NCEIS Research Paper Vol1No3 Hassim

NCEISResearchPaperNo.
HassimonQuranicVersesinBakathirsLiterature
NationalCentreofExcellenceforIslamicStudies
NCEISResearchPapers
Volume1,No.3
TheSignificanceofQuranicVersesin theLiteratureofAliAhmadBakathir
CasestudiesofalSilsilawaalGhufranandalDukturHazim
EeqbalHassim NCEIS TheUniversityofMelbourne

2009NCEISAustralia
2009NationalCentreofExcellenceforIslamicStudies,Australia Disclaimer: Thecontentsofthearticlespublishedareoftheauthorssoleresponsibility.They do not necessarily represent the views of the National Centre of Excellence for IslamicStudiesoritsstaff.Comments,questions,andpermissiontociteshouldbe directedtotheauthor. ISSN:18365442
AboutNCEISResearchPapers
This is a peerreviewed online publication. NCEIS Research Papers are aimed at promotingoriginalandscholarlyresearchonIslam.Therangeoftopicscoveredis diverse and represents the breadth of research excellence in the field. NCEIS Research Papers is a multidisciplinary publication. Submissions for consideration maybesenttonceisoffice@unimelb.edu.au SeriesEditor:A/ProfShahramAkbarzadeh NationalCentreofExcellenceforIslamicStudies SidneyMyerAsiaCentre UniversityofMelbourne,VIC Australia3010
Eeqbal Hassim is aLecturer at the NCEIS, and a ResearchFellowattheAsianLawCentre,Melbourne LawSchool.EeqbalhastaughtIslamicStudiesatthe University of Melbourne for over 3 years, and has been instrumental in course developmentat theNCEIS since its inception. Helectures onthe QuranandHadith,theirassociatedtexts,Islamiclaw and Islamic education, at both undergraduate and postgraduatelevels. Eeqbal's current research interests include:the history, theory and practice of Islamic education; IslamiclawinSoutheastAsia;Islamiclegaltheory;the historyofIslaminSoutheastAsia;andinterpretation oftheQur'anandHadith.Eeqbalisanativespeaker of Malay and English, is fluent in Indonesian and Arabic,andreadsFrenchaswell. Email:ehassim@unimelb.edu.au
NCEISResearchPaperVol.1,No.3
TheSignificanceofQuranicVersesin theLiteratureofAliAhmadBakathir
CasestudiesofalSilsilawaalGhufranandal DukturHazim
EeqbalHassim NCEIS TheUniversityofMelbourne
AliAhmadBakathirwasaprolificArabplaywright,novelistandpoetofthe20thCenturywho contributed immensely to the development of Arabic and Islamic literature. But despite his contributions, Bakathir has received considerably less scholarly attention than more celebrated figures such as Taha Husayn, Tawfiq alHakim and Naguib Mahfouz, both in the ArabIslamicworldandintheWest.BakathirwasacommittedMuslimwhostrovetoportray and champion Islamic ideals through his works. He desired to illustrate the importance of followingIslamasacompletewayoflifeasameansofreformingtheselfandthesociety.He wrotehisworksduringalongperiodofideologicalconflictintheArabworld,whenIslamic, Communist, Marxist, Liberalist and Secular ideologies were at loggerheads. In light of this, Bakathir endeavoured to show the Arab Muslims of his time first and foremost that followingtheQuranfaithfullywastheonlymeanstoachievingamoralsociety. ThispaperattemptstoexplorethesignificanceandimpactofQuranicversesontheliterary works of Bakathir, especially the plot and the protagonists. It does so by studying two of Bakathirs prosal plays, alSilsila wa alGhufran (The Chain of Sin and Forgiveness), an allegoricalplay,andalDukturHazim(Dr.Hazim),whichisoneoftenofBakathirsplaysthat dealtwithcontemporarysocialissues.Basedonthefindingsofthesetwocasestudies,this paperalsodiscussestheroleofQuranicversesinBakathirsothernovelsandplays. Inthispaper,IarguethatQuranicversesplayamajorroleinthenovelsandplaysofBakathir. The verses, handpicked carefully by Bakathir himself, often form the basis for the whole storyline,includingtheplot,thecharactersandBakathirsintendedmessagetohisaudience and the wider society. Bakathir always tries to convey an Islamic message via his highly Islamicised works, and these works are but a reflection of his strong religious ideals and Quranicmindsetthroughwhichheevaluatessociety.Theydepictazealouscommitmentto workforIslamandtheArabs,aswellastheidealthatremainingfaithfultoIslamistheonly meanstoattainingsuccessinthisworldandtheHereafter.
Introduction
AliAhmadBakathir(191069)wasaprolificArabplaywright,novelistandpoetwho contributedsignificantlytothefieldanddevelopmentofArabicandIslamicliterature inthe20thcentury.However,incontrasttothelikesofTahaHusayn,TawfiqalHakim andNaguibMahfouz,whohaveattractedconsiderableattentioninWesternstudies onArabicandIslamicliterature,Bakathirsnametendstopassrelativelyunnoticed; thisisironicinitself,consideringthatBakathirisregardedasthepioneerofIslamic literatureinArabicliterarycircles. BakathirdisplayedstrongIslamicidealsandusedhisliterarytalentsinorder tofurtherthecauseofIslaminsociety,politics,educationandeconomics.Hesought to instil an awareness of the teachings of Islam amongst Muslims through his literature, often informing his audience of their religious obligations and drawing inspirationfromtheannalsofIslamichistory.Inessence,Bakathirsoughttoestablish aQuranicmindsetviahisworks,usingQuranicversesandteachingsasabasisfor hisplots,therationaleandmotivationforhiswritings,aswellasthemainthrustfor his ideas. However, to this end, there has been no specific study dedicated to the importanceofQuranicversesinBakathirsworks. As such, this paper seeks to explore the significance and impact of Quranic verses on Bakathirs literary works, in particular, the plot and the protagonists. Among its other key objectives are to: 1) add to the relatively small corpus of academic study on Bakathir and his works whilst providing further avenues for research; 2) reignite interest to study his literature; 3) evaluate the strong Islamic influences and tendencies in his works; 4) appreciate his contribution to modern Arabicliterature;and5)understandhisstatusasanIslamicliterarist. In this paper, particular attention is given to two of Bakathirs prosal plays namely, alSilsila wa alGhufran (The Chain of Sin and Forgiveness) and alDuktur Hazim(Dr.Hazim).StudiesonthesetwoplaysappearminimalatthisstageandIhave selected them as case examples due to their relevance to the topic of discussion. Notwithstanding,Bakathirwasalsoaversedramatist,novelistandpoet,withnotable works in all three genres. But whilst some of his other works are also discussed wheneverappropriate,Ihavechosennottoincludehispoetryduetothefollowing reasons. Firstly, the Quranic verses occur predominantly in his plays and novels. Secondly,poetryisofaverydifferentstyleandstructure,whilstplaysandnovelsare cognate genres the only main differences are that plays are restricted by time, placeandtheme. Excludingthisintroduction,thispaperisdividedintothreesections.Firstly,to help contextualise the research, I present a brief overview of Bakathirs life, background,contextualsetting,maininfluences,works,significanceandcontribution toArabicliterature.Next,IanalysetheliteraryimpactoftheQuranicversesBakathir citesinthetwochosenplaysontheplotandthecharacters.However,asIhavealso discussed some of his other plays and novels, the conclusions of this paper are generally representative of all of his works in both these genres. Finally, I end this paperwithasummaryofitsmostimportantfindings.
AliAhmadBakathir:Hislife,backgroundandinfluences
AliAhmadBakathirwasbornin1910,inSurabaya,Indonesia,toArabparentsfrom Hadramawt, Yemen. At the age of eight, or ten1, his father sent him to Saywun, in Hadramawt, where he grew up studying Arabic and traditional Islamic disciplines fromthelocalteachersatMadrasaalNahdaalIlmiyya(lit.TheSchoolofIntellectual Uprising), the first school to be established in Saywun. Consequently, this led to a strong attachment to his blood, heritage and religion. Bakathir began his literary careerattheageofthirteenbywritingpoetry,immediatelycatchingtheeyeofhis teachers.Fromayoungage,hetookaparticularlikingtotheworksofAbualTayyib alMutanabbi,thefamousArabpoet.2 Bakathir married young in Hadramawt. After the death of his wife, he felt estranged and migrated to Eden, in 1932. After spending a few months there, he movedtoSomaliaandEthiopia.HearrivedinHijazlaterthesameyearandspenta year there. In Eden, he met a number of its scholars and writers, such as Shaykh MuhammadSalimalBihaniandthepoet,MuhammadAliLuqman,whomhestayed with.BakathirwroteanumberofodesinEdenandwasalsoamemberoftheIslamic Reform Club there. In Hijaz, he visited Mecca and Medina and met the local Arab writers who used to hold gatherings in Taif, where they would recite poetry, study eachothersworksandbecomeacquaintedwithnewsofotherArabwriters.Bakathir cameacrosstheplaysofAhmadShawqi3(18681932)inHijazandwasimmediately attracted to his arrangement of poetry. It was Shawqis influence that led him to writehisfirstversedrama,Humam(Gallant),alsoknownasFiBiladalAhqaf(Inthe LandoftheDunes).OtherwriterswhohavesignificantlyinfluencedBakathirinclude thefamouspoets,HafizIbrahimandKhalilMutran. UponhisarrivalinEgyptin1934,BakathirinitiallywantedtofurtherhisArabic andIslamicstudiesatalAzharUniversity,buthavingheardofthelegacyofEnglish literature(especiallyShakespeare),hebegantostudyEnglishlanguageandliterature atwhatisnowknownasCairoUniversity,graduatingin1939.Whilststillastudent, heattemptedatranslationofRomeoandJulietintoanexperimentaltypeofArabic verse, alshir almursal (blank verse), a metrical form which became the principal styleofmodernistArabicverseaftertheSecondWorldWar.4Healsoarguedwith
