BIG, FAT

Chemistry Review
_______________________________________________________________

Amanda Le, 2012

Contents
Unit 1: Introduction to Chemistry, Matter, and Atomic Structure......pg. 3 Chapter 2: Matter Chapter 3: Chemical Foundations: Elements, Atoms, and Ions Chapter 19: Radioactivity and Nuclear Energy Unit 2: Nomenclature............pg. 6 Chapter 4: Nomenclature Unit 3: Measurements and Chemical Composition............pg. 8 Chapter 5: Measurements and Calculations Chapter 6: Chemical Composition Unit 4: Types of Reactions........pg. 11 Chapter 7: Chemical Reactions: An Introduction Chapter 8: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions Unit 5: Stoichiometry.........pg. 13 Chapter 9: Chemical Quantities Unit 6: Thermochemistry......pg. 14 Chapter 10: Energy Unit 7: Modern Atomic Theory and Periodicity.....pg. 17 Chapter 11: Modern Atomic Theory Unit 8: Chemical Bonding, Liquids, and Solids..pg. 21 Chapter 12: Chemical Bonding Chapter 14: Liquids and Solids Unit 9: Gases, Solutions, Equilibrium, and Acids and Bases.....pg. 26 Chapter 13: Gas Laws Chapter 15: Solutions Chapter 16: Acids and Bases Chapter 17: Equilibrium

Unit 1: Introduction to Chemistry, Matter, and Atomic Structure

Important Scientists John Dalton (1803) thought that: Atoms cannot be divided; they are the smallest particle there is (false) Atoms combine in fixed proportions to form molecules (true) All atoms of an element are identical (false) JJ Thomson (1897) performed an experiment with the cathode ray tube (CRT) Diagram: source of voltage

(+) electrode electrons

(-) electrode

Discovered electrons and assumed that atoms must also have a positive charge to make them neutral Thomsons Plum Pudding Model diagram: + +

Ernest Rutherford (1909) performed the gold foil experiment Diagram: paper that glowed when hit by alpha particles

Alpha particles Polonium Po reflected particles gold foil

Discovered the dense, tiny, positively-charged nucleus surrounded by a negatively-charged cloud Rutherfords atomic model: - - + - 3

Parts of the Atom: Subatomic Particles Protons: positively charged; located in the nucleus; along with neutrons, they weigh the most in the atom (1 amu); dictates what atom it is Electrons: negatively charged; located on the outside of the atom; have almost no mass at all; dictate the charge of the atom Neutrons: have no charge; located in the nucleus; weigh about the same as protons

Atomic Properties: Proportions: the nucleus is small but heavy; the electron (e-) cloud is large, but light Ions: atoms of the same element (the same number of protons and neutrons), but have a different number of electrons; a charged atom Isotopes: atoms of the same element (the same number of protons and electrons), but have a different number of neutrons

Written format of an element: Mass number (p+ + no)

A Z

Element symbol Atomic number (p+)

Average Atomic Mass formula: ( )( ) ( )( )

Important Definitions Element: can be found on the periodic table Compound: two or more elements bonded to each other in fixed amounts Can only be separated by a chemical reaction Matter: Made of atoms Takes up space Has mass Pure Substance: Made of only one element 4

Cannot be physically separated into parts

Mixture: Made of two or more pure substances that are not chemically combined Can separate its parts and have varied amounts o Homogenous mixture: the same throughout; components are in equal proportions o Heterogeneous mixture: components are present in different proportions

Written format of a chemical equation: quantity of substance element 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O state of matter compound

Physical vs. Chemical Physical change: chemical composition stays the same; only the form changes; retains all properties Examples: dissolving, melting, cutting Chemical change (reaction): chemical composition changes; occurs when bonds are broken or formed; results in a new substance that did not exist before Indicated by temperature change, color change, measured mass change, bubble formation, gas/odor formation, or if light, energy, or sound is given off Physical property: describes a substance as it is Intensive: does not depend on how much of the substance there is (i.e. color, smell, state of matter, texture, etc.) Extensive: depends on the quantity of the substance (i.e. volume, mass, etc.)

