1

Complete modules 1-10 in order and then use the Go To arrows to navigate the modules for reviewing the material.

Module 1 2 3 4 5 Radiation Basics

Topic Operational Fundamentals of X-rays Regulations / Requirements Starting a New Project Exposure Limits / Dosimetry

Go To

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7 8 9 10

Biological Effects
Safety in the Laboratory Emergency Procedures Additional Information Contacting REM
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RadiationBasics

Radiation: energy given off by matter in the form of rays or high-speed particles.

One form of radiation is pure energy with no weight. This form of radiation known as electromagnetic radiation is like vibrating or pulsating rays or "waves" of electrical and magnetic energy. Familiar types of electromagnetic radiation include sunlight (cosmic radiation), x-rays, radar, and radio waves.
The other form of radiation known as particle radiation is tiny fast-moving particles that have both energy and mass (weight). This less-familiar form of radiation includes alpha particles, beta particles, and neutrons.
4

http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/health-effects/radiation-basics.html

Ionizing Radiation: refers to the radiation of sufficient energy to strip electrons from the orbit of an atom, causing ionization.
Particle Radiation (alpha, beta, neutron) Electromagnetic Radiation (X-ray, gamma, UV)

Non-Ionizing Radiation: refers to radiation that has enough energy to move atoms in a molecule around or cause them to vibrate, but not enough to remove electrons.

Microwave Infrared Radio waves Magnet fields

5

http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/health-effects/radiation-basics.html

Alpha particles
Have a very limited ability to penetrate other materials Can be blocked by a sheet of paper, skin, or even a few

Beta particles

inches of air Potentially dangerous if they are inhaled or swallowed, but external exposure generally does not pose a danger
Lighter than alpha particles Generally have a greater ability to penetrate other

materials Can travel a few feet in the air, and can penetrate skin Can be blocked by a thin sheet of metal or plastic or a block of wood
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http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/health-effects/radiation-basics.html

Neutrons
Neutrons are high-speed nuclear particles that have an

exceptional ability to penetrate other materials. Can travel great distances in air and require very thick hydrogen-containing materials (such as concrete or water) to block them

Gamma Rays
Consist of high-energy waves that can travel great distances

at the speed of light and generally have a great ability to penetrate other materials Can be blocked by several feet of concrete or a few inches of dense material (such as lead)

X-rays (Covered in detail in Modules 2 10)

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http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/health-effects/radiation-basics.html

Paper/Skin

Plexiglas

Lead

Paraffin/Water/ Concrete

Alpha
Beta Gamma/X-ray Neutron
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Background radiation is the naturally occurring ionizing radiation that we are exposed to on a daily basis. Average Annual Background Radiation Exposure in the US is approximately 620 mrem. Personal background exposure may be influenced by location and lifestyle.

9
NCRP Report #160

Zone 1 (>4pCi/l) Zone 2 (2-4 pCi/l) Zone 3 (<2 pCi/l)

Radon
(198 mrem)

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Internal Emitters (40 mrem)

11

Cosmic

(29 mrem)

12

Terrestrial
(29 mrem)
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Consumer Products
E.g.: Tobacco , building materials,

fossil fuel combustion

Industrial
E.g.: Exposure from nuclear

medicine patients, research

Occupational
E.g.: Medical practitioners,

aviation

Medical
E.g.: X-Rays, Nuclear Medicine

Treatment

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Exposure
Describes the amount of radiation traveling through the air. Units: roentgen (R) or coulomb/kilogram (C/kg)

Absorbed dose
Describes the amount of radiation absorbed by an object or

person (that is, the amount of energy that radioactive sources deposit in materials through which they pass). Units: radiation absorbed dose (rad) or gray (Gy)

Dose equivalent (or effective dose)

Combines the amount of radiation absorbed and the medical

effects of that type of radiation. Units: roentgen equivalent man (rem) or sievert (Sv)
http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/health-effects/measuring-radiation.html

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Quality Factor (Q)

The factor by which the absorbed dose (rad or gray) must be multiplied to obtain a quantity that expresses, on a common scale for all ionizing radiation, the biological damage (rem or sievert) to the exposed tissue. This quantity is known as the dose equivalent (or effective dose). This factor is used because some types of radiation, such as alpha particles, are more biologically damaging to live tissue than other types of radiation when the absorbed dose from both is equal.

Quality Factors by Type Type Q Alpha () 20 Beta () 1 Gamma () 1 X-ray 1 Neutron 5-20 *
* Varies depending on neutron energy

16
http://hps.org/publicinformation/radterms/radfact116.html

When working with x-rays 1 R = 1 rad = 1 rem

17
http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/health-effects/measuring-radiation.html

Operational Fundamentals of X-rays

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X-rays are the expression of extra electromagnetic energy emitted as the result of the change in energy state or momentum of an electron near the nucleus of an atom. They consist of high-energy waves that can travel great distances at the speed of light and generally have a great ability to penetrate other materials. They can be blocked by several feet of concrete or a few inches of dense material (such as lead). They differ from gamma rays in origin only. X-rays originate from the energy shells of an atom, while gamma rays are produced in the nucleus of the atom.

X-ray wavelengths range from 10-12 m to 10-8 m on the Electromagnetic Spectrum.

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X-rays are produced when a high-voltage source is used to accelerate electrons through a target material. The penetrating ability of the x-rays produced is dependent on their energy (hard vs. soft x-rays).
Soft x-rays generally fall into the range of 10-8 to 10-10 meters on the

electromagnetic spectrum and have energies ranging from less than 1 keV to about 10 keV. Hard x-rays generally fall into the range of 10-10 to 10-12 meters on the electromagnetic spectrum and have energies ranging from about 10 keV to 120 keV.