This appears the stronger opinion (although the other is more wellknown) based on the recorded date of his arrival in Hadramawt (4th April 1920). See Abd alHakim alZubaydi, BakathirfiSutur,available19March2004,http://bakatheer.com/sotor.htm. 2 SeealZubaydi,BakathirfiSutur. 3 IntheopinionofM.M.Badawi,ShawqiranksasthebestArabversedramatist.SeeM.M. Badawi,EarlyArabicDrama,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988,p.140.Although Shawqi was not the pioneer of Arab verse drama, it can be said that he perfected it and, alongwithTawfiqalHakim,establisheditasarespectablegenrewithinArabicliterature.For moreinformation,seeM.M.Badawi,ModernArabicDramainEgypt,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp. 20715; and M. M. Badawi, A Critical Introduction to Modern ArabicPoetry,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1975,pp.2942. 4 Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.112.
his English professor in class who accused the Arabic language of being inflexible.5 Afterobtainingateachingdiplomain1940,BakathirmarriedanEgyptianwidowand worked as an English teacher until1955. He was later employed by the Ministryof CultureandtheMinistryofNationalGuidance,wherehecontinuedtoworkuntilhis death in 1969. A year before his death in Egypt, Bakathir visited his beloved Hadramawtforthelasttimeafterwhichherejectedofferstorunculturalcentresin Kuwait and Lebanon. Apart from Arabic and English, Bakathir was also adept in FrenchandMalay.6 Bakathir lived in a time of ideological conflicts between the traditional and modernistreformistschoolsintheArabIslamicworld.Thereformistschoolcalledfor anendtotheallegedstagnationanddeclineinscholarlythoughtthathadafflicted the Muslims since the 11th century CE due to the abandonment of ijtihad (independentscholarlyendeavour),andastiltedandrestrictiveapproachtothefour major Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh).7 The Islahiyya (reformist) movementwasestablishedanddevelopedinEgyptbyJamalalDinalAfghani8(1839 1897), who spread his ideas at alAzhar University, and his contemporary (and student),MuhammadAbduh(18491905).9Bakathirwasintroducedtotheirideasby twooftheirmostprolificstudents,MuhammadRashidRida(d.1935)10andMuhibb alDinalKhatib.Heimmediatelydevelopedalikingforthereformistswhocalledfora return to the spirit of Islam and the implementation of its teachings in the face of
Ali Ahmad Bakathir, Fann alMasrahiyya min Khilal Tajaribi alShakhsiyya, Cairo: Dar al Maarif,1964,pp.78. 6 AlZubaydi,BakathirfiSutur. 7 There is a debate as to the socalled closure of the gates of ijtihad. Quite a number of Muslimscholarsnowarguethatthegateswereneverclosedandadeclineinthoughtisan erroneous proposition. See, for instance, Wael Hallaq, Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?, International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 16, no. 1, 1984, pp. 341; Shaista P. Ali KaramaliandFionaDunne,TheIjtihadControversy,ArabLawQuarterly,vol.9,no.3,1994, pp.23857 8 AlAfghanimayhaveactuallybeenanIranianShiite,althoughitiscommonlyallegedthathe is Afghani and a Sunni. See Hazim Muhyi alDin, Tayyar alIslah alDini fi Misr Madrasa al Shaykh Muhammad Abduh, translated chapter of a book by G. Delonoue, LEgypte Daujourd hui: Permanences et Changements 18051976, available 19 May 2004, http://www.almultaka.net/web/m00p8.htm. 9 Their essentially modernistic ideas sought to combine Western philosophy with Islamic thoughtandelevatethehumanmindtoalevelequaltoDivinerevelation.Theintentionsof alAfghanilaterbecamesuspectduetohisinvolvementwiththeMasonicmovementseeking to establish new branches in the Middle East. See Arthur J. Arberry, Religion in the Middle East, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981, vol. 2, pp. 1289. For a more detailed discussion, refer to Muhammad Hamid Nasir, alAsraniyyun, Riyadh: Maktabat alKawthar, 1996. 10 ReflectingamoreorthodoxSalafisttrend,RashidRidawasnotasextremeashismentors in his modernist thinking though he was still influenced by them to a large extent. His exegesisoftheQuran,TafsiralManar,isapopularandrigorouswork;itsmodernisttrends are evident in parts. See Abu Ammaar Yasir Qaadhi, An Introduction to the Sciences of the Quraan,Birmingham:AlHidaayah,1999,p.338.
modernity.11 He based his Islamic thought on the anticolonial alUrwa alWuthqa (The Firm Handhold), an international Islamic organisation and periodical establishedbyalAfghaniandAbduhinParis,in1883.12Furthermore,themagazines alManar(TheBeacon),byRashidRidaandalFath(TheOpening),byalKhatibhad reachedhiminHadramawt.Heevenpublishedanumberofodes(qasaid)inalFath andwasalreadyknowninEgyptbeforehiseventualarrival.Infact,itwasRashidRida whoencouragedhimtomigratetoEgyptandarrangedforhiseventualarrivalthere. Asaresult,Bakathirsmodernisttendenciesledhimtoclashwithseveraltraditional scholarsofhistime.13 Inaddition,Bakathirsreligiousideologymaynothavebeenrestrictedtothe reformist school. In fact, he lived through one of the most dynamic periods for IslamicmovementsinEgypt.ThemostnotableofthesemovementswastheMuslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan alMuslimin), the brainchild of Hasan alBanna (d. 1949) and infamouslysupportedbySayyidQutb(d.1966).Themainideologyofthismovement wasMuslimsolidarityunderthecommongoaltoestablishthelawsofGodonearth. Although it is not known to what extent Bakathir was influenced by the Muslim Brotherhood,onemaypostulatethathemayhaveatleastsympathisedwithitsideas since the reformist movement was one of the main catalysts behind the Brotherhoodsformation.Infact,basedoncircumstantialevidence,thereisreasonto believe that Bakathir was even a supporter of this movement; a collection of his politicaldramatisations,laterpublishedunderthetitleMasrahalSiyasa(TheDrama ofPolitics),firstappearedinthealIkhwanalMuslimun(TheMuslimBrotherhood) and alDawa (The Call) magazines, in the 1940s and 1950s.14 Both magazines are closelyassociatedwiththeMuslimBrotherhood.Finally,duetohisstaunchreligious mindset,BakathirconstantlyfoundhimselfatoddswithMarxistandLiberalistArab rulers,intellectualsandsupporters.15
Bakathirsworksandcontextualsetting
SomenotableobservationsfromBakathirsworksarethattheydisplay:1)thestyles and influences of the writers he admired; 2) a selfprofessed commitment to Islam
SeeAbdulla Basibrin,RaidalAdabalIslamiAliBakathirWajibalAdibalArabiTabsiral UmmabialAkhtarallatiTatahaddaduha,AlAyyam,28June2003,p.8. 12 MuhyialDin,TayyaralIslahalDini.Only18oftheperiodicalswereeverpublished. 13 MuhammadAbuBakrHamid,RiyadaBakathirlialAdabalIslamiwaTatbiqatihi,Islamic Literature World League lecture, transcribed by Muhammad Uqda. Hamid mentions that Bakathir was affected by the Salafi school of thought. Salafism advocates a return to understandingandpractisingIslamaccordingtotheQuranandwayoftheProphet(Sunna), as understood by the early generations of Muslims. He seems to consider the reformist movementofalAfghaniandMuhammadAbduhasSalafi.However,thisisapointofdebate amongstthescholarsofIslam.Therefore,Ihavechosentousethetermreformist,whichis moreneutral,instead. 14 Seehttp://bakatheer.com/collect.htm,available5May2004. 15 Basibrin,RaidalAdabalIslami,p.8.
11
andtheArabs;and3)someofthecommonmindsetsofEgyptianwritersduringhis time.16AlthoughEgyptwasanoncombatantduringtheSecondWorldWar,theWar didhaveadeepsocial,politicalandeconomicimpactonthecountry.Egyptiansociety waschangingatarapidrateNaguibMahfouzdescribeditasasocial,politicaland economic state of flux so naturally, many writers (including Bakathir himself) decidedtorecordthesymptomsofthisprocess.17 ThedevelopmentofmodernArabicliteratureinEgypt,sincetheappearance of Husayn Haykals acclaimed novel, Zaynab (Zaynab), in 1912,18 can roughly be dividedintofourphases,namely:(1)priortotheSecondWorldWar;(2)betweenthe Warandthecoupdetatof23July1952;(3)theearlyyearsafterthe1952revolution; and (4) the late 1950s and thereafter, with each phase displaying unique thematic and stylistic characteristics.19 As a testament to his prolific writing as well as his penchantforaddressingpertinentandcontextualsocietalissues,Bakathirproduced worksinallthesephases.Literaturefromphaseoneisgenerallycharacterisedbyan attempt to address Egyptian life, its people, surroundings, customs and manners. There are also some romantic trends as well as criticisms of Egyptian culture via directorindirect(comicalandsatirical)means.20Phasetwoworksdealmainlywith social justice, including sociopolitical and psychological issues,21 while phase three worksfocusonpatriotism,populism,visionsforabrighterfuture,aswellasreligious and nationalist commitment.22 Finally, literature from phase four display both pre modernistandpostmodernisttrendswhichincludeelementsofexistentialism,revolt andabsurdity.Inthisphase,ArabwritersemployednewtechniquesfromtheWest, such as point of view technique, free verse poetry (alshir alhurr), plot sequence rearrangement,narrativevariationandstructuralcomplexityandobscurity.23 Bakathirwroteatotalofsixnovels,sixversedramas,around45prosalplays, and a large number of odes and poems (reaching a thousand pages in manuscript form).24 These works were never published in a complete collection during his life andsomewerepublishedafterhisdeath.Uptoelevenplaysremainunpublished.25
Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.112. See Fatma Moussa Mahmoud, The Novel as a Record of Social Change, in The Arabic NovelinEgypt(19141970),Cairo:GeneralEgyptianBookOrganisation,1973. 18 According to Hamdi Sakkut, Zaynab is the first Egyptian novel that may be judged according to the accepted criteria for novel writing no earlier work can be counted as a novel. Hamdi Sakkut, The Egyptian Novel and its Main Trends from 1913 to 1952, PhD dissertation,UniversityofCambridge,Cairo:TheAmericanUniversityPress,1971,p.vii. 19 AliB.Jad,FormandTechniqueintheEgyptianNovel19121971,London:IthacaPress(for The Middle East Centre, St Anthonys College, Oxford University), 1983, pp. 1718. Modern Arabicliteratureactuallystarteddevelopingfromthelaterhalfofthe19thcenturybutitonly attainedliterarymeritafterZaynab.SeeJad,FormandTechnique,pp.1,17. 20 Jad,FormandTechnique,p.26.Exceptionstothisobservationinclude,forinstance,Tawfiq alHakimsfirstplay,AhlalKahf,whichwasbasedonmyth,notEgyptiansociallife. 21 Jad,FormandTechnique,pp.14751. 22 Jad,FormandTechnique,p.211. 23 Jad,FormandTechnique,pp.xiixiii,260,293. 24 Hamid,RiyadaBakathir;andAlZubaydi,BakathirfiSutur. 25 Hamid,RiyadaBakathir.
17 16
Bakathirbeganwritingodesandpoetry Bakathir constantly implies before producing novels and plays. His odes written before his departure from Hadramawt the inadequacy of all wereentitledAzharalRubbafiAsharalSibba ideologies in comparison to (FlowersoftheHillsinthePoemsofCaptivity), the principles of Islam, and thosewritteninEdenweresuitablyentitledal that the solution to the Adniyyat(ThoseofEden),whilstthosewritten problems of the Arab and in Hijaz were likewise aptly called alHijaziyyat Islamic world lies only in the (ThoseofHijaz).Healsocontinuedtowritea large number of odes and poems while in return to Islamic principles. Egypt. Other than his verse dramas, Bakathirs Somewhat idealistically, he poems were not published during his lifetime saw Islam not only as a withtheexceptionofDhikraMuhammad(The religion, but a means to MemoryofMuhammad),alsoknownasNizam a complete building alBurda (The Arrangement of the Mantle), civilisation. which was written during his stay in Hijaz and laterpublisheduponhisarrivalinEgypt.26 Bakathir wrote three verse dramas before attempting his first novel and prosalplayin1944.Hisfirstversedrama,Humam,publishedin1934,dealtwiththe situation in underdeveloped and undereducated Hadramawt. His largest work, spanning 19 volumes, and most famous prosal play is alMalhama alIslamiyya al KubraUmar(TheGreatIslamicEpic:Umar),aplaybasedonearlyIslamichistoryin thetimeofthesecondCaliph,Umarb.alKhattab.Amonghismostfamousnovelsare Wa Islamah (Oh Islam!) and alThair alAhmar (The Red Revolutionary) and his most famous verse drama is Ikhnatun wa Nafirtiti (Akhenaton and Nefertiti). Although Ikhnatun wa Nafirtiti, which is part of ancient Egyptian history, seems to have nothing to do with Islam and the Arabs, Bakathir argued that the history of a regioninhabitedbytheArabsinthepresentdayshouldberegardedaspartofArab history.27 UnlikeHusaynHaykalandTahaHusayn,forinstance,whowereinfluencedby European critiques of Arab culture and religion, Bakathirs works clearly manifest a strong tendency and commitment towards Islam and his people. Therefore, any controversy he caused was due to this mindset and not out of external European influences.Forexample,duetotheirstrongreligiousovertones,WaIslamahandal ThairalAhmarcausedhatredamongstEgyptiancommunistswhowrotenumerous articles criticising him. Bakathir also portrayed the idea of panArabism and emphasisedthePalestiniancauseinmanyworks;hisstanceontheArabIsraeliissue wasoftencriticaloftheArabstatesandantiZionist.28
See http://bakatheer.com/diwan.htm, available 24 May 2004. AlBurda, or Qasidat al Burda(OdeoftheMantle),isanodeofpraisefromProphetMuhammadcomposedbythe greatSufifigure,ImamHasanalBasri(12121296).TheactualtitleoftheodeisalKawakib alDurriyyafiMadhKhayralBariyya(CelestialLightsinPraiseoftheBestofCreation). 27 Bakathir,FannalMasrahiyya,pp.67. 28 Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.129.
26
In his plays and novels, Bakathir constantly implies the inadequacy of all ideologies in comparison to the principles of Islam, and that the solution to the problems of the Arab and Islamic world lies only in the return to Islamic principles. Somewhatidealistically,hesawIslamnotonlyasareligion,butameanstobuildinga completecivilisation.29Todemonstratethis,heusesthegrandeuroftheArabIslamic past(incontrasttoitsshortcomings)sothathisintendedaudiencemaytakelessons fromit.Bakathirsworksarealsoparticularlyaudienceoriented,whichcouldexplain his greater affinity towards the production of plays. Furthermore, he probably realisedthegreatereffectivenessandappealofthisgenreasavehicleforhisideas.
HissignificanceandcontributiontoArabicliterature
Along with Mahmud Taymur and Fathi Radwan, Bakathir is considered by some as one of the successors of Tawfiq alHakim,30 one of the best known and most important figures in the history and development of Arabic drama due to his ingenuity and output.31 Bakathir is essentially an Islamic playwright, novelist and poet,andisevenconsideredasoneofthepioneersofIslamicliterature,Arabicfree and blank verse, political drama, historical novels, and an innovator of several styles.32Inadditiontohisnumerousworks,healsoreceivedanumberofprizesand medals including, the State Prize of Egypt in literature for Harut wa Marut (Harut and Marut), in 1962, and an exclusive medal from Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1967.33 Bakathir was also a member of The Publication Committee for Academics, which includedsuchfamousnamesasNaguibMahfouz,AdilKamilandAbdalHamidJuda.34 Despitetheabove,Bakathirneverseemstogarnerasmuchattentionasother prolific writers of Arabic literature. There are several possible reasons for this, including: 1) Due to an idealistic Islamic mindset, Bakathirs works particularly attract the attentionofthosewithasimilarideology.Thus,attimes,hisworkshavelittle appeal to people of different faiths and ideologies. This occurs despite his contributionsandstatureinmodernArabicandIslamicliterature. 2) Ignorance concerning his works may be unintentional and partly due to Bakathirsnaturetoavoidthespotlight.35
29
UsamaalAlfi,DawaliIadaQiraaAmalMubaddiKabirwaNashrTurathihiBakathirmin Ruwwad alShir alHurr wa alMasrah alSiyasi wa alRiwayat alTarikhiyya, AlAhram, 2 December2003. 30 Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.88. 31 Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.88;Badawi,EarlyArabicDrama,p.140. 32 Basibrin, Raid alAdab alIslami, p. 8; alAlfi, Dawa. This has been verified by several scholarssuchasDr.AbdullaalGhadhdhami,Dr.AhmadalSadani,Dr.AbuBakralBabakiri andDr.IsamBahi. 33 Forafulllist,refertohttp://bakatheer.com/prizes.htm. 34 AlAlfi,Dawa. 35 AlAlfi,Dawa.
3) ThereisadichotomyofopinionsontheworksofBakathiramongstscholarsof Arabic literature. The first group, due to their Islamic inclinations, are favourable towards his works. Their analyses tend to revolve around the IslamicideologyofBakathirandtheeffectivenessofhisworksasavehiclefor instructingandadmonishingMuslims.Thesecondgroup,comingpurelyfrom a critical literary approach, are less favourable. They regard Bakathirs idealistic Islamic worldview as a form of tunnelvision that significantly inhibitsallaspectsofhiswork,causingpredictability,bluntingsensitivityand limitingcreativity.36Academicsofthistypeprefertheideologicalfreedomthat is virtually nonexistent in Bakathirs works. Yet, at the same time, they do acknowledgesomeoftheoutstandingworksofBakathirintermsofingenuity and style. Naturally, biases are witnessed from both groups and both approaches form an integral part of literary analysis. Nonetheless, it is an essentialpartofliteraryanalysistobeabletoappreciatethewriterscontext, background,ideology,intentionsandimplications. At any rate, due to his acclaimed contributions towards Arabic and Islamic literature,Bakathircertainlydeservesmorereadershipandacademicstudy,atleast by his intended Muslim audience. Currently, there are very few published books devoted entirely to Bakathir and various aspects of his work. It appears that all of these have been written by academics with Islamic inclinations, such as Abdulla al Tantawi and Abu Bakr Hamid. As to the small number of recorded postgraduate research on Bakathirs works, almost all of these were conducted at Islamic universitiessuchasAlAzhar,theInternationalIslamicUniversitiesofIslamabadand Malaysia, Imam Muhammad b. Saud University, and a number of other Middle Easterninstitutions.37AbuBakrHamidsdissertationcompletedattheUniversityof Illinois,in1988,however,isanexception.38
AlSilsilawaalGhufranandalDukturHazimascasestudies
Before proceeding any further, I shall clarify the reasons behind giving particular attention to the plays alSilsila wa alGhufran and alDuktur Hazim. First of all, as mentionedpreviously,thedifferencesbetweenplaysandnovelsarerelativelyminor in a literary sense. Hence, focusing on two plays, instead of a play and a novel, for instance,hashadnosignificantsideeffectsonthefindingsofthisstudy.Secondly,al Silsila wa alGhufran ranks as one of Bakathirs most stark portrayals of devout religiosityatapersonallevelasacorecomponenttoeffectingsocialchange.Italso displays the ArabIslamic historical elements that are not uncommon in Bakathirs works. Finally, alDuktur Hazim was one of ten of Bakathirs plays dealing with
Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.129. Seehttp://bakatheer.com/univ.htm,available19April2004. 38 SeeMohamedAbuBakrHamid,TwoPlaysbytheIslamicDramatist,AliAhmadBakathir, TranslatedintoEnglishwithCriticalCommentary,dissertation,UniversityofIllinois,1988.