Unit 2: Nomenclature
Binary compound: compounds containing two elements - Type 1 naming: ionic Transfer of e Metal cation + nonmetal anion The metal comes first and keeps its name, and the second element gets the -ide suffix Involves the main group metals: IA, IIA, and IIIA Also includes Ag (+1), Zn (+2), Cd(+2), and Sc(+3), which are not from those groups, but do not vary in charge and do not need roman numerals ** use this method when you know the charge of the metal cation (it is monovalent) Type 2 naming: also ionic Same as Type 1 (transfer of e-, metal + nonmetal) There is more than one possibility for the metals charge, because it is a transition metal You need a roman numeral to indicate the charge ** Assume neutrality: assume that the positive and negative charges cancel out Examples: AuCl AuCl3 FeO Fe2O3 Gold(I) Chloride Gold(III) Chloride Iron(II) Oxide Iron (III) Oxide

The charge of the nonmetal is always known; make the charge of the metal equal to that of the given nonmetal The roman numerals need to be whole numbers, so if the metal and nonmetal do not balance evenly, multiply them This type involves all transition metals except for Ag, Zn, Cd, and Sc Also includes Sn, Pb, Sb, and Bi, which are not transition metals, but are polyvalent and need roman numerals ** use this method when you do not know the charge of the metal cation (it is polyvalent)

Type 3 naming: covalent / nonionic / molecular Electrons are shared, not transferred There are no charges Nonmetal + nonmetal The first element keeps its name, and the second element gets the -ide suffix Use Greek prefixes to tell how many atoms are present ** Note: If there is only one of the first atom, omit the prefix for it The second atom always gets a prefix

Greek prefixes: 1 mono2 di3 tri4 tetra5 penta6 hexa7 hepta8 octa9 nona10 deca-

Polyatomic Ion: an ion made of more than one atom; counts as one atom; one charge is shared among several atoms - Example: SO42 The 2- charge is shared by all of the elements treat the ion as one atom; do not break it up Example: Na (+1) SO4 (-2) becomes Na2SO4; sodium sulfate - When there are several of the same polyatomic ions, place parentheses around it when writing it out Example: Au2(SO4)3 Acids: formulas that begin with a hydrogen (H) atom Type 4 naming: acids If the acid does not contain oxygen (O) o Hydro_____ic acid o Example: HCl Hydrochloric acid If the acid does contain oxygen, look at the polyatomic ion o If it ends in -ate: _____ic acid - Example: HNO3 Nitric acid - Example: HClO3 Chloric acid o If it ends in -ite: _____ous acid - Example: HNO2 Nitrous acid Practice: H2SO4 sulfuric acid H3PO4 phosphoric acid H2CO3 carbonic acid HBrO2 bromous acid HBr hydrobromic acid HI hydroiodic acid

Unit 3: Measurements and Chemical Composition

Scientific Notation: method of writing very small or very large numbers Place one digit before the decimal Multiply by 10 raised to a power Examples: 96,705,000 9.6705 x 107 0.000296 2.96 x 10-4 201.55 2.0155 x 102 0.0173 1.73 x 10-2 ** Large numbers have positive powers, and small numbers have negative powers

SI (System International) Units - Base units: kg, m, s (seconds), moles - Derived units: cm3, mL, g/cm3 (density) - Prefixes: milli- (10-3), centi- (10-2), deci (10-1), kilo (103) Accuracy: closeness to a true value Precision: consistency; how repeatable something is; how close the increments of measurement are to each other ** There is no correlation of causation necessarily between the two; something can be accurate but not precise, or precise but not accurate Taking Precise Measurements Meniscus: the curved surface of a liquid in a graduated cylinder - when taking measurements, record the bottom of the curve - standard protocol about decimals: take all of the known digits, plus one estimated digit

Sig Figs (Significant Figures) - They represent all digits that are known plus one estimated digit - In a measurement, non-zero numbers are always significant - Rules about zeros: Preceding/leading zeros never count as sig-figs Captive (in between) zeros always count as sig-figs Trailing zeros are only significant when there is a decimal anywhere in the number ** a number should have the same number of sig-figs if put in standard scientific notation - Sig figs in addition/subtraction: round to the smallest number of decimal places 8

