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CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Introduction A biological adaptation is any structural (morphological or anatomical), physiological, or behavioral characteristics of an organism or group of organisms (such as species) that make it better suited in its environment and consequently improves its chances of survival and reproductive success. Due to individual phenotypic plasticity (variability), individuals will be more or less successful. Some adaptations may improve reproductive success of the population, but not a particular individual, such as seen in altruistic behavior in social insects. Organisms that are adapted to their environment are able to :

secure food, water, and nutrients obtain air, warmth, and spaces cope with physical conditions such as temperature, light, and heat defend themselves from their natural enemies reproduce and rear offspring respond to changes around them

Adaptation occurs in response to changes in the environment, life style, or relationship to other organisms. Environmental dynamicity, voluntary or compelled shifting of habitat, and human activities may put organisms in a new niche or in environmental stresses or pressures. In such circumstances, the

organisms require characteristics suitable to the new situation. Organisms that are not suitably adapted to their environment will either have to move out of the habitat or die out. The term die out in the context of adaptation means that the death rate over the entire population of the species exceeds the birth rate for a long enough period for the species to disappear. While adaptations provide for the individual purpose of the organism survival, reproduction, development, maintenancethese same characteristics provide diversity and add to human fascination with, and enjoyment of, nature. Furthermore, while adaptations often are seen as a static set of suitable characteristics, in reality the process of developing adaptations is a dynamic process. Whether envisioned as the product of design or natural selection, or natural selection on the microevolutionary level and design for macroevolutionary changes, the reality is that new adaptations are needed when organisms encounter new environments, and such have arisen for millions of years.There is a great difference between adaptation and acclimation or acclimatization. The process of developing adaptations occurs over many generations; it is a population phenomenon involving genetics and is generally a slow process. Acclimation or acclimatization, on the other hand, generally occurs within a single lifetime or instantly and deals with issues that are less threatening. For example, if a human being were to move to a higher altitude, respiration and physical exertion will

become a problem. However, after spending a period of time under the high altitude conditions, one may acclimatize to the reduced pressure, the person's physiology may function normally, and the change will no longer be noticed. 1.2 Types of adaptation Adaptations can be structural, physiological, or behavioral. Structural adaptations are special body parts of an organism that help it to survive in its natural habitat (e.g., skin color, shape, body covering). Physiological adaptations are systems present in an organism that allow it to perform certain biochemical reactions (e.g., making venom, secreting slime, being able to keep a constant body temperature). Behavioral adaptations are special ways a particular organism behaves to survive in its natural habitat (e.g., becoming active at night, taking a certain posture).Based on the habitats for which organisms develop adaptations, adaptations can be categorized into 3 fundamental types, namely aquatic, terrestrial, and volant (flying), each of which can be further divided into many subtypes. 1.3 Aquatic adaptation Aquatic adaptations are found in those plants and animals that live in water habitats: fresh water, brackish water, and sea water. For example, fresh water organisms develop features to prevent the entry of excess water or processes to drain excess water regularly. On the contrary, marine organisms face scarcity of

water due to hypertonic (salt concentration higher than that of body fluid) sea water. So, they have mechanisms to retain water and excrete excess salts that enter in water intake. Aquatic plants may be emergent rooted plants (e.g., reeds), submersed rooted plants (e.g., Hydrilla), planktons (e.g., diatoms) or floating plants (e.g., water hyacinth). Similarly, aquatic animals may be benthic, occurring at the bottom of a water body, or pelagic, occurring in the water body itself. The animals may live partially or permanently in water. Thus they may range from nonspecialized to very highly specialized water dwellers. Primarily aquatic animals (e.g., fishes) show not a single terrestrial feature, whereas secondarily aquatic animals (whales, dolphins) possess terrestrial respiration through lungs, and some must visit land for laying eggs (e.g., turtle). Partially water dwelling animals demonstrate amphibious adaptations with double features both for land and water (e.g., frogs, salamanders), or mostly terrestrial features and only some basic aquatic adaptations (e.g., duck). Some characteristic aquatic adaptations are:

Body contour is spindle shaped and streamlined. For this, the head is elongated into rostrum or similar structure, neck is short, external ears (pinnae) are reduced, and tail is laterally or dorsoventrally compressed.