37 36
contemporary social issues.39 Thus, it gives an important insight into a possible applicationofBakathirsreligiousidealswithinhiscontextualsetting.
ThesignificanceandimpactofQuranicversesinalSilsilawa alGhufran
BakathirwrotealSilsilawaalGhufranin1949forwhichhereceivedanawardfrom theEgyptianMinistryofEducationtheverysameyear.40However,theplaywasonly printed in 1951.41 It is regarded as a sociohistorical play,42 and though it is set in medieval Egypt, during the reign of Ahmad b. Tulun (d. 884 CE),43 it deals with a universal Islamic theme unrestricted by time and place, i.e. the need to seek forgiveness,repentandperformrighteousdeedsinordertobreakthechainofevil deeds sparked by a single immoral act. Thus, unlike alDuktur Hazim, the social elements of this play are not necessarily restricted to the contemporary social problemsexistentinBakathirstime. Atfirstglance,thehistoricalsettingofalSilsilawaalGhufranappearstohave littlesignificanceandisrarelyreferredto.However,uponcloserinspection,thereare several possible reasons behind Bakathirs choice of context. Firstly, he often used notable Islamic personalities and occurrences from Arabic and Islamic history as a meanstorelivethegrandeurofIslam.Indoingso,heattemptedtofosterapositive reaction from the audience to seek to reestablish Islams supremacy in human society.Inthisregard,Badawicomments:
Bakathirhadadistinctpreferenceforsubjectsdrawnfromhistory,mythandlegend aswellasfolklore,apreferenceforwhichhetriedtofindanaestheticjustification. Evenwhenhewishedtomakeacommentonthemodernworld,heoftenfoundit Outofthetenplaysdealingwithcontemporarysocialissues,two,Shalabya(Shalabiya,or Gorgeous)andArayiswaIrsan(BridesandGrooms),remainunpublishedtodate.Theeight publishedonesinchronologicalorderareHumam(1934),alDukturHazim(1946),alDunya Fawda(TheChaoticWorld,1952),AghlaminalHubb(DearerthanLove)publishedinAl Gamhuryanewspaperin1954andasabookin2006),QitatwaFiran(CatsandMice,1962), Gulfadan Hanim (Lady Gulfadan, 1962), Habl alGhasil (The Washing Line, 1965) and QadiyyatAhlalRabia(TheCaseofthePeopleofRabia,1990). 40 AbdalHakimalZubaydi,AlDawailaalTawbawaFadailalAmalfiMasrahiyyaalSilsila wa alGhufran, available 19 March 2004, http://bakatheer.com/zubaidi/assilsilahwalghufran.htm. 41 Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.117. 42 Seehttp://bakatheer.com/silsila.htm,available1May2004. 43 He was a Turkish soldier sent to Egypt as a deputy governor in 868. Within a year, he establishedhisownmilitaryandafinancialfootholdintheprovince.Thisledhimtoestablish thefirstlocaldynasty,theTulunidsofEgypt(868905CE),andlaterjointlyofEgypt,Palestine and Syria. He had a powerful army and navy, and developed a strong economy. See H. U. Rahman,AChronologyof Islamic History5701000CE,London:TaHaPublishers,1995,pp. 19798;ImadalDinIbnKathir,AlBidayawaalNihaya,Beirut:DaralMarifa,1998,vol.14, pp.535.
39
10
easiertousethepastasametaphorforthepresent.Hispassionatecommitmentto IslammadehimturnnaturallytoIslamicandArabhistory44
Secondly, and more specifically, Ahmad b. Tulun was known as a successful andprosperousEgyptianrulerwhowasextremelygeneroustohispeople.Heusedto invite both dignitaries as well the masses to his daily banquet, and used to give a thousanddinarsofmonthlycharityfromhisownwealth.Inaddition,hewasamongst thebestinpreservingtheQuranandrecitingitinabeautifulmanner.45Throughthis example,Bakathirclearlyimpliesthatasuccessfulrulershipliesinbeingjustandin observingtheIslamicinjunctions.Inessence,thiswasanimplicitcriticismofthestate of politics in the ArabIslamic world during his time. Thirdly, by framing the plot within a real sociohistorical context, Bakathir appears to try to avoid the hypothetical,givingasenseofrealismtoanotherwiseidealisticstoryline.
Plot
AlSilsila wa alGhufran is a play divided into three parts and comprises a total of sevenscenes.Asanepigraphtotheplay,BakathirusesthefollowingQuranicverses:
Hurry towards your Lords forgiveness and a Garden as wide as the heavens and earth prepared for the righteous, who give, both in prosperity and adversity, who restraintheirangerandpardonpeopleGodlovesthosewhodogoodthosewho rememberGodandimploreforgivenessfortheirsinsiftheydosomethingshameful or wrong themselves who forgives sins but God? and who never knowingly persistindoingwrong.46
Inthefirstpartoftheplay,weareintroducedtotheprotagonist,amanby thenameofAbdalTawwab,whocaresforthewelfareofhiswidowedsister,Asiya, and her daughters. Likewise, he helps his miserly brother, Abd alJawwad, who constantly demands that a similar treatment be given to him and his children. Although Abd alJawwad works and obtains more than sufficient wealth, he never ceasestodemandsupportfromAbdalTawwab,who,inturn,alwaysrespondswith kindness. Shortlyafter,werealisethatAbdalTawwabhadearliercommittedadultery withthewife(Ghayda)ofhisbestfriend,Qasim,whilethelatterwasservingaprison sentenceonaccountofhisdebts.Qasimsmotherinlaw,UmmMastur,hadearlier appealed to Abd alTawwab to settle her sons debts and help him out of prison. Whilstattemptingtodoso,AbdalTawwabbecameacquaintedwithGhayda.Hehas anaffairwithherandshefallspregnant.Tokeepthematterdiscreet,UmmMastur gives her daughter some medicine aimed at an abortion. During this abortion attempt,Ghaydadiesofahaemorrhage.
44 45
Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.117. IbnKathir,alBidayawaalNihaya,p.55. 46 Quran,3:13335.IhaveusedAbdelHaleemsQurantranslationthroughoutthispaper.
11
Withthedeathof Ghayda,theinnerconscienceofAbdalTawwabawakens causinghimtothoroughlyregrethisimmoralactions.Hisremorseandsenseofguilt leadshimtosincererepentanceandbringsaboutastrikingchangeincharacter.He spends his wealth in an effort to release Qasim from prison and continues to act kindlytowardsUmmMastur.UponQasimsrelease,AbdalTawwabhandshimsome jewellerytosellforprofit.ThisenablesQasimtofurtherhisbusinessexploitsinSham with the later joining him in a partnership. In the third scene of part one, Abd al Tawwab marries Kawthar, a young woman who has been pampered by her father, Ismail. This prevents her from performing her duties as a wife, spending her days either sleeping or visiting her father. This occurs to the extent that Abd alTawwab does not have any sexual relations with her. Nevertheless, Abd alTawwab remains patientandhopesforachangeinhercharacter.Attheendofpartone,hetravelsto Shamupontherequestofhisbusinesspartner;theirbusinesshasexpandedandAbd alTawwabisrequiredtohelpout. In the second part of the play, Abd alTawwab returns to Egypt after a year andhalfandimmediatelyfindshiswifeillinherfamilyshouse.Whenherequeststo movehertohisresidencefortreatment,herfamilyrefuses.Inaddition,theyreject hissuggestiontobringadoctortoexamineheronthepretextthatitisforbiddenfor a male doctor to see her. They provide other excuses and dismiss the illness as somethingnormal.AbdalTawwabbeginstohavedoubtsandsuspectsthathiswife is pregnant. Eventually, Umm Mastur informs him that his wife had committed adulterywithherson,Mastur.ThemaliceofUmmMasturbecomesevidentasshe rejoices at Abd alTawwabs demise and it becomes clear that she deliberately encouragedtheaffairasapaybackforwhathedidtoherdaughter,Ghayda.Abdal TawwabacceptsthisandreturnstothefamilyofKawthar.Herequeststomoveher tohisresidenceyetagainsothatshemaygivebirththere.Heassuresthemthathe will not expose her sin. Ismail and his wife, Maymuna, are grateful and can hardly believe Abd alTawwabs forgiving attitude. In the same part, Mastur weds Qasims sister. After only two weeks of marriage, he is called to join the army of Ahmad b. TulunadvancingtowardsAleppo. Seven years later, Abd alTawwab is seen leading a peaceful and happy life with Kawthar and their children, Usama and Shafia. But whilst Usama is Kawthars illegitimate child, Abd alTawwab and his sister love both children and treat them equally.Infact,theyappeartopamperUsamamoresincehisownmotherneglects himandtreatshimharshlyasheremindsherofhersin.Inscenetwo,Masturkillshis wifeuponhisreturnthinkingthatsheispregnantafterhavinganaffair.Asaresult, heiscapturedandimprisoned.Lamentingthefateofbothherchildren,UmmMastur beginstoactirrationallyandthreatenstoexposeAbdalTawwabssecrettoQasim. Abd alTawwab begs her not to do so for the sake of her late daughter as well as Qasim,whoremainsemotionallyaffectedbyherdeathandcontinuestodogoodto UmmMastur.Instead,UmmMasturthreatenstoexposeKawtharssecret.However, Abd alJawwad succeeds in discouraging her from doing so by threatening to bring the matter to the Sultan. This would have resulted in certain punishment for she would have been found guilty in procuring the affair. Instead, Abd alJawwad promisestopleadtotheSultantoreducehersonspunishmentonthegroundsthat shehasnobodytolookafterher.
12