Sig figs in multiplication/division: round to the smallest number of sig figs If necessary, add 0s to the end of the number ** Sometimes, the only way to get the correct number of sig figs is to put it into scientific notation Useful hints for sig figs: For addition/subtraction, use normal mode in calculator; numbers need to be in the same power of 10 in order to round Keep extra digits throughout the problem until the final answer Long form and scientific notation have the same number of sig figs ** Exact numbers (i.e. 12 eggs per dozen, 32 people in a class) have an unlimited number of sig. figs; they are not a measurement, but an exact and definite number

Dimensional Analysis: when converting squared, cubed, etc. numbers, multiply the necessary number of times - Example: 1.5m3 to cm3

The Mole: 6.022 x 1023 atoms/molecules (Avogadros number) - 1 atom of boron = 10.811amu - 1 mole of boron = 10.811g Molar mass (formula/gram-molecular mass): how much of a mole of the element or compound weighs - Example: Sn = 118.7g / mol - Mg(OH)2 = 24.31g + 2(16.00)g + 2(1.008)g = 58.326g / mol Percent composition: tells the percent by mass of each element within the compound ( )( )

Empirical formula: the chemical formula that shows the lowest whole number ratio of the elements in a compound - Example: C2H4 and C3H6 are two different covalent compounds They have different molecular formulas (actual number of atoms) They have the same ratio and elements; the same empirical formula (CH2) - Finding the empirical formula of a compound, given how much of each element is present: 1) Convert grams to moles 2) Divide all values by the smallest number of moles to find the whole number ratio of the elements 3) Write the formula with the appropriate subscripts ** You need to have whole numbers, so multiply if necessary 9

Molecular formula: the actual formula of a compound, showing the actual number of atoms - It is always a whole number multiple of a compounds empirical formula - Example: in a class of 20 boys and 10 girls The empirical formula is 2:1 The molecular formula is 20:10, because those are the actual numbers Hydrates: ionic compound containing a hydrated salt; ionic compound with water - Example: A 2.558g sample of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 xH2O (x is the variable) is heated. All water is lost, leaving 0.948g of sodium carbonate. What is the empirical formula of the hydrate? 1) Find the moles of H2O 2) Find the moles of anhydrous salt 3) Divide both by the smaller value Moles of Na2CO3 (anhydrous): 0.948g x = 0.00894mol Na2CO3 = 0.08935mol H2O

Moles of H2O: 2.558g 0.948g = 1.610g H2O x

0.00894mol Na2CO3 0.00894mol Na2CO3 = 1 Na2CO3 0.08935mol H2O 0.00894mol Na2CO3 = 10 H2O Empirical formula = Na2CO3 10H2O

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Unit 4: Types of Reactions

Chemical Equations - Example: 2HCl (aq) + Mg(OH)2 (s) 2H2O (l) + MgCl2 (aq) + kJ - States of matter: (s): solid (aq): aqueous/dissolved in water (l): liquid (g): gas Balancing chemical equations: 1) Write the unbalanced equation, with all appropriate formulas 2) Balance by inspection o Start with the most complicated compounds o The goal is to have an equal number of atoms on both sides o Only change coefficients, not subscripts ** Hint: if there is an even number on one side and an odd number on the other, double the odd number ** Leave individual elements until the end, because they are the easiest to work with Example: __ Fe + __ O2 __ Fe2O3 Solution: 4 Fe + 3 O2 2 Fe2O3

Ionic compounds - Some dissolve in water and completely dissociate (split into ions) They are soluble/aqueous Electrolytes: substances that can conduct electricity - Some do not dissolve in water These are insoluble Nonelectrolytes - Weak electrolytes only dissolve a little Double Replacement Reactions: compound + compound compound + compound - General molecular equation: 1) Swap the cations 2) Determine the states of matter 3) Balance the charges 4) Balance the equation Gross ionic equation: 1) Keep solids/liquids together/as they are 2) Split aqueous substances into ions Net Ionic equation: only shows what is reacting 1) Cancel out spectator ions 2) Leave the precipitate and the ions that make them up 11

Special type of double replacement reaction: acid-base neutralization Acids start with H Bases end with OH Reaction forms a salt and water Example: HCl (aq) + Ba(OH)2 (aq) H2O (l) + BaCl2 (aq)