Only a small percentage of the energy carried by the electrons is converted to x-rays upon striking the target. Typically, greater than 99 percent of the energy will be converted to heat and absorbed by the target. The target is usually cooled with water or oil to prevent it from melting and rotates to avoid constant exposure to the same area.
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Current

X-rays
ee99% of E e1% of E

e-

Potential ( ~ 60 keV )

Target (Typically Tungsten or Copper)

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Depending on the type of interaction within the target material, two forms of x-rays will be produced:
Bremsstrahlung Radiation Characteristic X-rays

22

Bremsstrahlung radiation: occurs when a high speed electron is deflected from its original course by the nucleus (due to the negatively charged electron being attracted to the positively charged nucleus), causing it to lose part of its original energy as it slows down. This loss of energy results in an x-ray photon being produced in order to maintain conservation of energy.

23

Characteristic x-rays: produced when an energetic electron being accelerated through the target directly hits another electron in the inner shell of a target atom. The inner shell electron is knocked out, leaving a vacant spot for the outer shell electrons to fall into the lower energy inner shell. This process releases electromagnetic energy in the form of photons or x-rays. The energy of the photon produced is characteristic of the target material. Characteristic radiation is important in research because each element produces a characteristic spectrum that can be used to identify unknown samples.

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The energies of the Bremsstrahlung radiation emitted can range from 0 keV to the max energy of the electrons accelerated through the target. Therefore, the spectrum for Bremsstrahlung is continuous.
The Characteristic x-ray energies will be spiked and will be specific to the target material.
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Voltage potential (kVp)

Proportional to the number of x-rays and energy

Current (mA)
Proportional to the number of x-rays

Time
Proportional to the number of x-rays

Target material (analytical)

Z (characteristic x-ray energy)
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X-ray producing tubes consists of:

High-voltage source

Electron producing source (cathode)

Electron target (anode)

These components are normally sealed in a glass tube, both to create a vacuum and to act as an insulator between the anode and the cathode.
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Cathode
Most common filaments are made of Tungsten The filament is located in a concave cup that focuses the

Anode

electron beam onto a small area of the target called the focal spot.

Tungsten is the most commonly used target material because

of its high atomic number, high melting point, high thermal conductivity and low vapor pressure. Other target materials may be used if different characteristic Xray energies are desired. The material used, and subsequently the energy of the x-rays produced, will have an effect on the penetrating abilities of those x-rays (hard vs. soft x-rays).
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Glass envelope: Used to create a vacuum needed for x-ray production and to act as an insulator between the cathode and the anode.

High voltage source: Used to accelerate electrons from the cathode into the anode.

Copper rod: Used for heat dissipation of the anode.

Electron target (anode): Site of electron interaction and x-ray production. Can be made from a wide variety of materials (usually composed of Tungsten or Copper).

Electron producing source (cathode): Contains an electron producing filament in a focusing cup that directs the electrons to the anode. Most commonly composed of Tungsten.

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Image courtesy of Joshua R. Calvert, Butler International

Glass envelope : Used to create a vacuum needed for x-ray production and to act as an insulator between the cathode and the anode.

Electron producing filament in the focusing cup

High voltage source : Used to accelerate electrons from the cathode into the anode.

Copper rod: Used for heat dissipation of the anode.

Electron target (anode): Site of electron interaction and x-ray production. Can be made from a wide variety of materials (usually composed of Tungsten or Copper).

Electron producing source (cathode): Contains an electron producing filament in a focusing cup that directs the electrons to the anode. Most commonly composed of Tungsten.

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Image courtesy of Joshua R. Calvert, Butler International

X-ray machines are just that machines. When the power is turned off (i.e. no current or voltage), that machine no longer produces radiation. Therefore, there is no danger present from an x-ray machine when the unit is powered down. X-ray machines differ from radionculides in this aspect. Radionuclides cannot be turned off with a switch. Nuclides such as P-32, H-3 and C-14 are always radioactive unless decayed away.
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Primary Use
Utilizing x-rays to determine the elemental composition or to examine

the microstructure of materials through x-ray diffraction or fluorescence analysis.

http://www.learner.org/courses/essential/physicalsci/session5/closer1.html

http://www.aps.anl.gov/News/APS_News/2000/20001017.htm

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410 IAC 5 Rule 8

Open-Beam: an analytical x-ray system in which an individual could accidentally place some part of his body in the primary beam path during normal operation.

Open-beam units present the greatest potential for injury due to the fact that the primary beams is exposed and accessible to the user.

Closed-Beam: an analytical system in which all possible x-ray paths (primary and diffracted) are completely enclosed so that no part of a human body can be exposed to the beam during normal operation.
Cabinet: an x-ray system with the x-ray tube installed in an enclosure (hereinafter termed "cabinet") which, independent of existing architectural structures except the floor on which it may be placed, is intended to contain at least that portion of a material being irradiated, provide radiation attenuation, and exclude personnel from its interior during generation of x-radiation.