In the final scene, we witness Abd al Bakathir is the chain of sin Tawwab on his death bed. As a result of Abd al Jawwadspestering,hecallsuponareligiousscholar committedbyman;itispart and seeks a verdict concerning Usamas right to of his nature to be inherit from him.47 The scholar informs him that susceptible to it. Thus, it is Usama is like his own son and therefore has the his duty to take heed of the legal right to inherit. Abd alTawwab then calls for verses and repent. As a Umm Mastur and seeks forgiveness from her. She direct consequence of pardonshimandheinformsherthathewasalways aware of her vengeful attitude towards him. sincere repentance, man is Similarly, Abd alTawwab informs Qasim of his forgivenandthechainofsin previous affair with Ghayda and seeks his isbroken. forgiveness.Aftersayingafinalsupplication,Abdal Tawwabdiespeacefullyattheendoftheplay. Basedontheabove,thesignificanceandimpactoftheQuranicversescited intheepigraphisthoroughlyevident.Infact,thewholeplotseemstobebuiltupon these verses; from the fact that adultery is chosen as the major sin that constantly repeatsitself,tothecentralthemeof forgivenessandrighteousdeedsasthecure. The verses significantly enhance the plot and are central to all its events. Even the title of the play is directly related to these verses. The term alsilsila (lit. chain), as clarified in the play, refers to the chain of sin committed by man that cannot be brokenexceptthroughtheseekingofforgiveness(ghufran).48 However, from another angle, this aspect of the play is seen as its main shortcoming. Some critics consider the whole construct of the play as being too mechanicalasaresult.Theyarguethattherearetoomanyimprobableparallelisms and coincidences, and the point which the author wishes to make is far too obtrusive.49Thiscriticismis,ofcourse,solelybasedonthecriticalliteraryapproach mentionedearlier.Itis,inessence,aquestionofhermeneutics.Assuch,adifferent audience,suchasthedogmaticallyreligious,wouldmostlikelyappreciatewhatthey wouldconsiderapoignantstoryline. In the plays opening scene, Abd alTawwab recites several Quranic verses, which also have a significant bearing on the play. The following verses shall be discussedinthesubsequentsubsections:
People,bemindfulofyourLord,fortheearthquakeoftheLastHourwillbeamighty thing: on the Day you see it, every nursing mother will think no more of her baby,
The silsila referred to by
AbdalJawwadwanted toinheritAbdalTawwabswealth.IfAbdalTawwabhadnoson and only daughters, his brother could inherit from him. Abd alJawwad thought that he wouldinheritasUsamawasonlyanadoptedsonofAbdalTawwab.Outofhisignorance,he convinces Abd alTawwab to call on a religious scholar. But as Usama is Abd alTawwabs legalson,thescholaraffirmedthathehadtherighttoinherit. 48 AliAhmadBakathir,AlSilsilawaalGhufran,alFallaja:DarMasirlialTibaa,n.d.,pp.104, 111. 49 Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.117.
47
13
everypregnantfemalewillmiscarry,youwillthinkpeoplearedrunkwhentheyare not,soseverewillbeGodstorment.50
Attheendoftheplay,inAbdalTawwabsfinalsupplication,wherehesays:Ishall meetyoumyLordwithatranquilsoul,IshallreturntoyoumyLordwellpleasedand wellpleasing (unto You),51 several verses of the Quran are explicitly alluded to, whichalsohaveanimportantrole.Theseversesare:[But]you,soulatpeace:return toyourLordwellpleasedandwellpleasing;goinamongMyservants;andintoMy Garden.52
Protagonistsandcharacters
The protagonist, Abd alTawwab, isnothing short of a glaring representation of the Quranic verses found in the play, to the extent that the cardinal sin he commits is adultery. From one angle, his character never seems to develop throughout the whole play, especially since his sinful past is only mentioned in the present and is neverreenacted.However,fromanotherperspective,hischaracterevolvesaccording tothestagesmentionedintheverses:repentance,spendinginbothprosperityand adversity,restraininganger,forgivenessandperformingrighteousdeeds. Abd alTawwab is the nearperfect personification of the concepts of forgiveness, repentance, charity, repression of anger, pardon and performing righteousdeedsfoundintheversecitedintheplaysepigraph.Evenwhenhiswife considers herself unworthy of him after committing adultery, he forgives her and embracesher.HeembodiestheconceptofpatienceinIslam,i.e.patienceinobeying God, patience in avoiding the disobedience of God and patience in the face of adversity. His enduring piety and Godfearing character is aptly reflected by his emotional response to the verses he recites during the opening scene; he immediately sheds tears and implores God for forgiveness. This attitude bears an unmistakableresemblancetothefollowingverses:
True believers are those whose hearts tremble with awe when God is mentioned, whosefaithincreaseswhenHisrevelationsarerecitedtothem,whoputtheirtrustin theirLord.53
In addition, Abd alTawwabs constant invocations and advice to do good renderhimasapersonoftaqwa,withtaqwadefinedasobeyingAllahsothatHeis neverdisobeyed,rememberingHimsothatHeisneverforgottenandbeingthankful toHimsothatHeisneverdisbelieved.54Oneoftheversesintheepigraphmentions themuttaqun(thosewhoposssesstaqwa).
50 51
Quran,22:12. Bakathir,alSilsilawaalGhufran,p.132. 52 Quran,89:278. 53 Quran,8:2. 54 Qaadhi,SciencesoftheQuraanp.13.
14
Abd alTawwabs intentions to obediently follow the laws of Islam are witnessed even on his death bed when he calls for a religious scholar to seek a verdict concerning the rules of inheritance for Usama, his adopted child. One can only conclude that Bakathirs use of a Prophetic narration as evidence for the final ruling displays the strong religious ideals mentioned in the verses. We often get a sense that he is thoroughly at peace with himself, despite his earlier misdeeds; his finalwordsareaclearreflectionofthisandcompletetheportrayalofanidealIslamic characterandanidealrepentance. To ensure continuing parallels between the protagonist and the concept of repentance mentioned in the relevant Quranic verses, Bakathir purposefully gives him the name of Abd alTawwab (servant of the One who accepts repentance). In fact, the term tawwab itself (without the abd, meaning servant) would be most appropriateindescribingtheprotagonist,which,whenusedforhumanbeings,refers totheirsincereandconstantrepentance.Withanalmostflawlesshero,albeitafter hisrepentance,onemaybeledintothinkingthatsomeoftheminorcharactersare simplydesignedtofillinthegapsandaresomewhatsuperfluous.However,thisisnot thecase;forinstance,UmmMasturplaysanimportantroleintheconsequencesof events and Abd alJawwad is the epitome of a greedy person who exploits his brothers generosity. And, to Bakathirs credit, the characters are sufficiently distinguished from one another; no two characters think alike, they are Islamically flawed, and have conflicts with one another. As a result,this creates an interesting socialsettingdesignedtoenhancethestrengthoftheprotagonistsIslamiccharacter; heistheonlyonewhodoesnotsuccumbtoconflictorhatredbutfindstheabilityto forgiveinstead.
Styleandintendedmeaning
According to Isam Bahi, alSilsila wa alGhufran is the first allegoricalplay in Arabic literature; behind an obvious storyline, the play carries another meaning with the purposeofinstructingoradmonishing.55Atfirstglance,themainprinciplebehindthe play appears to be do unto others what others have done unto you. One critic, Mutawalli Salah, opposes this by mentioning that the play implies that fate shall eventuallydojusticetotheevildoer.Theonewhocommitswrongshallultimatelybe wrongedagainst.56However,thiswasnotBakathirsintention;rather,theunderlying theme stems directly from the epigraph; it is calling the people to hasten towards repentance, to desist from the disobedience of Allah, and to perform good deeds. ThesilsilareferredtobyBakathiristhechainofsincommittedbyman;itispartof hisnaturetobesusceptibletoit.Thus,itishisdutytotakeheedoftheversesand repent.Asadirectconsequenceofsincererepentance,manisforgivenandthechain ofsinisbroken.ThecommonconditionsforrepentanceinIslamare:(1)immediate abandonmentofthesin;(2)feelingremorse;and(3)makingaresolvenottorepeat
55 56
AlZubaydi,alDawailaalTawba. CitedinalZubaydi,alDawailaalTawba.
15
it.However,ifthesininvolvesanotherpartysuchasisthecasewithadulteryone mustseektheotherpartyspardonandreconcile.Ifthisisnotdone,thechainofsin willcontinueandtheoppositionwillharbouravengefulattitude,asdemonstratedby UmmMastursfeelingstowardsAbdalTawwab. AlSilsilawaalGhufranishenceanallegoryforthecontinuoussinningwithin society and its distant relationship with God. Bakathir implies that if individuals withinsocietyweretohastentowardsrepentanceandforgivenessaftereveryactof disobedience,theywouldeventuallybefreedfromthechainofsinandbemercifulto oneanother,asdemonstratedbyAbdalTawwabsseekingofforgivenessfromUmm MasturandQasim.Althoughidealistic,Bakathirsintentionswithhisportrayalofthe protagonist are clearly dictated by the epigraph. Furthermore, revenge is discouraged,withUmmMasturasthemetaphorforthevengefulattitudesthatoften plaguesociety. Evidently,Bakathirhasingeniouslyusedanallegoricalplaytorevealtheneed to implement the teachings of the Quranic verses he cites in the epigraph to the play. In addressing societys inevitable problem of constant sinning, Bakathir uses repeated occurrences of adultery as a metaphor. However, his seemingly lenient attitudetowardsadulteryintheplaywhereitoccursoftenyetnooneistrialledor sentencedtodeathseemstoimplythatsincanneverreallybeavoided.Rather,itis anindividualsattitudeinthefaceofsinthatmatterssincethedoorforforgiveness, repentance and righteous deeds is always open in Islam. One may conclude, yet again,thattheverseswerethesourceofinspirationforBakathirsviews.Theverses donotmentionpunishmentbutencouragerepentancefromthesinnerinstead.
Intendedaudience
