBUTING ANCHOR Also known as a pseudo - equalizing anchor, this arrangement is commonly used to share the load between two otherwise strong and secure anchor points to provide redundancy in case of failure of a single point. There are two conflicting concepts to remember. Attempt to keep the angle between the two legs of the sling below 60 degrees when possible and always keep the angle below 90 degrees. If the angle is too great, load multiplication occurs. To reduce the angle, a longer sling can occasionally be used. If the sling is too long however, the failure of a single point can lead to a long extension of the sling before the anchor once again holds. This can lead to a belayer being dragged across the terrain with the potential for total loss of the belay. Secondarily, the remaining single anchor point will once again be shock loaded. This tendency is reduced by using a shorter sling. Two bombproof points are the minimum for a strong anchor. This style of Load Distributing Anchor should only be used when 2 completely impeccable protection placements are being used as an anchor, such as with two modern, well placed bolts. If one ore more protection pieces within an anchor are less than perfect, an alternative configuration which does not allow for extension to occur should be employed. Learn more about anchors than just this picture !!!

THE PURCELL PRUSIK SYSTEM This is a modern revision to an age old system. Three Prusik loops of unequal length are used. They are sized before they are attached to the rope. The short loop should reach from the point where it is attached to your harness to the top of your helmet. The long loop when attached to your boot should reach to nipple height. The intermediate or medium sized loop should reach from your boot to just above groin height.

From the top down they are attached in order; short, then long then intermediate or medium (SLIM). To ascend, slide the short Prusik up to support your harness. Then slide up and stand on the right prusik. Then move the short Prusik again. Then slide up and stand on your left prusik. The process of harness then right foot, harness then left foot is repeated until you reach your destination.

PRUSIK HITCHES A moveable point of attachment to a rope, the three wrap Prusik hitch is used for ascending ropes in self rescue, attaching other rescue system components such as pulleys and even special belays (which require special training). Learn this hitch, you may need it.

IMPROVISED CHEST HARNESS One of several traditional variations for an improvised chest harness, this version incorporates a fishermans knot on a coil to attach the rope or webbing which encircles the chest. Handy to know if you need a quick chest harness to connect to your seat to cross a glacier on an approach to a route. It is also a good idea to have a chest harness if you wear a large pack. For prolonged travel on glaciers, it's best to get a commerical chest harness to add to your seat harness, or use a commercial full body harness. Have someone show you how this is done rather than trying to figure it out from a diagram and having it fail with dire consequences.

IMPROVISED FULL BODY HARNESS This is a traditional harness improvisation as used by climbing guides. Impossible to learn from a diagram, it incorporates accessory cord or webbing for a seat and separate chest harness. The seat harness uses variations of the fishermans and overhand bends at various points. It is a good idea to know how to improvise at least one style of harness for those unusual situations in which you need one and don't have one. Once again, learning to tie this harness should only be done under the supervision of a knowledgeable instructor !

THE ABCs OF BELAYING WITH A HIP BELAY First of all, it must be recognized that a hip or "body" belay is not necessarily your first choice for a belay and, in fact, it may often be your last choice. It is best used for low or medium force falls in non-vertical terrain. Having said that, it can be a good alternative when on straightforward terrain with good stances, as it can be applied rapidly. It is also an excellent techique for using in emergencies when you have no belay device. Wearing gloves is always a good idea when belaying. Always be sure you are snug against your anchor and your feet are firmly braced.

Keep the anchor, belayer and climber in a straight line so that you will not be pulled off your stance if a fall occurs. Keep the rope going to the anchor and the rope to the climber on the same side of your body so that a fall will not spin you out of the belay. At the same time try not to let the climbing rope rub against the anchor rope. Never let go of your braking hand. Practice this technique until you can apply it flawlessly. It is one belay that requires no equipment to apply and has held countless falls before the advent of mechanical belay devices.

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