The cabinet units are the safest of the analytical unit types because they prevent exposure to the primary beam by including numerous safety interlocks The cabinet units also have built-in shielding within the unit to prevent excess exposures to the users

33
http://www.in.gov/isdh/files/industrial_no_materials_extract.pdf

Units usually operate at low x-ray energies (<50 kVp), but can also be operated at higher x-ray energies (> 50 kVp). The currents for analytical units can range from less than 1 mA to greater than 200 mA. This will produce a wide range of x-ray energies depending on the specific operating conditions of the unit.
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Primary Beam: radiation which passes through an aperture of the source housing by a direct path from the xray tube or a radioactive source located in the radiation source housing. The exposure rate from the primary beam of an analytical x-ray unit can be as intense as 400,000 R/min.

The exposure area resulting from the primary beam can be less than 1 cm2.
The hands, fingers and eyes are the parts of the body most commonly at risk.
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410 IAC 5 Rule 8

Scatter Radiation: radiation which has changed direction by virtue of its contact with matter after emerging from the radiation head. Leakage Radiation: all radiation emanating from the source assembly except the useful beam and that radiation produced when the exposure switch or timer is not activated.
ISDH has placed a limit on leakage radiation to no more than

0.25 mrem/hr at a distance of 5 cm from the surface of the unit

Present the potential for low-level chronic exposure that may lead to unnecessary over-exposures and biological effects for the users.
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410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1

X-ray machines are just that machines. When the power is turned off (i.e. no current or voltage), that machine no longer produces radiation. Therefore, there is no danger present from an x-ray machine when the unit is powered down. X-ray machines differ from radionculides in this aspect. Radionuclides cannot be turned off with a switch. Nuclides such as P-32, H-3 and C-14 are always radioactive unless decayed away.
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Primary Use
An x-ray system designed

for irradiation of any part of the human body for diagnosis or visualization. Procedures include:
Fluoroscopy Radiography Dental X-rays Veterinary X-rays

http://www.missouristate.edu/hper/Radiography.htm

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410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1

Medium energy x-rays

Typically operate between 70-120 kVp

Depends on procedure being performed

Added filtration
Typically >2.5 mm aluminum Added to remove low energy x-rays that would

lead to skin exposure and excessive scatter radiation

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Primary Beam: radiation which passes through an aperture of the source housing by a direct path from the x-ray tube or a radioactive source located in the radiation source housing. The exposure rate from the primary beam of a diagnostic x-ray unit can be as intense as 50 R/hr. The length of exposure is very short though, usually only a matter of seconds. The exposure area will vary depending on the procedure being performed, but collimation of the beam prevents exposure to unnecessary areas.
40

410 IAC 5 Rule 8

Regulations / Requirements

41

Due to the potential risks involved regarding the operation of x-ray units, there are restrictions that must be met. These restrictions are meant to minimize the possibility and severity of exposure from these units. Regulatory authority comes from the State of Indiana, Purdue University and specific laboratory requirements.
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The Indiana State Department of Health (ISDH) regulates the use of x-ray equipment in Indiana through Title 410 Indiana Administrative Code Article 5: Radiological Health. (All regulations are available in the Web Links tab in Blackboard.)
410 IAC 5 Rule 2: Registration of Radiation Machine Facilities and

Services. 410 IAC 5 Rule 4: Protection and Exposure Standards. 410 IAC 5 Rule 5: Non-Medical Radiography (includes x-ray fluorescent lead based analyzers). 410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1: X-rays in the Healing Arts. 410 IAC 5 Rule 8: Radiation Safety Requirements for Analytical X-Ray Equipment. 410 IAC 5 Rule 9: Radiation Safety Requirements for Particle Accelerators. 410 IAC 5 Rule 10: Notices, Instructions and Reports to Workers; Inspections.
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Radiation Safety Program: Authorized by Purdue University Executive Memorandum No. B-14
Radiation Safety Committee (RSC) Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) in the Department

of Radiological and Environmental Management

Radiation Safety Staff

Purdue Radiation Safety Manual

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The Department of Radiological and Environmental Management (REM) administers the radiation safety program for all sources of ionizing and nonionizing radiation at Purdue University. With regard to x-ray equipment, REM is responsible for:
registering all x-ray equipment with the ISDH performing a radiation survey and compliance inspection when

x-ray equipment is first installed, and when equipment is relocated or reconfigured in any way that affects radiation safety; performing an annual survey and inspection of each x-ray machine; providing radiation monitoring badges for x-ray users; providing x-ray safety training for x-ray users.

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REM serves as a consultant to the University Community in the following areas:

Construction Health and Safety, Environmental Health, Fire and Safety Equipment Service, Hazardous Material Management, Industrial Hygiene, Laser Safety, Radiation Safety and Safety and Ergonomics

REM assists in monitoring regulatory compliance with various federal, state and university regulations involving environmental, health and safety issues. Services include training, consultation, emergency response and waste removal.
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Responsible for complying with regulations set forth by the US NRC, as well as the Indiana State Department of Health, for the safe use of radioactive materials and radiation producing devices.

This is accomplished by providing several types of training, radioactive waste pickups, calibration services, personnel dosimetry to monitor radiation exposure and consulting support for any safety issues identified by Purdue University employees and students.
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The mission of the Radiation Safety Committee is to ensure the safety of the University and community in the utilization of all radioactive materials and radiation producing devices at the University or by University faculty, staff or students.