Due to its strong Islamic overtones, there is little doubt that Bakathir intended al Silsila wa alGhufran for a Muslim audience. The fact that he customarily uses Quranic verses as epigraphs for all his plays and novels lends support to this observation.AlthoughdevoutMuslimswithsimilarmindsetswouldbemostaffected by a play based heavily on Quranic principles, Bakathir clearly intends widespread change amongst all Muslims, i.e. the devout are reminded of Quranic teachings through the play while all Muslims in general are admonished about their religious duty. Theplayseemstobeapracticalexplanationoftheversesintheepigraphthat societycaneasilyrelateto.Aseveryindividualsinsandneedstorepentaccordingto Muslim belief, Bakathir attempted to promote change within individuals in light of theversessothattheymayultimatelyeffectchangewithinthewidersociety.Inan attempttoachievethataim,Bakathirseemstohaveemployedthemethodoftarghib (arousalofdesiretowardsrighteousness)andtarhib(intimidationthroughthethreat ofpunishment)inhisselectionofversesfortheplay.Theversesintheepigraphand those alluded to in the final words of the protagonist correspond to targhib, while thoseincludedintheopeningsequencecorrespondtotarhib.Targhibandtarhibare
16
considered effective means for motivation amongst Muslims; it features in Islamic religiousworksandisamethodoftenemployedintheQuran.57
The significance and impact of Quranic verses in alDuktur Hazim
BakathirwrotealDukturHazimin1946andpublisheditinthesameyear.Itranksas only Bakathirs fourth attempt at writing a play in prose form. Like alSilsila wa al Ghufran, it is regarded as a social play but with comical and satirical elements.58 BeingoneoftenBakathirworksdealingwithcontemporarysocietalissues,thereare nothemesfromhistory,mythorlegend,unlikemanyofhisotherdramasandnovels. Therefore,alDukturHazimoccupiesanicheamongBakathirsnumerousworksand demonstratesanapplicationofBakathirsIslamicidealsinacontemporarysetting. AlDukturHazimisadomesticdramainsevenscenes.AccordingtoBadawi,it addresses the disastrous results of the undue influence of parents and parentsin lawontheirchildrenandtheirinterferenceintheirchildrenslivesandmarriages.59 But, if one uses the Quranic verses Bakathir cites as an epigraph to the play as a guide,itisclearthatwhilstthisislikelyasubtheme,itwascertainlynotBakathirs primaryintention.Rather,theversesstate:
We have commanded people to be good to their parents. Their mothers carried them,withstrainuponstrain,andittakestwoyearstoweanthem.Givethanksto Meandtoyourparents allwillreturntome.Butiftheystrivewithyou tomake youjoininworshipwithMeothersthatofwhichyouhavenoknowledge,thenobey themnot,butbehavewiththemintheworldkindly60
Hence,itappearsthatthemainlessonoftheplayisthatchildrenshouldbedutifulto theirparentsregardlessoftheirshortcomings,which,inthecaseofalDukturHazim, theparentsandinlawshaveinterferedtoomuchintheirchildrenslivessuchthatit leads to tensions within families. However, obedience to parents is not unconditional,asalsoimpliedbytheverses;butsolongasparentsdonotcalltothe disobedienceofGod,theyshouldbetreatedwithrespect.
Plot
The play begins with the protagonist, Dr. Hazim, engaged in a conversation with Buyumi, the chief clerk of his father, Sharif Bik. The conversation revolves around
57
See alHusayn Jarnu Mahmud Jallu, Asalib alTashwiq wa alTaziz fi alQuran alKarim, MEd dissertation, University of Kuwait, Beirut: Muassasat alRisala; Damascus: Dar alUlum alInsaniyya,1994. 58 Seehttp://bakatheer.com/hazm.htm,available23April2004. 59 Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.123. 60 Quran,31:1415.
17
Hazimssalaryandhowhisfatherhasdemandeditfromhim.Whenhisfatherarrives, thetwoengageinalongargument.HisfatherarguesthatHazimssalaryisneededto help out with household expenses. On the other hand, Hazim intends to buy his fiance,Nahid,agiftforEid61aswellassomenewclothingforhimself.Hazimargues onthegroundsofunfairtreatmentashislowlifehalfbrother,Abbas,alwaysseems to get his way while he is ordered to contribute his monthly income, as well as his clinicsrevenuetowardshouseholdexpenses. Hazimsstepmother,HikmatHanim,alsomothertohishalfsistersIhsanand Layla,usesherpositionasSharifswifetoexploitHazimshardearnedwealth.Both she and her husband are parsimonious and wasteful at the same time; they never seemtobeabletomakeendsmeet.Asaresult,Hazimsincomeisconstantlytaken away from him and this prevents him from marrying Nahid. Nahids parents, Sabri Afandi and Amina Hanim grow increasingly impatient although they are aware of Hazimspredicament.Finally,Sabrispatiencerunsoutanddespitedesperatepleas fromHazimformoretime,heseversHazimsengagementwithNahid.AlthoughSabri recognisesHazimsintegrity,hearguesthathisdaughterwillneverbeabletoachieve happiness as Hazims wife as long as Hazim relinquishes control of his life to his parents.Asaresult,bothHazimandNahidareheartbroken. Later,HazimisseeninabarwithBuyumiwherehedrownshissorrowsand disappointment.Hisclosefriend,Ahmad,aswellashisfatherandIhsanattemptto persuadehimtoreturntohisjobandhishome.SharifinformshimthatHikmathas changedherwaysandwantshimtoreturn.Likewise,Sabrihaschangedhismindand wants to marry his daughter to Hazim. With renewed hope, Hazim abandons his sinfulwaysandreturnstohisclinic.However,hestillrefusestoreturnhomedespite hisfathersfinancialstrife.Hiswholefamilybegsforhimtoreturn,includingHikmat, whonoticeablyregretsherpasttreatmentofHazimandhaskickedAbbasoutofthe house.Butevenwhentheyensurehimthathewillbegivencompletecontrolofthe household,heisremindedofthepastandrefusestoyield.Evenhisfatherinlawis notabletoconvincehim.Lateron,toaddafurthertwisttotheplot,Hazimsfather, Sharif,developsamildformofparalysis. Inthepenultimatesceneoftheplay,HazimishappilymarriedtoNahid.Inhis fathershousehold,thingshavechangedforthebetter;Hikmathaschangedherways and the household no longer suffers from debt; Abbas has turned over a new leaf; and,meanwhile,LaylaismarriedtoAhmad.EverythingappearsinorderandHazim hasresumedsupportinghisfathershouseholdwithdevotion. However, Amina, Nahids mother, is not pleased with the fact that Hazim continuestosimplymakeendsmeetandisthusunabletohaveahouseorachild. She does not like the fact that Hazims devotion is still split into two. This causesa heated argument between Amina and Hikmat. Amina ends up clashing with Hazim whotellshernottointerfereinhishouseholdaffairssinceitishisresponsibilityto
61
Culturally,therearetwomainEids(festivals)inIslam,theIdalFitr,whichoccursafterthe fasting month of Ramadan, and the Id alAdha, which occurs during the month of Hajj (pilgrimage).Linguistically,EidcomesfromtheArabicverbada,meaningtoreturn.Hence, Eidissomethingthatreturns(annually).
18
look after two households. Amina is hurt by Hazim; she leaves and orders her daughtertodolikewise.Nahid,whoishurtbyHazimswords,leavesaswell. Inthefinalscene,SabritellsNahidtoreturntoHazimandblameshiswifefor interferinginHazimsfamilyaffairs.Aminastartsdebatingwithherhusbandbuthe argues that he chose Hazim as a son inlaw on the basis of his stature, dignity and character,nothiswealth.HementionsthatHazimstreatmentofhisfamilyisasign of his integrity and that Nahid has to obey her husband. Amina yields to this argumentbutquestionsHazimsrefusaltobringNahidhome.Sabrirefutesbysaying that Nahid should return to her husband as she was the one who left him. Upon realisingherwillingnesstoreturntoherhusband,SabriinitiatesaplantobringHazim tohishouse.HecallsHazimandinformshimthatNahidissick.WhenHazimarrives, he realises that Nahid is not sick and that it was all a plan to bring them back together. In a lighthearted section, Hazim pretends to examine his wife and then takesherhome.ThesceneendswithSabriplayingajokeonhiswife. Based on the above, the verses in the epigraph clearlyhaveadirectrelationshipwiththeplot.Despite As every individual sins and needs to repent earlyproblems,Hazimendsuplookingafterhisfather, according to Muslim his stepmother and her children despite financial difficulties. He sees it as his duty to his own father, belief, Bakathir whohasgrownoldandweakandcannotaffordtolook attempted to promote afterthehousehold.Likewise,Nahidalwaysobeysher change within individuals parents and never neglects them. This occurs to the in light of the verses so extent that she obeys her mother when ordered to that they may ultimately leaveHazimsresidencealthoughthisactisatonedby effect change within the her returning to her husbands house in the final scene.Throughthis,Bakathirseemstoimplythatonce widersociety. a woman is married, her primary duty is towards her husbandandnotherparentsanymore. Two additional verses are also quoted within the play. The first, husbands shall take full care of their wives,62 has a considerable bearing on the characters, style,intendedmeaningandintendedaudience.Thesecond,[some]saythesleepers werethree,andtheirdogmadefour,63wasforcomicalpurposeswithanimportant implicationaimedatinstillingaQuranicmindset.
Protagonistsandcharacters
Unlike Abd alTawwab, who, despite previous wrongdoings, appears almost saintly throughouttheplay,Hazimscharacterhassomeinitialflaws.Forexample,heargues with his father, appears to disobey him, drinks and gambles. Obviously, these un Islamictraitshavenodirectrelationshipwiththeversesintheepigraph.However, afterregainingnewhope,Hazimapplieshimselfdiligentlytotheserviceofhisfather bycontinuingtolookafterthehouseholdevenafterstartinghisownfamilyandthis
62 63
Quran,4:34. Quran,18:22.
19