Single Replacement Reactions: element + compound element + compound - Does not focus on the formation of a precipitate - Use the activity series to determine if the reaction will happen The further left an element is on the activity series, the more reactive it is - Determine whether the ion will replace the other ion If so, predict the products, balance the charges, and balance the equation - Example: Au (s) + AlCl3 (aq) No reaction - Example: 3Cl2 (g) + 2AlBr3 (aq) 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3Br2 (l) Cl replaces Br because it is more reactive ** remember to compare cations to cations and anions to anions Transfer of electrons - In order to react and form a new substance, a metal cation must give electrons to a nonmetal anion - The total number of electrons never changes - LEO says GER Lose electrons: oxidation Gain electrons: reduction Synthesis and Decomposition - Synthesis: two or more elements or compounds 1 compound - Decomposition: 1 compound 2 or more elements or compounds Combustion: burning in the presence of oxygen - General formula: CxHx (and sometimes O) + O2 (g) CO2 + H2O (g)

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Unit 5: Stoichiometry
Every stoichiometry problem needs: - A balanced equation - A mole-mole ratio between the given substance and the unknown substance - General process: grams of A moles of A moles of B grams of B The coefficients from the mole ratio is always used Limiting and Excess Reactants - Example: 1 cup sugar + 2 eggs + 1 cup flour + 1 package chocolate chips 24 cookies. In your kitchen, you have: 10 cups sugar 8 eggs 5 cups flour 8 packages of chocolate chips o The limiting reactant is eggs o The excess reactants are sugar, flour, and chocolate chips o The maximum number of cookies you can make is 96 The limiting reactant is the first reactant to run out if the reaction is allowed to react completely; it limits the reaction The excess reactants are present in more than enough amounts, given the ratio and amount of the limiting reactant Finding the limiting reactant given the amounts of each reactant: 1) Convert to moles 2) Multiply by the mole-mole ration between the reactant and the product 3) Convert to grams 4) Repeat with any other reactants in the equation 5) Whichever reactant comes out with the least amount of product is the limiting reactant ** Always use the same product for the mole-mole ratio throughout the problem Example: If 12.15g of Mg and 18.25g of HCl are combined and allowed to react, how many grams of MgCl2 will be produced? 12.15g Mg x 18.25g HCl x x x x x = 47.60g MgCl2 = 23.83g MgCl2 correct answer

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Unit 6: Thermochemistry
Important Definitions Energy: the ability to do work or produce heat Kinetic energy: energy of movement (specifically, the motion of molecules); mass x velocity More kinetic energy = faster particles and higher temperature Potential (chemical) energy: stored energy (the energy stored in the bonds of a molecule); the potential to react based on its position/composition The further away you pull bonded molecules, the more potential energy they have More potential energy = more unstable Temperature: a measure of average kinetic energy of particles Does not depend on the amount of a substance; intensive property Thermal energy: a measure of total kinetic energy Extensive property Heat: the flow of kinetic energy in or out of a system Positive value means that heat is flowing in Negative value means that heat is flowing out Endothermic: when kinetic energy is absorbed from the surroundings and stored as potential energy; kJ is on the left side of the reaction; the reaction gets cold on its own Breaking bonds is endothermic; it requires energy to be put in Exothermic: kinetic energy is released as a product; kJ is on the right side of the equation Forming bonds is exothermic

Introduction to Thermochemistry Energy is transferred from hot to cold through collisions In many reactions, bonds are both formed and broken Whichever one wins determines whether or not the reaction is endothermic or exothermic The energy released when bonds are formed is greater than the energy released when bonds are broken

Reaction Timeline 1) Reactants 2) Activation energy (energy added to start the reaction) 3) Activated complex (peak; most unstable point of reaction) 4) Heat of reaction (products reactants) Heat of reaction: change in enthalpy of the reaction; H; potential energy of products potential energy of reactants; how much heat is given off or taken in 5) Products 14

Potential energy (kJ)

3 2 1 4 5 Time (seconds)

H (+) = endothermic / left side of equation H (-) = exothermic / right side of equation State function: a value that can be calculated by several different means which result in the same answer H is a state function Specific heat: the amount of energy it takes to raise 1 gram of something by 1C High specific heat = takes more energy to heat/cool a substance Denoted with the term Cp

Heat of Reaction formula:

The Three Methods of Calculating H (Heat of Reaction) 1) Calorimetry (coffee-cup calorimetry): reaction in aqueous solution - Calorimetry: heating or cooling an item and determining how much energy it takes in or gives off thermometer aqueous solution solid Find qsolution: ( Find qreaction: change the sign H = qreaction / moles of limiting reactant )

2) Heats of Formation: the H for a formation reaction - A formation reaction is the synthesis of 1 mole of a compound from its elements in their standard states - Example: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l) 15

This does not add up to 1 mole, so it needs to be changed 1H2 (g) + O2 (g) 1H2O (l) + 285.8 kJ/mol ** the coefficient of the product must be 1 Positive Hf = very reactive substance Negative Hf = very stable substance Hf is a measure of a substances potential energy How to find Hreaction for any reaction, using the table of heats of formation:

3) Hesss Law: if you can add up two or more reactions to get the one unknown one, you can add up their H values also - Rules: 1) Sometimes you may have to multiply a reaction and its H 2) Sometimes you may have to reverse a reaction and its H; multiply it by -1

Stoichiometry Using Heat of Reaction Treat H (kJ) as a reactant/product and continue the problem as normal 1) Convert to moles 2) Multiply by the mole-kJ ratio ** If the reaction is exothermic, remember to make kJ negative Example: For the following reaction, calculate the kilojoules of heat energy that are released when 7.80g of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) are decomposed 2H2O2 (l) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 196.4 kJ

Other Definitions Heat of fusion (melting): the energy it takes to turn a substance from solid to liquid; Hfusion Heat of vaporization (boiling): the energy it takes to turn a substance from liquid to gas; Hvaporization Both are endothermic Both involve putting in potential energy (not kinetic energy) How to calculate them:

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Unit 7: Modern Atomic Theory and Periodicity

More Important Scientists Ernest Rutherford (1909): performed the gold foil experiment and discovered the positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons (refer to page 3) Niels Bohr (1913): created the Bohr Model of the atom, in which the electrons orbit around the nucleus like planets around the sun He was wrong However, he was right in that electrons occupy specific energy levels o Electrons closer to the nucleus have less potential energy and are more stable He treated electrons as a particle that can move from place to place Louis de Broglie (1924): hypothesized that electrons, like light, behave like a wave as well as like a particle; they vibrate Everything has wave properties Werner Heisenberg (1927): came up with the Uncertainty Principle One cannot simultaneously know both the exact position and the energy/momentum of an electron Erwin Schrodinger (1926): came up with wave functions, equations that determine areas where electrons are likely to be located in an atom These areas are called orbitals

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Highest energy ( Lowest energy { )

Electromagnetic radiation is emitted when an electron goes from an excited state down to its ground state The amount of light given off by one electron is called a photon

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Electromagnetic Waves

Wavelength (): the distance from one point to an identical point the unit of measurement is nanometers, or nm frequency (): how many waves pass in one second the unit of measurement is either Hz or 1/s ** Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional; frequency and energy are directly proportional

Important formulas: ( ( ) ( ) ( ) )

Electron Configuration In order to determine the location of an electron, one must know: Principle energy level: n=1; closest to the nucleus and lowest in energy Sublevel: a collection of orbitals that all oave the same energy o The first energy level has one sublevel (s), shaped like a sphere o The second has two sublevels (s, p) and so on with each energy level The specific orbital being occupied: the region/area where an electron is likely to be o There are no more than two electrons in any orbital

Electron configuration is written out in the following form: Energy level 1s1 electron number orbital

Examples: Hydrogen 1s1 Beryllium 1s22s2 Boron 1s22s22px1 18

Noble gas shorthand: use the closest noble gas that comes before the element Examples: o Potassium: [Ar] 4s1 o Fluorine: [He] 2s22p6 o Cobalt: [Ar] 4s23d7 Orbital notation: uses arrows to indicate the opposite spin of electrons in orbitals Example: o Fluorine: [He] Valence electrons: the electrons in the highest principle energy level of an atom ** only the electrons in s and p sublevels count Example: Ge [Ar] 4s23d104px1y1 4 valence electrons Ion: atom with a charge (which means it has more or less electrons) P: [Ne] 3s23p3 P3-: [Ne] 3s23p6 = [Ar] Electron promotion: when the d sublevel takes an electron from the s sublevel in order to become either half or fully filled Occurs in Cr, Mo, Cu, Ag, and Au only Example: Ag [Kr] 5s24d9 [Kr] 5s13d10 ** As a result of electron promotion, these elements only have 1 valence electron