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Lab / Unit Specific Requirements

Training: The PI of each x-ray project shall ensure that every

individual operating the x-ray unit on on their project successfully receives unit-specific training, in addition to REM Xray Safety Training, prior to their working with the equipment unsupervised. The PI will signify such training by signing the Application to Use Radioactive Materials and/or Radiation Producing Devices (New User Application) or A-4 form. Standard/Normal Operating Procedures: Step-by-step instructions necessary to accomplish the analysis. These procedures shall include sample insertion and manipulation, equipment alignment, routine maintenance by the registrant, and data-recording procedures which are related to radiation safety. (ISDH 410 IAC 5 Rule 8 )

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Equipment Requirements
All equipment must have the following:
An easily visible, fail-safe, warning light labeled with the words "X-RAY, ON," or words having a similar intent A readily discernible sign or signs bearing the radiation symbol and the words:
"CAUTION HIGH INTENSITY X-RAY BEAM," or words having a similar intent, on the x-ray source housing; and "CAUTION RADIATION THIS EQUIPMENT PRODUCES RADIATION WHEN ENERGIZED" or words having a similar intent, near any switch that energizes an x-ray tube if the radiation source is an x-ray tube

Each x-ray tube housing shall be equipped with an interlock that shuts off the tube if it is removed from the radiation source housing or if the housing is disassembled.
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IAC 5 Rule 8

Equipment Requirements (Contd)

Diagnostic x-ray systems Signage/labeling must be present on the x-ray control panel:
"WARNING: This x-ray system may be dangerous to patient and operator unless safe exposure factors and operating instructions are observed."

51
410 IAC 5-6.1

Area Requirements
Each area or room containing x-ray equipment shall be conspicuously

posted with a sign or signs bearing the radiation symbol and the words "CAUTION X-RAY EQUIPMENT," or words having a similar intent in accordance with 410 IAC 5-4-11. Radiation surveys are required:

Upon installation of the equipment, and at least once every 12 months thereafter (24 months for veterinary facilities); Following any change in the initial arrangement, number or type of local components in the system; Following any maintenance requiring the disassembly or removal of a local component in the system; During the performance of maintenance and alignment procedures if the procedures require the presence of a primary x-ray beam when any local component in the system is disassembled or removed; Whenever personnel monitoring devices show a significant increase over the previous monitoring period or the readings are approaching the limits specified in 410 IAC 5-4-2.
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IAC 5 Rule 8

Exposure rates within the area will be determined when the unit is first installed. The initial inspection will ensure that there are no exposures in the area that would result in harm to the users.

Annual inspections will be performed by qualified Radiation Safety staff to ensure that the exposure rates from the equipment are still within acceptable standards.
Inspections of the unit should be requested by the lab staff if any of the following occur:
The unit is moved The unit is altered in any way that may affect the interlocked safety

features The processes performed with the unit are significantly altered (for example: radically different target materials may have different scatter patterns which will result in different exposures)

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Self-monitoring of equipment is not required for cabinet units. The exposure rates from these types of units are well below harmful levels and in most cases, the exposure rate is nearly zero. All units are monitored with area badges that will indicate any excess exposure rates in the laboratory.

If a user wishes to monitor their equipment, exposure rates can be determined by using a radiation survey meter. More information on radiation survey meters can be found in Module 7: Safety in the Laboratory GO
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Failure to comply with the rules or regulations set for by the ISDH or Purdue University can result in (depending on the severity of the violation):
Re-training Loss of work privileges with x-ray producing devices Obtaining an injunction or court order to prevent a

violation Civil penalties Criminal penalties

For willful violation of, attempted violation of or conspiracy to violate any regulation
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Starting a New Project

56

The following forms must be completed by the user and approved by the Radiation Safety Officer and the Radiation Safety Committee:
Form A-1: Project Summary & Evaluation for Use of

Radioactive Materials and Radiation Producing Devices (New/Amend Project Form) Form A1-S: Radiation Facility Approval Request (New Lab Application) Form A-4: Application to Use Radioactive Materials and/or Radiation Producing Devices (New User Application) Form SM-1: Survey Meter Registration
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Available Training:

(General) Radiation Safety Training for Use of Radioactive Materials Sealed Source Training (includes irradiator and nuclear gauges) Diagnostic x-ray (includes DEXA) Analytical x-ray (diffraction) Laser Safety Declared Pregnant Worker DOT Training (Transport of Hazardous Materials) Radiofrequency/Electromagnetic Safety Training Others, as needed

Some retraining may be required. Awareness training is also available as needed.

**TRAINING MUST BE COMPLETED BY ALL USERS**
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When adding a new student/employee to your authorization, the following items must be completed by the individual before they can be added as an authorized user:
Unit specific training (provided by the PI) REM X-ray Safety Training
X-ray Safety Training On-line quiz Radiation Safety Manual Agreement

A-4 form: Application to Use Radioactive Materials

and/or Radiation Producing Devices (New User Application)

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Under the Radiation Control Act of Indiana, the Indiana State Department of Health has established the Indiana Rule of Radiation Control for your protection against radiation hazards. This Rule includes safety standards, the availability of notices, instructions and reports, and provides for periodic inspections. The Indiana Rule for Radiation Control further establishes the following provisions for workers engaged in activities conducted under a license or registration granted by the Indiana State Department of Health. ISDH Board Form X
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See Module 7 of this training.

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All radiation-labeled equipment must be certified HAZARD FREE prior to service or disposal. Prior to moving out of an area and abandoning equipment - notify REM.