relates directly to the Quranic verses in the epigraph. Even his name, Hazim, is a reflection of his determination and strongwill to serve his father despite personal difficulties.Throughouttheplay,onesensesthatHazimcanneverreallyneglecthis fatherdespitetheirpreviousproblems.Hesimplygoesthroughastageofdenialfrom whichheemergesasadutifulson. The play is set essentially in a domestic setting. Of the twelve characters, three of them were initially outsiders. But after Ahmad marries Layla, the number reducestotwo,BuyumiandChristo,thebarowner.ToenhanceHazimsstrengthof characterandtheeffectoftheverses,Bakathirportrayshimastheonlyonewitha different mother. Thus, although he has no specific obligation to Hikmat and her children,heendsuplookingaftertheentirehouseholdonthebasisofbeingdutiful andobedienttohisfather. Additionally,theQuranicversesintheepigraphseemtoformthebasisofthe parentchild relationships within the play. Nahid is a good example of obedience throughout the play. Despite being heartbroken after her father severed her engagement to Hazim, this did not lead her to rebel. Although mistaken, she even obeys her mother when ordered to leave Hazims house. The verses mention both parents but place an emphasis on the mother. This is somewhat highlighted in Nahidshastydecisiontoleaveonthebasisofobedience.Similarly,LaylaandIhsan are dutiful and respectful children. More significantly, although Abbas is largely portrayed as manipulative and of bad character prior to turning over a new leaf, there are no distinct signs of disobedience to parents on his part. His bad traits mostlyoccuroutsidethehouseholdandarenotactuallyportrayedwithintheplay. Theverse,husbandsshalltakefullcareoftheirwives(alrijalqawwamunala alnisa), has an entirely different effect on the characters. Based on his understanding of the verse, Bakathir appears to render the female characters as subordinatetoallthemen,areflectionofthesocioreligiousperceptionsofgender roles in Egyptian society during his time. Although the women also voice their opinions, they make very few, if any, vital decisions and the men are seen as their protectorsandmaintainers.Anydecisionsthefemalecharactersmakeareportrayed asabrupt,hastyandirrational. Ontheotherhand,Bakathirportraysthemalecharactersinamixedfashion. The strongest characters are Hazim, Sabri andAhmad, although Hazim did have his personal problems in the play. Sharif is the authoritative type who mellows as the play progresses due to illness and old age. Abbas eventually changes his ways and Buyumi is the loyal servant. Hikmat, Hazims stepmother also changes; she regrets her previous misdeeds and persuades Hazim to return home to look after the household.64Thefirstfourdisplaythekindofauthoritythatmaybeunderstoodfrom the verse. The final scene is a glaring example of how the men (Sabri and Hazim) easilyoutfoxthewomen(AminaandNahid).Sincethisistheconcludingscene,and the scene in which theverse is quoted, Bakathirs intentions are quiteclear, i.e. he wishestojustifyaparticularinterpretationoftheverseinquestion.65
64 65
Bakathir,alDukturHazim,p.87. SeeAliAhmadBakathir,alDukturHazim,Egypt:DaralKutubalArabi,n.d.,p.139.
20
Finally,AminaisBakathirsepitomeofthe20thcenturywomanwhofightsfor her rights to the extent that she disagrees with Hazims devotion to his fathers household.Shebelievesthatamanshouldbefullydevotedtohiswife.Inthissense, sheappearstobeaminorantithesistotheversesintheepigraph.Bakathirssatire towardssuchcharacterswhomayexistinreallifeisevidentwhenHikmatrefersto her as a 20th century lawyer.66 This also appears to be a sarcastic remark towards what Bakathir considered to be modern values that oppose important religious principles.Atanyrate,thiswasbasedonaparticularinterpretationoftheversethat seemstohavebeeninfluencedbythesocietalcontext.
Styleandintendedmeaning
Unlike alSilsila wa alGhufran, which is a pioneering allegorical play, Bakathir employs a much more direct approach for alDuktur Hazim. As mentioned earlier, Badawibelievesthatthemainthemeoftheplayisthedisastrousaffectsofparents interferingwiththeirchildrenslives.Heseemstohavemissedthemainpoint.The play has to be understood in the light of the verses in the epigraph and the verse whichstatesthathusbandsshalltakefullcareoftheirwives.Takingeverythinginto consideration,thatplayappearstoaddresstwoimportantaspectsofdomesticlife: (1) the requirement to be dutiful to parents and obey them regardless of their shortcomings;and(2)thatmen,asheadsofhouseholds,haveaspecificroletolook after women. The minor themes of the play include the one identified by Badawi, obediencetothehusband,theneedtobestrongwilledanddeterminedintheface oflifeschallenges,theneedtorepentandtheneedtochooseaspouseonthebasis ofreligion,integrityandcharacter,notwealth. Clearly, this play attempts to address all the primary relationships in a domesticsettingnamely,betweenparentandchild,spouseandspouse,siblingand siblingandrelationswithinlaws.Bakathirwashimselfawarethathehadattempted to tackle too many issues and that, as a result, the play may be perceived to lack unityandeffect.67ThisisdespitethefactthatBakathirhimselftriedtofocusontwo keyissues,namely:1)whoshouldtakeresponsibilityforthehouseholdifthefatheris weakandirrationalwhilethesonisotherwise;and2)whetheramotherinlawhas therighttointerfereinhersoninlawsaffairs.68Indeed,thethemesandcharacters changeincessantlythroughouttheplay,butsincethiswasBakathirsfirstattemptto write on contemporary social issues, it appears to be a case of simplytrying to say toomuchthefirsttime.Theotherthreeofhisworksonsuchissues,alDunyaFawda (The Chaotic World, 1952), Qitat wa Firan (Cats and Mice, 1962) and Gulfadan Hanim (Lady Gulfadan, 1962), were written much later. Nevertheless, the play is sufficiently held together by the verses and the playwrights intentions are still conveyedasaresult(providedthatoneunderstandsthesignificanceoftheversesin thefirstplace).
66 67
Bakathir,alDukturHazim,p.117. Bakathir,FannalMasrahiyya,pp.3134. 68 Bakathir,FannalMasrahiyya,pp.3334.
21
Bakathir seems to be addressing the social problem of children neglecting their parents who may have wronged them in certain ways. Through the Quranic versesandtheplay,heattemptstoconvincehisaudiencethattheyshallalwayshave a religious obligation to their parents no matter what; a duty that is often coupled with the worship of God in the Quran.69 Even after one is married, this obligation continuesaseventhecharacterAmina,reluctantlyacknowledges.70Theelementsof repentance, commitment and strong will the main themes of alSilsila wa al GhufransimplyreflectthereligiositypresentinallofBakathirsworks.Theissueof choosingarighteoushusbandislinkeddirectlytomenwhoknowtheirresponsibility towardstheirparents.Hikmatsaysthatifgivenachoice,betweenamanwholooks afterhisfatherandhisfamilyandonewhodoesnot,shewillchoosetheformerfor herdaughter.71 Bakathir portrayal of women as weak and requiring the protection of men may be seen as a little farfetched at times. His staunch opposition to the growing influenceoffeminismaswellasapatriarchalreadingofhusbandsshalltakefullcare oftheirwivesappearstohavebeenthecause.InthefinalsceneofalDukturHazim, thewomenappeargullible,irrational,manipulatedandmocked.Forexample,Sabri admiresthefactthatHazimdoesnotallowwomentoplayaroundwithhisaffairs.72 Whenhequotestheverse,afteroutfoxinghiswifeanddaughter,hesays:Allpraise isduetoGod,wearevictorious.AllpraisesbelongtoGod,Hehasspokenthetruth. [Indeed,thatiswhy]husbandsshalltakefullcareoftheirwives. Theaboveelementofcomedyisnotentirelyinnocentandcouldhaveworked againstBakathir.Essentially,heisbeingcriticalofthemodernwomanandseemsto implythatawomanwillalwaysbeawoman,thatis,herroleisdifferenttothatof men.Sheshouldnotseektochangeherroleinsociety.However,thatbeingsaid,it was not Bakathirs intention to mock women; rather, he was attempting to emphasisethedifferentrolesmenandwomenplayinsociety.Additionally,Bakathir wasbeingcriticalanddismissiveoffeminism,whichhewouldexpectedlyopposedue to his Islamic mindset. Next, the relevant verse merely states the responsibility of men towards women and should not be exploited. Rather, men should realise the extentoftheirresponsibilitytowardswomen.Infact,Bakathirseemstoimplythatif menhavetheupperhandinthismatter,thenwomen,asevidentintheverseshe citesintheepigraph,haveagreaterrightasamother.Atanyrate,Bakathirsoverall concernforthestatusandroleofwomenwashighlightedinhisfirstplay,Humam,as mentionedpreviously.
Intendedaudience
AlDuktur Hazim play was directed at contemporary Arab society and suggests that the many problems within the society are a direct result of numerous domestic
69 70
See,forinstance,Quran,31:1314. Bakathir,alDukturHazim,p.114. 71 Bakathir,alDukturHazim,p.117. 72 Bakathir,alDukturHazim,p.129.
22
problems. This may explain why Bakathir attempted to address so many domestic issues in one play. More specifically, however, Bakathir intended this play for a Muslimaudience.Theversesdiscussedpreviouslyareusedtooutlinetherightsand responsibilities of key members within an ideal Muslim family. Bakathir wants parents,children,husbandsandwivestotakeheedoftheseversesandunderstand theirrespectiveroles.Likewise,conceptssuchasrepentanceandchoosingtheright spouseonthebasisofIslamicvaluesappealtoadevoutMuslimaudience.Eventhe versementionedbyBuyumiinacomicalsettinghasadeeperconnotation;73firstly,it clearly reflects Bakathirs strong Quranic mindset to the extent that he uses it for lighterelementsofaplayand,secondly,heseemstobedemonstratinghowMuslims shouldthinkusingtheQuraninallsituations.
Abriefevaluation:
The significance and impact of Quranic verses in the literary worksofBakathir