Periodic Trends Periodic: in increments; repeating patterns Periodic trend: describes how different properties of elements vary either Left to right across a period (row) Top to bottom down a family (column) The trends: Atomic and ionic radius: the distance between nuclei Ionization energy: how much energy is needed to remove the outermost electron Reactivity: how well the element forms compounds Electronegativity Two factors explain all periodic trends 1) How many filled energy levels an electron has o Moving down vertically, the number of energy levels increases o Moving across horizontally, the number stays the same 2) Effective nuclear charge: the pull from the nucleus that is felt by the outermost electron

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o Defined by the number of protons the number of inner shell/screening electrons o Moving vertically down, the Zeff (effective nuclear charge) stays the same o Moving horizontally across, Zeff stays the same Atomic Radius Gets smaller from left to right because the number of energy levels stays the same, while the Zeff gets stronger Greater Zeff = more tightly pulling elecrons closer to the nucleus Gets bigger from top to bottom because while Zeff stays the same, more energy levels are added Cations are smaller than their original atoms, anions are larger than their original atoms The greater the proton to electron ratio is, the greater the Zeff and the smaller the radius

Ionization Energy From left to right, ionization energy increases because the Zeff gets stronger From top to bottom, ionization energy decreases because the number of energy levels increases More energy levels in an atom = easier to pull electrons away from the nucleus 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc. ionization energy 1st: pulls off the outermost electron 2nd: pulls the next, and so forth It gets increasingly harder to pull electrons from an atom

Reactivity (how readily an element forms bonds) The most reactive metal, which is the best at losing electrons, is located in the bottom left of the periodic table The ionization energy is the lowest, so it loses electrons easily The most reactive nonmetal, which is the best at taking electrons, is located in the top right of the periodic table The ionization energy is the highest, so it pulls electrons easily

Electronegativity: how well a bonded atom pulls shared electron toward itself There are no units; it is a relative scale Corresponds to the effective nuclear charge, ionization energy, and atomic radius The most electronegative atoms are at the top right of the periodic table Examples: HH, equal electronegativity HH vs. HCl, unequal electronegativity HCl

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Unit 8: Chemical Bonding, Liquids, and Solids

Electronegativity, continued High value = good at pulling electrons Noble gases do not have electronegativity because they do not form bonds Like ionization energy, electronegativity increases from left to right and decreases from top to bottom

Bonds Occur when a compound is more stable than its individual atoms The goal is to have 8 valence electrons for each atom Ionic: generally composed of a metal and a nonmetal Involves the transfer of electrons Atoms have an electronegativity difference of Drawn as separate ions Example: NaCl Na+ Cl-

Polar covalent: generally nonmetal-nonmetal Unequal sharing of electrons Electronegativity difference of Drawn as one attached compound Example: HCl + H Cl
2.1 3.0

Nonpolar covalent: generally nonmetal-nonmetal Equal sharing of electrons Electronegativity difference of Drawn as one attached compound Example: HH

HH 21

Ionic Compounds Coloumbs Law: , where E is the strength of the bond k is the constant Q1 and Q2 are the charges on the ions D is the bond distance To tell whether an ionic bond is stronger (harder to break) or weaker (easier to break): Factor #1: charges on the ions (Q value); if the charges are larger, the bond is stronger o Example: MgS (+2, -2) vs. LiF (+1, -1), MgS is a stronger bond Factor #2: bond distance (d value); smaller distance = stronger bond

Lewis Dot Structures for Covalent Bonds Show how atoms are bonded and how they share electrons in a covalent molecule Each valence electron gets one dot Rules: 1) Count the total number of valence electrons; that is the number of dots you will use 2) Arrange the central and terminal atoms; usually, the atom with fewer valence electrons is the central atom 3) Place 2 electrons for each bond 4) Fill the octets or duets for the terminal atoms ** H, Be, and B are the duets (they need only 2 valence electrons) 5) Use any remaining dots to fill the octet for the central atom 6) Recount and double-check 7) Put in double or triple bonds only once all of the electrons have been used, and the central octet is not full For ions: follow the same process with the appropriate number of valence electrons, but remember to account for them by placing brackets and a superscript around the diagram For oxyacids (molecules containing OH): remember to attach the H to the O, not to the central atom Resonance structures: when there are two or more possible equivalent places to insert the double/triple bond