Usually marine animals are excessively large (e.g., whale), because of the buoyancy of the salt water.

Organs of locomotion and balancing vary greatly among the aquatic animals; fishes use paired and unpaired fins, whales and turtles have their limbs modified into paddles, in some others, hands and/or feet are webbed.

Skin of most aquatic forms is rich in mucous glands to make it slippery. Fishes are equipped with dermal scales as well. Aquatic mammals have reduced or absent hair and skin glands (oil and sweat glands). In compensation, they have a fatty layer below the skin known as bubbler. Besides insulating the body, it also helps in flotation.

Primarily aquatic animals are capable of utilizing dissolved oxygen in the water for respiration through general body surface, internal or external gills, and so forth. However, secondarily aquatic forms respire atmospheric air through lungs; nostrils are located at the apex of the head.

In fish, the hollow outgrowth of the alimentary canal, called air bladder, functions as an organ of flotation and accessory respiratory organ as it is filled with air. In whales and other mammals, extraordinarily massive lungs and closable nostrils serve this purpose.

Fishes have lateral line systems extending the whole length of the body. It contains neuromast organs, which act as rheoreceptors (pressure receptors).

1.4 Aquatic habitat Natural aquatic habitats include ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, springs, estuaries, bays, and various types of wetlands. Some of these habitats are shallow and others deep, some are coldwater and others warm-water, some are freshwater and others saltwater, and some have high oxygen levels and others little oxygen.Aquatic habitats can be classified as: non-flowing waters like lakes and ponds, slowly-flowing waters like marshes and swamps, and flowing waters like rivers and streams. Aquatic habitats may be either freshwater like lakes, ponds, rivers, spring or saline (salt water) like oceans. A wide variety of organisms lives in these habitats. Sudden change in water temperature is not observed because water absorbs and loses heat gradually. Over 99.9% of the surface water is available as freshwater for various hum an needs. The aquatic habitat offers a variety of physicochemical factors. These include penetration of light (transparency), availability oxygen, resistance to motion (viscosity), pressure fluctuations, nutrients, etc.

CHAPTER TWO 2.1 Adaptive Features of Aquatic Animals (Hydrocoles) 1. They have special structures like floats, air cavities, air sacs which help them to float in water at the desired depth. 2. For movement, animals have special appendages, for example, fishes have streamlined body and fins. Plants do not have these special structures as they are either fixed or drift along with the water current. 3. Animals develop special coverings like shells, cuticle, waxy coating, scales, etc. Which prevent rotting and decay. 4. Animals have the ability to feed in water. 5. For respiration and exchange of gases animals have developed special structures such as gills in fishes. 2.2 Adaptive Features of Aquatic Plants (Hydrophytes). Plants which live in water are known as hydrophytes. 1. Free-floating: Some hydrophytes float freely on the water surface. They are not attached to the bottom soil. Common examples are Eichhornta, Pistia, Lemna, Wolffia 2. Rooted and Free-floating: In some hydrop-hytes like Nelumba, Nymphaea, the roots are fixed in mud and leaves remain floating due to long petiole.

3. Submerged and Rooted: Some aquatic plants like Hydrila, Vallisneria remain submerged in water and are rotted in soil. In Vallisneria, the stem is tuberous which bears ribbon-like leaves while Hydrila has a long stem with small leaves on the nodes. 4. Submerged and Floating Some hydrophytes like Ceratophytllum remain completely submerged in water and are not rooted in the mud. They have long stems and small pointed leaves. 5. Emergent and Rooted Some hydrophytes like Ranunculus. Typha grow in shallow water. Their roots are completely under water fixed in the soil while the stems are partly or completely exposed to air.