Sincehisfirstplay,Humam,BakathirinvariablyusedQuranicversesasepigraphsto hisplaysandnovels.Evenforstoriesbasedoneventsindirectlyrelatedto Islamor thosethatoccurredbeforeIslam,hewouldstilldoso.Bakathiroftendrewinspiration from myth, legend, folklore and Arabic and Islamic history in order to comment on themodernworld.Heusedthepastasametaphorforthepresentandpreferredthis approach to dealing with contemporary issues in a direct manner. Due to his commitment to Islam, Bakathir generally avoided colloquial Arabic in his published works,whichmadehisexpressionsomewhatstiltedandturgidformodernthemes, lackingtheimmediacyofspokenspeech.74Bakathirhimselfadmitsthatduetothis concern,hedidnotfeellikewritingmanyplaysonmodernsocialthemes.75However, toaddressthisproblem,Bakathirusedtowritehisplaysoncontemporarylifetwice; thefirsttimeincolloquialEgyptianArabicandthesecondtimeinclassicalArabicfor publication.AnexampleofthisisalDunyaFawda.76 For works based on myth, legend or folklore, Bakathir uses verses in the epigraphtoprovideIslamicinterpretationsforhischosenthemes.77Forexample,in the play Ikhnatun wa Nafirtiti (1938), he ends up portraying Akhenaton (also, Ikhnaton)asanIslamiccharacterwhocallstotheworshipofOneGod.However,his main shortcoming was that he refused to use force when required to defend the
Bakathir,alDukturHazim,p.106. Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.123. 75 Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.123. 76 BakathirmentionedthisinaTVinterviewinApril1969(detailsunavailable).Asaresultof this interesting approach, Bakathir left two plays, Shalabya and Arayis wa Irsan, entirely in colloquialEgyptianArabicashepassedawaybeforehavingtheopportunitytorewritethem informalArabicforpublication. 77 Other works in this genre include alFirawn alMawud (The Promised Pharoah, 1945), MismarJuha(JuhasNail,1951)andSirrShahrazad(TheSecretofShahrazad,1953).
74 73
23
truth.78 This refusal to fight those who opposed him led to his eventual downfall. Therearethreemajorstepstonotehere.Firstly,theversesplayasignificantrolein Islamising the story for the intended audience (and, possibly, for Bakathir beforehand)buttheymayormaynotbethebasisofthestory.Secondly,thisthen leadstoacommentontheconditionoftheMuslimsintheArabIslamicworld.Inthe case of Ikhnatun wa Nafirtiti, Bakathir implies that faith is inadequate if one is not goingtofightwhenrequiredtodefendthetruth(similartotheviewsoftheMuslim Brotherhood). And, finally, the audience is left with Bakathirs intended meaning (usually a comment on any issue involving the Muslims) which is always based on Islamicteachings. TheaboveisalsothecasewithBakathirsplay,MasaUdib(TheTragedyof Oedipus,1949),whichisbasedontheGreeklegendofOedipusbutisconsiderably adaptedforaMuslimaudience.79Thus,thesignificanceandimpactoftheQuranic verseswithinthisgenrecanroughlybedescribedbytheabovementionedthreestep process.HamidtermsthisasBakathirsspecialexegesis(altafsiralkhass)ofQuranic verses.80 Bakathir also wrote a play, Harut wa Marut (1962), based on a Quranic story.Yetagain,theQuranicversesmayormaynotbethebasisforstoryline;rather, the foundation may simply be Bakathirs motivation to address issues of interest fromanIslamicperspective. ForworksbasedonArabicandIslamicHistory,suchasWaIslamah(1945),al Thair alAhmar (1948), Sirr alHakim bi Amrilla (The Secret of alHakim bi Amrilla, 1947)81 and alMalhama alIslamiyya alKubra (1961), the processes and dynamics involvingQuranicversesaredifferent.82Forthisgenre,theprocessofIslamisationis not required; rather, the verses are quoted to enhance the reallife characters and stories.Forexample,inalThairalAhmar,BakathirfocusesonthestoryofHamdan Qarmat, a communist ideologue, during a time when there were raging conflicts between Capitalist, Communist and Islamist ideologies in Kufa. Eventually, through Abu alBaqa alBaghdadi, who calls for a return to the application of just Islamic principles, Islam prevails in the land. Bakathir pays particular attention to working classdynamicsinthenovel,whichmakesitmoreapplicabletoArabMuslimsociety.83 TheQuranicversesusedinsuchworksdonotseemtoformthebasisfortheplot. Instead,throughthesestories,Bakathirintendsto:1)portraytheidealapplicationof theversesusedinaparticularwork;and2)educatetheintendedaudienceaboutthe grandeurofIslamichistory,implyingthatifMuslimsofthepastachievedsuccessby followingQuranicinjunctions,sotoowillMuslimsinmoderntimes.
Hamid,RiyadaBakathir. SeeHamid,RiyadaBakathir;Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,pp.1189.Anotherworkin thisgenreisUziris(Osiris,1959)basedontheOsirismyth. 80 Hamid,RiyadaBakathir. 81 AlHakim bi Amrilla was the common name for alMansur Abu Ali (9961021), the first FatimidImambornonEgyptianSoil. 82 OtherworksinincludeDarIbnLuqman(TheHouseoftheSonofLuqman,1960),alFallah alFasih (The Eloquent Peasant, 1965) and alDuda wa alThuban (The Worm and the Snake,1967). 83 Sakkut,TheEgyptianNovel,p.71.
79
78
24
Finally,forworksbasedoncontemporaryortimeneutralissues,Bakathirs useofQuranicversesisevenmoresignificant;theversesmayevenbethebasisfor thestorylineandcharactersasobservedinthetwoplaysanalysedinthisresearch. ThisisalsothecaseforworksdealingwithpoliticalissuesintheArabworldduring Bakathirs time. In such works, Bakathir mainly touches on the ArabIsraeli conflict andisextremelycriticalofZionism,MarxismandCommunismwhilstemphasisingan Islamicalternative.84 Bakathir personally argued that literature was first and foremost a work of 85 art. HeadvisedhisfellowIslamicwriterstoensurethattheirzealforIslamdidnot compromisethisfact.86However,hemayhavefallenshortinfulfillinghisownadvice to others; his strong religious commitment and heavy reliance on Quranic verses havesuchasignificantbearingonhisworks,whichiswhereBadawicriticiseshim.87 However,fromanotherperspectiveandcontrarytowhatBakathirwrotehimself,a piece of literature can be a significant representation of an authors comments on aspects of the individual and the society, especially if s/he strictly abides by a particular ideology. If many writers choose to write for a specific audience, then surelyBakathirhasthelibertytotargetaMuslimaudience.And,itwouldbeunfairto judge his works from within a different paradigm as Bakathirs literature is best understoodfromwithintheMuslimexperience,particularlythecontextoftheArab Islamic world during his period of authorship. From this perspective, the religious implicationsinhisworksarepurelyacceptable. Finally, at times, the verses in the epigraphs provide an immediate expectation of the moral lessons and themes behind each work. On the one hand, the work becomes predictable, but from the perspective of the intended audience, thiscreatesanimmediateaffectiontothestoryanddrawstheirattention.
Conclusion
In summary, this paper has demonstrated the great importance and impact of the QuranicversesfoundinmanyofBakathirsnovelsandplays,whichareoftensocial commentaries.Inmoreglaringcases,suchasalSilsilawaalGhufranandalDuktur Hazim,theseversesmayevenformthebasisofthewholestory,includingtheplot, the characters and the intended message. In other cases, the impact of the verses maybeless,butthereisalwaysanIslamicmessagethatBakathirwishestoconvey, whichisareflectionofhisstrongreligiousidealsandQuranicmindsetthroughwhich he evaluates society. The strong Quranic influences in his works demonstrate his
SeeBadawi,ModernArabicDrama,pp.12629.TheseworksincludeShaylukalJadid(The New Sherlock, 1944), Shabulla alMukhtar (Gods Chosen People, 1956), Ilah Israil (The Lord of Israel, 1959), Imbiraturiyya fi alMazad (Empire for Auction, 1952), alZaim al Awhad(TheSupremeLeader,1959)andHablalGhasil(1965). 85 Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.129. 86 Hamid,RiyadaBakathir. 87 Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.129.
84
25
commitment to work for Islam and the Arabs. He wanted them to realise the importanceofremainingfaithfultoIslamastheonlymeanstoachievesuccess. Certainly, some literary critics may consider Bakathirs unwavering use of Quranic verses and his strong religious mindset as distracting and a detrimental limitationtohisworks.ButfordevoutMuslims,thisisfarfromthecase;rather,an immediate affection is formed when a recognisable Quranic verse is cited at key momentsintheliterature.However,thisverynatureofBakathirsworksmayactually lend itself to a classic example of converting the already converted. If his main intention was to criticise, evaluate, comment on and initiate a change in society through his writings, his predictable approach and mindset may only appeal to a certainclassofMuslimswhomayalreadysharehisviews,notthosewhoascribetoa different ideology. Indeed, his recorded intellectual stoushes with the Marxist, CommunistandLiberalistArabgroups,forinstance,areaperfectjustificationofthis point. Nonetheless, such ideological clashes are not surprising considering the religiouslyandpoliticallymotivatednatureofBakathirsworks As an Islamic dramatist and novelist, Bakathir has contributed greatly to its establishment and development, and he is often viewed as the pioneer of Islamic literature.HiscontributionstomodernArabicliteraturearemanifestedinthevarious styleshepioneeredandexperimentedwith.Hisprolificwritingofplays,novelsand poetrycertainlydeservemoreattention,bothintermsofreadershipandacademic research.Finally,thisstudyhaspavedthewayforfurtheravenuesofresearchonthe numerousIslamictrendsandissueswithinBakathirsliterature.Itwasnotmerelyhis volume of output or strong religious influence, but at his prime, Bakathir produced works comparable to the best of his time. Identified as one of Tawfiq alHakims successors, surely this prolific writer, who was undoubtedly passionate about his beliefsandhisart,hastobegivenmoreattention.
Bibliography
Abdel Haleem, M. A. S., The Quran: A new translation, Oxford: Oxford University Press,2004. alAlfi, Usama, Dawa li Iada Qiraa Amal Mubaddi Kabir wa Nashr Turathihi BakathirminRuwwadalShiralHurrwaalMasrahalSiyasiwaalRiwayatal Tarikhiyya,AlAhram,2December2003. AliKaramali, Shaista P. and Fiona Dunne, The Ijtihad Controversy, Arab Law Quarterly,vol.9,no.3,1994,23857. Arberry, Arthur J., Religion in the Middle East, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1981. AlAshmawi, Abd alRahman, alIttijah alIslami fi Athar Ali Ahmad Bakathir al Qasasiyya wa alMasrahiyya, Riyadh: Imam Muhammad b. Saud Islamic University,1989. Badawi, M. M., A Critical Introduction to Modern Arabic Poetry, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress,1975. Badawi,M.M.,EarlyArabicDrama,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988.
26
Badawi, M. M., Modern Arabic Drama in Egypt, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1987. Bakathir,AliAhmad,alDukturHazim,Egypt:DaralKutubalArabi,n.d. Bakathir,AliAhmad,FannalMasrahiyyaminKhilalTajaribialShakhsiyya,Cairo:Dar alMaarif,1964. Bakathir,AliAhmad,alSilsilawaalGhufran,alFallaja:DarMasirlialTibaa,n.d. Basibrin,Abdulla,RaidalAdabalIslamiAliBakathirWajibalAdibalArabiTabsiral UmmabialAkhtarallatiTatahaddaduha,AlAyyam,28June2003. Hallaq,Wael,WastheGateofIjtihadClosed?,InternationalJournalofMiddleEast Studies,vol.16,no.1,1984,341. Hamid, Muhammad Abu Bakr, Riyada Bakathir li alAdab alIslami wa Tatbiqatihi, IslamicLiteratureWorldLeaguelecture,n.d. Hamid,MohamedAbuBakr,TwoPlaysbytheIslamicDramatist,AliAhmadBakathir, Translated into English with Critical Commentary, dissertation, University of Illinois,1988. IbnKathir,ImadalDin,alBidayawaalNihaya,Beirut:DaralMarifa,1998. Jad, Ali B., Form and Technique in the Egyptian Novel 19121971, London: Ithaca Press (for The Middle East Centre, St Anthonys College, Oxford University), 1983. Jallu,alHusaynJarnuMahmud,AsalibalTashwiqwaalTazizfialQuranalKarim, MEddissertation,UniversityofKuwait,Beirut:MuassasatalRisala;Damascus: DaralUlumalInsaniyya,1994. Mahmoud, Fatma Moussa, The Novel as a Record of Social Change, in The Arabic NovelinEgypt(19141970),Cairo:GeneralEgyptianBookOrganisation,1973. Muhyi alDin, Hazim, Tayyar alIslah alDini fi Misr Madrasa alShaykh Muhammad Abduh,translatedchapterofabookbyG.Delonoue,LEgypteDaujourdhui: Permanences et Changements 18051976, available 19 May 2004 [http://www.almultaka.net/web/m00p8.htm] Nasir,MuhammadHamid,alAsraniyyun,Riyadh:MaktabatalKawthar,1996. Qaadhi, Abu Ammaar Yasir, An Introduction to the Sciences of the Quraan, Birmingham:AlHidaayah,1999. Rahman, H. U., A Chronology of Islamic History 5701000 CE, London: TaHa Publishers,1995. Sakkut, Hamdi, The Egyptian Novel and its Main Trends from 1913 to 1952, PhD dissertation, University of Cambridge, Cairo: The American University Press, 1971. alZubaydi, Abd alHakim, Bakathir fi Sutur, available 19 March 2004 [http://bakatheer.com/sotor.htm] alZubaydi,AbdalHakim,AlDawailaalTawbawaFadailalAmalfiMasrahiyyaal Silsila wa alGhufran, available 19 March 2004 [http://bakatheer.com/zubaidi/assilsilahwalghufran.htm]
27

NCEIS Research Paper Vol1No3 Hassim

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

NCEIS Research Paper Vol1No3 Hassim

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

NCEISResearchPaperNo.

EeqbalHassim NCEIS TheUniversityofMelbourne

EeqbalHassim NCEIS TheUniversityofMelbourne

Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.117. IbnKathir,alBidayawaalNihaya,p.55. 46 Quran,3:13335.IhaveusedAbdelHaleemsQurantranslationthroughoutthispaper.

The silsila referred to by

Quran,22:12. Bakathir,alSilsilawaalGhufran,p.132. 52 Quran,89:278. 53 Quran,8:2. 54 Qaadhi,SciencesoftheQuraanp.13.

The significance and impact of Quranic verses in alDuktur Hazim

Bakathir,alDukturHazim,p.117. Bakathir,FannalMasrahiyya,pp.3134. 68 Bakathir,FannalMasrahiyya,pp.3334.

See,forinstance,Quran,31:1314. Bakathir,alDukturHazim,p.114. 71 Bakathir,alDukturHazim,p.117. 72 Bakathir,alDukturHazim,p.129.

The significance and impact of Quranic verses in the literary worksofBakathir

You might also like