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Molecular Geometry The 3-D shape of a molecule Show how atoms are positioned in space relative to the central atom V.E.S.P.R.: valence electron pair repulsion theory Electrons repel each other Bonds and lone pairs of electrons repel each other Bond angle: the angle between two adjacent bonds on the central atom Structural diagram: shows the 3-D shape of a molecule, with lines for bonds and dots for lone pairs ** Clarifications: single bonds: weakest and longest; double bonds: shorter and stronger; triple bonds: shortest and strongest Most common numbers of bonds C: 4 bonds; 4 valence electrons, 4 empty spaces N: 3 bonds; 5 valence electrons, 3 empty spaces O: 2 bonds H: 1 bond F: 1 bond ** Lone pairs of electrons take up more space than bonded pairs

Polarity A covalent compound is polar if it has an area that is more positive and an area that is more negative; it is asymmetrical In order to be nonpolar, the compound has to be evenly balanced throughout, or symmetrical Rules for determining polarity in covalent compounds: 1) If all of the terminal atoms are the same, and there are no lone pairs of electrons around the central atom, it is nonpolar 2) If there are different terminal atoms, it is probably polar as long as there is at least one polar bond in the compound Check the electronegativity chart 3) If there are lone pairs of electrons around the central atom, it is probably polar as long as there is at least one polar bond in the compound Check the electronegativity chart

Intramolecular Forces They are the bonds within a compound that hold it together (think intramural sports, within a school) Usually very strong 23

Ionic and covalent bonds are examples of intramolecular forces

Intermolecular Forces They are the forces between molecules that stick one molecule to another They are not as strong as intramolecular forces They determine properties such as surface tension, viscosity, boiling point, melting point, state of matter, solubility in water, etc. Four types of intermolecular forces (IMFs) 1) Dipole-dipole forces (medium strength) Any substance that is polar exhibits this IMF Occurs whenever one area of a molecule that is more positive attracts to the more negative area of another molecule 2) Hydrogen bonding (super strong and super special type of dipole-dipole) A compound must contain HN, HO, or HF to have this IMF N, O, and F are all similar to each other; they are very small and very electronegative; thus, they create an extremely strong bond with hydrogen 3) London Dispersion forces (generally pretty weak) Every substance has this force, even nonpolar and individual elements It is generally weak, but gets stronger as the compound gets larger and has more electrons Instantaneous dipole: even though electrons repel each other, there are bound to be some areas where electrons congregate, creating temporary positive/negative areas; this creates a chain reaction with other atoms that results in a weak attraction o This occurrence becomes more likely as the compound gets more electrons 4) Ion-Dipole forces Requires an ionic compound and a polar covalent compound Occurs when an ionic compound dissolves in water The positive H pulls the negative part of the ionic compound The negative O pulls the positive part of the ionic compound

Heating Curve for Water

100 Temperature ()

melting ice Heat added

boiling steam very hot water very cold water

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Evaporation: when molecules at the surface of a liquid have enough energy to break free from their IMFs The opposite is condensation Equilibrium: when two opposite processes occur at the same rate Vapor pressure: the rate at which molecules turn into gas Factors that speed up evaporation: Adding heat Air currents Surface area Boiling: the process that occurs at 100C Bubbles often form at the bottom of a pot (or closest to the heat source) The gas is not oxygen, but water vapor; H2O in a gas state The bubbles can only rise under certain circumstances The normal boiling point at sea level happens at 1atm (atmosphere) or 760mmHg or 101.3 kPa Atmospheric pressure: the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of a liquid When the pressure/energy of the bubbles is equal to the atmospheric pressure, the bubbles can escape, and boiling can occur Boiling cannot happen in an airtight container, because the vapor pressure would be too great Volatile: describes a substance that evaporates quickly Has weak IMFs Low boiling point Forms a lot of gas molecules Has a high vapor pressure