CHAPTER THREE 3.1 Adaptation in hydrophytes (Aquatic Plants) The roots in hydrophytes become less significant due to the availability of plenty of water. Either they have no roots or have poorly developed roots. Root hairs and root caps are absent. Air cavities (aerenchyma) are found in the roots. The stem is spongy, long and flexible. It floats horizontally in free-floating forms. The stem of the water lily or lotus plant (Nelumbo) is a rhizome which contains large boles for air. Floating leaves are large, flat, circular or oval which float on water. Submerged leaves are thin, long, liner or ribbon-like. Waxy coating is found on leaves, as in lotus which does not allow it to shrink or get destroyed. They have long flexible and mucilage-covered petioles. Narrow and long leaves of Vallisneria provide least resistance to flowing water. Take a lotus plant. Cut its stalk with the help of a blade. You will see large tunnels and holes. If you press the stalk, what do you see? Observe and think why these holes are there.Keep your hand or foot immersed in wager for about half an hour. Your skin will wrinkle. The water lily plant (or a lotus plant) does not wrinkle while if remains in water throughout its life. This is because of its waterproof, oily leaf. You may compare this waterproof layer with the scales of fish.

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3.2 Adaptation in Hydrocoles (Aquatic Animals) If you look at the structure of fish, you will find many structural features which reflect their adaptations to aquatic mode of life. 1. It has a streamlined body and is spindle-shaped. It has laterally compressed head, body and tail. 2. The entire body is covered with waterproof scales. There is a mucous coating on the scales which reduces water tension. 3. At the sides and posteriorly there are fins which help in swimming faster. The tail functions like a rudder and helps in changing direction while swimming. 4. Gills are present on the lateral sides. These are respiratory organs capable of oxygen uptake from water. 5. Fishes have an air bladder which is a thin-walled, gas-filled sac lying dorsal two the alimentary canal. It helps in respiration, sound production and stabilizes any fluctuation in pressure. Other aquatic animals also have some modifications. In frogs and ducks, locomotion is achieved by webs between gingers. Whales (aquatic mammals) do not have or skin glands like sweat and oil glands. The body of whale is streamlined in a reverse direction with a short rounded front and a rapidly tapering posterior part with horizontal fin. Such shape helps them in locomotion in water. A thick

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layer of fat called blubber in present underneath their skin which helps in floatation. 3.3 Common Characteristics Between Aquatic Plants And Animals 3.3.1 Niche Partitioning Aquatic animals and plants both partition themselves into different ecological niches (or roles) to reduce resource competition and maximize utility of their environment. Plants in a freshwater marsh pursue a range of lifestyles. Some, such as water lilies, float their leaves and flowers at the surface, while others, such as cattails, are rooted in sediment and extend their stalks above the water's surface. In the oceans, some species, such as oceanic whitetip sharks and leatherback turtles, forage in pelagic environments far out to sea, while others, such as sea otters, favor coastal environments. Still more manage to survive in the benthic zones of the seafloor. 3.3.2 Predators and Prey As on land, the world's aquatic systems play host to ceaseless dramas of life and death in the form of predatory struggles. In the oceans, many fish are schooling, traveling in massive aggregations that reduces any one individual's chances of sticking out to a passing predator. In the muck of a marsh rim, a northern leopard frog camouflages itself with stillness and intricate markings. White sharks cruise the mid-depths, their eyes trained to the surface to pick out telltale silhouettes of

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elephant seals and other favored prey. Along sloughs and wetland margins, kingfishers and night herons pursue the same fish, but the former do it by ambushing from tree perches, while the latter stalk the shallows and dart their prey with lightning-fast lunges. 3.3.3 Using Aquatic Environments Many aquatic ecosystems, particularly in semi-arid climates and those experiencing distinct dry seasons, are ephemeral or temporary in nature. A playa pond on Texas' high plains or a creek in East African woodland may dry up in extended drought. Less mobile species such as fish, crayfish or aquatic snails may be doomed if their wetland vaporizes, while others, such as crocodilians, mink, waterfowl or hippos, can often migrate to a new home. Many migratory birds, from geese and swans to sandpipers, use aquatic environments only during certain times of year: for breeding, for wintering or simply as a convenient stopover on a long journey in between. 3.3.4 Form The streamlined shapes of so many kinds of fish and aquatic mammals are honed for efficient travel through their watery universes. Dolphins and sharks famously resemble one another, with sharp dorsal fins and lean forms: This is a case of convergent evolution, when two unrelated species come to adopt similar morphologies because of the common pressures of their environment. Aquatic or

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semi-aquatic plants do this too: Giant cane and bulrushes are not closely related (one's a grass and one's a sedge), but they look similar with their stout, tall stalks and constitute similar landscape features (canebrakes and tule beds).