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For questions about starting a new project, contact:

Chris Echterling, Health Physicist
49-41478 cechterl@purdue.edu

Sharon Rudolph
49-47969 skrudolph@purdue.edu

Submit completed forms to:

Sharon Rudolph, REM, CIVL B173
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Exposure Limits / Dosimetry

64

Under the Radiation Control Act of Indiana, the Indiana State Department of Health has established the Indiana Rule of Radiation Control for your protection against radiation hazards. This Rule includes safety standards, the availability of notices, instructions and reports, and provides for periodic inspections. The Indiana Rule for Radiation Control further establishes the following provisions for workers engaged in activities conducted under a license or registration granted by the Indiana State Department of Health. ISDH Board Form X
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In an effort to reduce the potential health effects caused by radiation, regulatory agencies (NRC, ISDH, etc.) set exposure limits for those working with radiation and radiation producing devices. These limits are put in place to create an upper limit of how much radiation a worker is allowed to be exposed to within a certain time period.

The limits are created such that, an individual who is exposed to the maximum allowable quantity of radiation, is still well below the cut-off for the onset of serious health effects. X-ray limits are set forth by the Indiana State Department of Health (ISDH).
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ISDH Occupational Exposure Limits

Section
Whole Body (Head and trunk; active blood-forming organs, lens of eyes; or gonads) Skin of the whole body Extremities (Hands and forearms; feet and ankles)

Limit (rem/quarter)
1.25 7.5 18.75

Additional Exposure Limits

Pregnant Workers Non-Occupational (General Public) Minors 0.5 rem/9 months 0.1 rem/year 10% of ISDH occupational limits for adult workers

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Declaration of Pregnancy
Declaration of pregnancy is voluntary. If a declaration is made, it must be given to the

Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) in writing. If the pregnancy is declared by a worker, that worker will be given a fetal badge to monitor the dose received by the fetus. Once in effect, the pregnant workers exposure limit will be reduced from 5 rem/year to 0.5 rem/year. The declaration will remain in effect until the worker declares, in writing, that the pregnancy is over.
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Doses to radiation workers are measured indirectly by whole body and ring TLD's (thermoluminescent dosimeter). These devices DO NOT actively protect against radiation. They are after-the-fact indicators of radiation exposures received. Whole body dosimeters should be worn on the torso between the neck and pelvic area. Ring dosimeters are to be worn on the hand that is closest to the source of exposure. The TLD's that REM utilizes offer a wide variety of response to radiations such as beta, gamma, neutron and x-ray. They are designed for longer wear periods than film badges.

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Monitoring is required for those likely to receive, in 1 year from sources external to the body, a dose in excess of 10 percent of the occupational exposure limits.

REM monitors exposure through your dosimetry and survey guidelines are based on 10% of the regulatory limits. REM will investigate any personnel exposures of 100 mrem or more, at a minimum of issuing a letter to the exposed individual and the individuals supervisor which:
Seeks an explanation for the cause for the exposure, and Seeks a plan to minimize exposures to ALARA.

If you would like a copy of your exposure records, please contact Sharon Rudolph at skrudolph@purdue.edu or 765-494-7969.

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Passive (most commonly issued at Purdue)

Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs)

Film Badges

Active
Pocket Electronic

71

Wear this on palm side.

72

Should be worn on the collar, pocket or belt area. If a shielded apron is worn, the dosimeter should be worn outside the apron.

73

In many cases, because of the low potential for exposures, analytical xray users are not required to wear dosimetry. However, if you have been issued a dosimeter:
ALWAYS wear your badge when working with an x-ray unit Notify REM if your badge is lost (a replacement will be issued as soon as

possible) Don't wear your badge during medical tests (e.g. - dental visits) Do not deliberately expose your badge to radiation or place badges inside the x-ray units Don't share your badge (your badge is assigned to you only) Don't expose it to heat (this may erase any recorded exposures) Please make sure your badges are available for exchange at the end of the wear period. Depending on the user, the wear period may be monthly, bimonthly or quarterly.
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Return dosimetry promptly at the end of the wear period! If dosimetry is not returned, it cannot be processed. Dosimeters returned late may be considered degraded and unreadable. Also, there is a cost (late fee) associated with unreturned dosimetry. Notify REM if you will not work with devices requiring dosimetry for extended periods. We can suspend your service and reactivate it when it is needed.
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Biological Effects

76

Many types of radiation present the danger for external and internal exposure, as well as the potential for contamination. X-rays present a hazard for external exposure. Depending on the energy of the x-rays, damage may occur to the skin by absorption of the x-rays (low energy) or to vital organs due to penetration of the xrays deeper into the body (high energy). X-ray radiation is considered to be a form of ionizing radiation. X-rays will pass through the body, causing ionization and indirect damage.
77

When an x-ray strikes the body, it is mainly affecting water (since our bodies are 70% water). Most damage to intracellular molecules is done by an indirect process. When an x-ray interacts with a water molecule, free radicals are produced, which may cause cellular death. Changes in cellular material or DNA damage may also occur by direct interaction of the ionizing radiation with DNA or other important intracellular molecules.
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Length of exposure

Dose received
Energy of the x-rays Sensitivity of the individual

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Acute exposures
One time event High-level doses involved (>100 rem) Effects appear quickly (within days to weeks)

Chronic exposures
Long-term Low-level doses involved Effects will appear slowly because the body has time

to heal itself after exposure. The effects, if any, will appear 20-30 years after exposure.

80

Low energy x-rays (< 50 kVp)

easily absorbed

produce surface (skin) effects

High energy x-rays (> 50 kVp)

capable of penetrating deep into the body
produce internal effects

81

Injuries experienced as a result of radiation exposure include the following:

Radiation burns from acute exposures
Radiation sickness from both acute and chronic

exposures Long-term effects from acute and chronic exposures

82

Occur as a result of an acute localized exposure. Radiation burns can occur from a wide range of exposures and usually result from a direct exposure to the primary beam. The hands, fingers and eyes are the parts of the body most commonly at risk. The severity of the burn will depend on the dose received, the length of the exposure , the energy of the x-rays and the sensitivity of the individual. Burns can be caused with exposures of 300 rem, but normally do not become apparent below exposures of at least 600 rem.