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Unit 9: Gases, Solutions, Equilibrium, and Acids and Bases

Gases Weak intermolecular forces Molecules move faster than those of solids and liquids Fill a given space relatively evenly Particles are free-floating Particles exert pressure on the walls of their container o Pressure: a measure of how frequently and forcefully particles hit the sides of its container ** 1 atmosphere/atm = 760mmHg/torr = 101.3kPa = 14.696 psi Particles are in constant random motion Measureable properties of gases: Pressure: a measure of collisions with the walls of a container o Depends on the amount of particles and the size of the container o Pressure = force/atmosphere o Atmospheric pressure is measured with a barometer

- Barometer: as the pressure of the atmosphere increases, gas molecules push down on the mercury, and the mercury gets pushed upward Hg Temperature: measures average kinetic energy o Always use Kelvin (C + 273.15) Volume: measures size Gas Laws Charless Law: Temperature and volume are directly proportional , given that pressure and moles are constant Boyles Law: Pressure and volume are inversely proportional , given that temperature and moles are constant Gay Lussacs Law: Pressure and temperature are directly proportional , given that volume and moles are constant

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Combined Gas Law: Ideal Gas Law: includes the number of moles; use when given moles/grams, or when there is only one set of conditions , where P is the pressure V is the volume N is the number of moles R is the constant And T is the temperature Absolute zero: -273.15C / 0K; the temperature at which no particles can move STP: Standard Temperature and Pressure; 0C, 1atm Daltons Law of Partial Pressures: In a mixture of gases, the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures the individual gases If all other factors are constant, the pressure of a gas is proportional to the number of moles of that gas

Equilibrium Many processes, including chemical reactions, are reversible Reactants can form products, and products can also revert back to reactants Reversible reactions do not go to completion Not all reactants turn into products The end of the reaction is when the rate of product formation equals the rate of product turning back into reactant o At this point, equilibrium has been established What equilibrium is not: It is not when the amount of reactants and products are equal It is not when forward and reverse reactions have stopped ** reactions never stop A reversible reaction is indicated by , , or An equilibrium expression can be written so that the equilibrium constant K for a reaction can be determined The equilibrium expression is: If K>> 1, there are more products than reactants at equilibrium; equilibrium favors products; equilibrium position lies to the right

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The states of matter in a reaction determine whether it is homogeneous or heterogeneous ** Do not include solids or liquids in equilibrium expressions; substitute them for 1 when writing out the expression Le Chateliers Principle: whenever a stress is exerted on a system at equilibrium, the system responds to alleviate the stress and return to equilibrium Possible stresses: o Concentration: increase = equilibrium shifts to the opposite side; decrease = equilibrium shirts toward that side o Pressure: increase = shifts to whichever side has less gas molecules; decrease = shifts to the side with more gas molecules o Temperature: increase = shift away from kJ; decrease = shift toward kJ (treat kJ like a reactant/product)

Molarity The most common unit for concentration is molarity Molarity = M, or moles/Liter Solute: the substance that gets dissolved

How to solve stoichiometry problems using molarity: 1) Multiply molarity by liters to get the moles of the reactant that you know most about 2) Use the mole-mole ratio to get the moles of the unknown substance 3) Use the molarity formula to find the unknown value When an acid is placed in water, H2O forms covalent bonds with the ions H3O+: hydronium ion (water attached to H+) Hydrolysis equations: equations that show what happens when substances are placed in water

Acids and Bases Acid: substance that starts with H Splits into H+ and an anion when placed in water Strong acid: ionizes completely; 100% of it splits into ions Weak acid: does not completely ionize or dissociate ** H+ is also known as a proton

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Base: substance that ends with OH Splits into OH- and a cation when placed in water For this class, assume that all bases are strong pH: parts hydrogen pH scale:

acidic 0 pH 1 = 1.0 x 10-1 M H+ pH 2 = 1.0 x 10-2 M H+ 7 pure water

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Ionization of water: H2O (l) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Equilibrium expression: ** designated as Every aqueous solution has some H3O+ and some OH- at room temperature o If [H3O+] > [OH-], the solution is an acid o If [OH-] > [H3O+], the solution is a base

** **

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