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CHAPTER FOUR 4.1 Summary An animal or plant which lives in water during any stage of its life or depends upon aquatic habitats, is defined as an aquatic organism. Aquatic plant communities provide many ecological benefits, such as food and habitat for waterfowl, fish, and other aquatic organisms. They also help maintain water quality by absorbing nutrients, providing oxygen, and reducing shoreline erosion. Aquatic plants contribute to the overall health of a waterbody, enhancing shoreline property values. Aquatic ecosystems consist of living organisms together with their nonliving habitat. Although the ecosystem concept is a useful one, the exact definition is somewhat arbitrary. For example, an ecosystem can range in size from a small water droplet to the vast oceanic ecosystem, and the upper, lower, and horizontal boundaries are often not well established. Similarly, the temporal aspects of ecosystems are often fuzzy. For example, a vernal (spring) pond is a temporary wetland filled with rainwater, and is transformed from an aquatic ecosystem into a terrestrial one when it dries up during the summer. An intermittent stream is one that sometimes is full of water and at other times dry. Ecosystems are not always self-sustaining. For example, fish and other aquatic animals in streams depend on leaves and insects falling from terrestrial (land) ecosystems as energy sources. Just as no single life form (species) is sufficient

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unto itself, neither is any one ecosystem. Ecosystems and their plant and animal life are not independent from one another in time, space, or energy. 4.2 Conclusion Nutrient source and availability is different for aquatic systems than land systems. Soil, not air, is the major source of nutrients in terrestrial systems. In aquatic systems, nutrients are dissolved in water. Nutrients generally are more available in aquatic than terrestrial systems. Few geographic barriers inhibit the free movement of organisms in aquatic systems. Aquatic ecosystems are more continuous than terrestrial ecosystems. Except for temperature, salinity, and depth barriers, aquatic animals move freely. Aquatic enormous benefits at little cost. They: provide critical fish and wildlife habitats serving as spawning and nursery areas for fish like bass and nesting and feeding areas for waterfowl like geese, improve our water quality by filtering out sediment and toxins, act as natural sponges that absorb flood waters, collecting and storing excess water, preventing floods, and produce a rich variety of natural products such as fish and shellfish, cranberries and wild rice, ducksand geese, and timber. Wetlands provide outdoor recreational opportunities for boating, fishing, photography, nature observation, and scenic beauty. ecosystems provide us with

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References Alscher, R. G. and J. R. Cumming 1991. "Stress responses in plants: Adaptation and acclimation mechanisms," The Quarterly Review of Biology 66(3) : 343-344. Cook, C.D.K. (ed). 1974. Water Plants of the World. Dr W Junk Publishers, The Hague. ISBN 90-6193-024-3. Ford, M. J. 1983. "The changing climate: Responses of the natural fauna and flora," The Journal of Ecology 71(3): 1027-1028. Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 497 p. Nortman, D. The evolution of phenotypic plasticity through the Baldwin Effect. Noesis VI: Article 4, 2003. Retrieved May 20, 2007.

Pray, L. A. 2004. Epigenetics: Genome, meet your environment. The Scientist 18(13): 14. Retrieved May 20, 2007. Science Aid 2006. Adaptation. Retrieved May 7, 2007. Settel, J. 1999. Exploding Ants: Amazing Facts About How Animals Adapt, New York: Atheneum Books for Young Readers, ISBN 0689817398 Wells, J. 2000. Icons of Evolution: Why Much of What We Teach About Evolution Is Wrong, Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, ISBN 0895262762