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http://www.radford.edu/fpc/Safety/Xray/chp6.htm

Occurs when a large dose is received to the whole-body. Symptoms usually will not start to appear unless the exposure is greater than 100 rem delivered within a few hours. Blood changes can occur at exposures as low as 25 rem. If a whole-body dose of 400-500 rem is received, approximately 50% of those exposed will die within 30 days if untreated (LD50/30). Recovery is likely with medical care although the exposed individual will suffer several months of illness. Exposure to a dose in excess of 700 rem to the entire body in a short period of time will likely result in death within a few weeks. If the radiation dose is spread over several weeks, a person may survive a whole-body dose as large as 1000 to 2000 rem.
84

http://www.radford.edu/fpc/Safety/Xray/chp6.htm

Acute Whole-Body Exposure Symptom

Blood Cell Changes Nausea, Diarrhea Hair Loss Erythema Sterility/Death (LD50/30*) - no treatment
No Recovery Expected ( LD100**)

Dose (rem)
25-50 100 250 300 450 - 500

Gastrointestinal Syndrome Central Nervous System Syndrome

* The dose of radiation expected to cause death to 50 percent of an exposed population within 30 days ** The dose of radiation expected to cause death to 100 percent of an exposed population

1000 >2000

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Long-term effects resulting from chronic exposure to ionizing radiation include carcinogenesis, life span shortening, and cataract formation. The principle delayed effect from chronic exposure to radiation is an increased incidence of cancer. Long-term effects of an acute exposure to radiation are often classified as leukemia and other cancers, radiation-induced life shortening, genetic effects and embryonic effects.
Genetic defects are less likely than cancer, and not as serious,

therefore, the risk of developing cancer from radiation exposure is more significant. Radiation exposure in-utero can result in spontaneous abortions, congenital abnormalities, impairment of growth and mental functions, and increased incidences of leukemia.

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http://www.radford.edu/fpc/Safety/Xray/chp6.htm

Safety in the Laboratory

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Among the most important aspects of an x-ray safety program are the attitudes and actions of the individual users. Taking personal responsibility for ones own safety can have a tremendous impact on the safety of the lab as a whole. The following slides will describe ways for individual users to protect both themselves and those around them while working with x-rays.
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Keep exposures As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA) Methods for achieving ALARA
Time Distance Shielding

Monitoring exposure
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Minimize the time that you are near the unit.

The less time spent in a radiation area, the lower the accumulated exposure to the worker. Therefore:
Plan the work efficiently. A user should not spend any

more time in the area than is absolutely necessary. The work space should also be set up in such a way that a worker, while monitoring the experiment, is not being exposed unnecessarily.
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Maximize the distance that you are from the unit. The greater the distance, the lower the exposure. Your goal should be to never allow the distance between you and any source to become zero. Therefore:
Stay as far from the unit as possible when performing an

experiment. Set up the work area in such a way that the lab occupants will not be exposed unnecessarily inside the lab while the x-ray unit is operating. Within the lab, place the unit as far away from public areas (i.e. hallways) as is possible.
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Inverse Square Law (Point Source)

The intensity of radiation decreases as the inverse

square of the distance. Doubling distance, exposure = of original; Tripling distance, exposure = 1/9 of original.
2 =I 2 1

I1d

d2 2
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 (I1)(d1)2 = (I2)( d2)2 (20 mR/hr)(1ft)2 = (I2)(2ft)2

I1 = 20 mR/hr I2 = ?? d1 = 1 ft d2 = 2 ft

(20 mR/hr)(1ft)2 = I2 (2ft)2 (20 mR/hr)(1ft2) = I2 (4ft2)

I2 = 5 mR/hr
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Have appropriate Shielding between the unit and yourself.

Always use shielding. The greater the shielding the lower the exposure to workers.
Use lead for gammas or x-rays. Cabinet x-ray units have shielding built into the housing. In addition to the

shielding provided by the units housing, leaded glass is used to prevent exposures. It is important to be sure that the leaded glass has not been replaced with regular glass or plexiglass. Neither of these materials are effective in preventing harmful exposures.

In order to be sure that the shielding is appropriate, check the effectiveness of the shielding with a meter.
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Paper/Skin

Plexiglas

Lead

Paraffin/Water/ Concrete

Alpha Beta Gamma or X-ray Neutron

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Radiation Survey Meters

Geiger-Mueller (GM) or Ion Chambers can be used to detect x-

ray radiation. Either can be used to take measurements. Ion Chambers are better at making quantitative x-ray measurements than the GM meters. However, if any leak is found in the unit, the appropriate steps should be taken to fix the leak and decrease exposure levels.

Dosimetry
Be sure to turn in dosimetry when the wear period is over. An exposure limit of 100 mrem is set for the dosimetry. If an

analyzed dosimeter shows a reading at or above this level, both the PI and the user will be notified by REM.

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Signs and Labels

ISDH Board Form X: Notice to Employees

should be posted in plain sight. The lab area, x-ray room and control room should have appropriate signage posted. The x-ray unit should have appropriate signage and labeling.

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Fail-Safe Characteristics: a design feature which causes beam port shutters to close, or otherwise prevents emergence of the primary beam, upon the failure of a safety or warning device (410 IAC 5-8). All safety and warning devices must be failsafe. Unit Enclosure: Equipment housing designed to prevent exposure from the primary beam. These enclosures may be fitted with leaded glass windows and safety interlocks which all work to prevent the operator from being exposed to the primary beam. Interlocks: A series of switches that must all be connected in order for the primary beam to operate. The switches are generally connected to the warning lights, doors, beam shutter and collimator. If any of these switches are triggered and opened, the beam will shut down.
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Beam Shutter: Opens or closes, allowing or preventing the primary beam to pass.

Beam Stop: Composed of a high Z-number material that will absorb the primary beam that passes through and around the sample. This device works to stop the primary beam and to reduce the scatter radiation that would be caused if the primary beam were to strike components of the unit housing.
Beam Collimation: Focus the primary beam on the area of interest. Collimation prevents exposure to unwanted areas.
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Warning Lights: Signal to the lab occupants that the x-ray beam is on or that the beam shutter is open. These are all failsafe, meaning that the beam will not be energized if the lights are not operational. Standard/Normal Operating Procedures: Step-by-step instructions necessary to accomplish the analysis. These procedures shall include sample insertion and manipulation, equipment alignment, routine maintenance by the registrant, and data-recording procedures which are related to radiation safety. (ISDH 410 IAC 5 Rule 8 )
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The safety features of analytical units will vary depending on the type of unit being employed (i.e. open-beam, closed beam or cabinet).

Open-beam units have the highest potential for dangerous exposures to occur because they allow the user to have access to the primary beam. Closed-beam and cabinet units are much safer to work with because they, in one way or another, prevent the user from accessing the primary beam.
Every unit, regardless of type, should include the necessary safety features needed to prevent access to the primary beam and keep the potential exposures to the users at safe levels.

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Safety Features

Tube housing Beam shutter Beam collimation Primary beam stops Warning lights (e.g. X-ray on, shutter open) Shielding from entry into primary beam Safety interlocks

Other Safety Measures

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) Annual surveys of equipment Personnel Dosimetry

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Shutter On/Off Warning Lights

Warning Sign

Safety Interlocks Leaded Glass

Interlock Sensors
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Interlocked Door Panels

Leaded Glass Shielding Warning Signs

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X-ray On Warning Light

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Warning Lights

Removable Interlocked Side Panels

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Since diagnostic machines are used in the diagnosis and treatment of humans and animals, additional safety measures must be put in place when dealing with such units.

Diagnostic units will have an exposed primary beam delivering treatment directly to the user. Because this primary beam is accessible, extra care must be taken to ensure that those in the xray room are not exposed to levels of radiation that exceed what is necessary for treatment.
All appropriate safety features and protective measures must be put in place to ensure that the exposures to the individuals receiving treatment and the users delivering the treatment are as low as possible.

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410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1

Shielded room Operator protected by shielding (or located in a separate control room) Additional shielding for the control of scatter radiation Collimation (exposed area visible) Aluminum filtration Warning lights signaling when the unit is being energized Dead-man switch that allows the operator to control when the unit is energized
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No person other than the veterinarian, or someone working under the direct supervision of the veterinarian, is allowed to administer radiation to the animals. Aluminum filtration of 0.5 millimeters is required for units operating up to 50 kvp. Aluminum filtration of 1.5 mm is required for units operating from 50-70 kvp. Aluminum filtration of 2.5 millimeters is required for units operating above 70 kvp. A dead-man switch, with a cord long enough to allow the operator to be at least 6 feet from the beam, must be provided.
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410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1

The operator must stand as far away from the animal and the useful beam as is reasonably possible.

No other individuals are allowed into the x-ray room unless they are needed for proper completion of the procedure.
If an animal must be held during a procedure, the user holding the animal must be protected with appropriate personal protective equipment (i.e. leaded gloves, lead apron and thyroid collar). The individual must also be wearing personnel dosimetry.
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410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Lead aprons Thyroid collars Leaded gloves Gonadal shielding

Personnel Dosimetry
Not an active protector; simply an after the fact indication of exposure Discussed further in modules 5 and 7

Annual Evaluations by Certified Inspectors

Diagnostic x-ray systems
Every 24 months for veterinary facilities Every 12 months for hospitals, medical facilities and chiropractic facilities

Fluoroscopy x-ray systems

Every 12 months

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410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1

Performance Standards on Leakage

Must be less than 0.5 mR/hr at 1 meter from the source housing Must be less than 2 mR/hr at 2 centimeters from any other surface of

the unit

Fluoroscopy units should be set up so that no one other than the patient is in the x-ray room during the procedure. Written safety procedures must be available to all working with the x-ray unit.

Complete regulations for Diagnostic X-ray Devices can be found here.

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410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1

Since diagnostic machines are used in the diagnosis and treatment of humans and animals, additional safety measures must be put in place when dealing with such units.

Diagnostic units will have an exposed primary beam delivering treatment directly to the user. Because this primary beam is accessible, extra care must be taken to assure that those in the xray room are not exposed to levels of radiation that exceed what is necessary for treatment.
All appropriate safety features and protective measures must be put in place to ensure that the exposures to the individuals receiving treatment and the users delivering the treatment are as low as possible.

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Shielded room Operator protected by shielding (or located in a separate control room) Additional shielding for the control of scatter radiation Collimation (exposed area visible) Aluminum filtration Warning lights signaling when the unit is being energized Dead-man switch that allows the operator to control when the unit is energized

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410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1

No person other than the veterinarian, or someone working under the direct supervision of the veterinarian, is allowed to administer radiation to the animals. Aluminum filtration of 0.5 millimeters is required for units operating up to 50 kvp. Aluminum filtration of 1.5 mm is required for units operating from 50-70 kvp. Aluminum filtration of 2.5 millimeters is required for units operating above 70 kvp. A dead-man switch, with a cord long enough to allow the operator to be at least 6 feet from the beam, must be provided.
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410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1

The operator must stand as far away from the animal and the useful beam as is reasonably possible.

No other individuals are allowed into the x-ray room unless they are needed for proper completion of the procedure.
If an animal must be held during a procedure, the user holding the animal must be protected with appropriate personal protective equipment (i.e. leaded gloves, lead apron and thyroid collar). The individual must also be wearing personnel dosimetry.
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410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Lead aprons Thyroid collars Leaded gloves Gonadal shielding

Personnel Dosimetry
Not an active protector; simply an after the fact indication of exposure Discussed further in modules 5 and 7

Annual Evaluations by Certified Inspectors

Diagnostic x-ray systems Every 24 months for veterinary facilities Every 12 months for hospitals, medical facilities and chiropractic facilities Fluoroscopy x-ray systems Every 12 months
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410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1

Performance Standards on Leakage Must be less than 0.5 mR/hr at 1 meter from the source housing Must be less than 2 mR/hr at 2 centimeters from any other surface of the unit
Fluoroscopy units should be set up so that no one other than the patient is in the x-ray room during the procedure. Written safety procedures must be available to all working with the x-ray unit.
Complete regulations for Diagnostic X-ray Devices can be found here.
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410 IAC 5 Rule 6.1

Unsafe equipment configuration

Examples: Open beam units without appropriate shielding Lack of safety interlocks

Bypassing of interlocks
Interlocks are put in place to prevent access and exposure to the primary

beam. Bypassing or manipulating these interlocks presents the potential for dangerous exposures.

Inadequate Training
In addition to this x-ray awareness training provided by REM, all users

must be trained on the specific units that they will be operating.

Willful violation of established safety guidelines

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Personal Issues Rushing through an experiment or procedure and ignoring safety procedures in order to save time Complacency as a result of repetitive experiments and procedures Fatigue due to long hours worked and stress from performing continuous experiments and the desire to obtain specific results Lack of communication between those working with or around the x-ray unit

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Emergency Procedures

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Response is dependent on type of emergency:

Personal Injury
Fire

Human life always comes before concerns regarding exposure to radioactive material.

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Personal Injury
Treat injured personnel first.

Do not move a seriously injured person unless he

or she is in further danger. Contact medical personnel (i.e. call 911) Notify REM (49-46371)

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Fire
Activate the building fire alarm system (fire pull station). If

not available or operational, verbally notify persons in the building. Notify the Fire Department at 911. Isolate the area and evacuate the building:
Shut down equipment in the immediate area, if possible. Close doors to isolate the area. Use a portable fire extinguisher to control a small fire or assist in evacuation if possible.

Provide the fire/police teams with the details of the

problem upon their arrival. Notify REM (49-46371)

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Additional Information

126

Only the individuals that are listed as Approved Authorized Users on the specific x-ray project as defined by REM may have the ability to operate the x-ray unit(s).
If an unauthorized user is found using the unit, immediately

notify the PI. REM should be contacted to schedule a training for the user in order for them to become authorized. It is important for all those using the x-ray equipment to be:
Trained on the specific unit Trained on x-ray awareness in order to be informed of safety requirements, hazards involved and ways to prevent unnecessary exposures

Energized equipment must be attended by an authorized user at all times.

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More information is available from these agencies

Indiana State Department of Health
Radiation Machine Registration and Compliance GO

Indoor and Radiologic Health General Information

GO

United States Food and Drug Administration

Radiation-Emitting Products Medical X-Rays Nationwide Evaluation of X-Ray Trends (NEXT) GO GO GO

United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Radiation Protection Radiation Related Information GO GO
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Contacting REM

129

You know or suspect there has been an overexposure to an individual The x-ray unit is to be moved or modified

Personnel working on the project has been changed (added/dropped)

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Information: (765) 49-46371 Fax: (765) 49-47403 Office Location: CIVL B173 Campus Mail: REM, CIVL

Mailing Address: Radiological and Environmental Management 550 Stadium Mall Drive West Lafayette, IN 47907-2051
Web: http://www.purdue.edu/rem/
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James Schweitzer, Ph.D. Radiation Safety Officer

Mary Handy, CLSO Laser Safety Officer, Assistant RSO Chris Echterling Health Physicist Sharon K. Rudolph Isotope Ordering & Distribution Mike Nicholson Waste Handling & Animal Hospital Support Jerry J. Gibbs Waste Handling & Meter Calibration

49-42350 jfschweitzer@purdue.edu
49-42721 maryjo24@purdue.edu 49-41478 cechterl@purdue.edu 49-47969 skrudolph@purdue.edu 49-40205 mlnicholson@purdue.edu 49-40207 jjgibbs@purdue.edu

Click here for the Radiation Safety Group webpage

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This concludes the PowerPoint portion of the training. Complete the test indicated below. You must have 75% of correct responses to pass.
Your results will be emailed to you, and will constitute as your certification

of your successful completion of the online portion of your training, if you have passed.

Submit a completed Form A-4 (make sure that both you AND your Principal Investigator have signed the form), and send trough campus mail to: Sharon Rudolph/REM/CIVL

Click here to begin the test.

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