CHAPTER 2 : FORCE AND MOTION

2.1 : Linear Motion : Motion along a straight line.

Learning outcomes By the end of the lesson the student should be able to : 1. Define distance and displacement 2. Define speed and velocity 3. Define acceleration and deceleration 4. Calculate speed and velocity 5. Calculate acceleration and deceleration 6. Solve problems on linear motion with uniform acceleration

1. Distance The distance traveled by an object is the ______________ that is traveled by that object. Distance is a ________________. The SI unit of distance is ___________ .

2. Displacement Displacement of an object from a point of reference, O is the _____________ of the object from point O in a _____________ direction. Displacement is a _____________ quantity. The SI unit of displacement is _______________.

Distance travelled = 200m Displacement = 120 m, in the direction of Northeast

Comparisons between distance and displacement. Distance Total path length travelled from one location to another Displacement The distance between two location measured along the ______________ path connecting them in specific location

Scalar quantity Vector quantity Has magnitude only Has magnitude and direction SI unit meter SI unit meter Example : What is the distance and displacement covered by a toy car if it travels 4m north and then 3m east ? B 3m C

4m A Solution:

Speed 1. Speed is defined as the travelled in a certain interval of time or the ............ of distance traveled with time. Speed = Distance traveled Time taken 2. The speed of an object is a quantity. The SI units for speed is .. Velocity 1. Velocity is defined as the .. travelled in a given interval of time in a .. or the rate of change of .. traveled with time. Velocity = Displacement Time take 2. The velocity of an object is a .. quantity. The SI units for speed is .. Example : Figure below shows the run of a long distance runner from P to R. If the run took him 3 hours, a) find his average speed b) find his average velocity 8 km R 10 km Q

Acceleration 1. Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. Acceleration = Change of velocity Time taken a=v-u t v - the final velocity u the initial velocity t the time taken 2. The acceleration of an object is a . The SI units for acceleration is.. 3. Negative acceleration is known as ... If the velocity of an object is remain constant, the object is said to move with

TICKER TIMER

1. The ticker timer as shown in figure is used in the laboratory to study motion. 2. It can print dots on a tape at a steady rate. 3. It is connected to an a.c . power supply of 50Hz. 4. The time taken to make 50 dots on the ticker tape is 1s. Hence , the time interval between 2 consecutive dots ( 1tick) is 1/50 = 0.02s.

Ticker tape Chart 1. Ticker tape chart are usually constructed with . length. 10 ticks

Calculation involved ticker tape : Example 1 :

What is the speed of the trolley ? Example 2 :

The ticker-tape charts constructed with 5-tick lengths is shown in the Figure above. What is the velocity of the trolley if the ticker-timer was connected to a 50 Hz power supply?

EQUATION OF MOTION 1.The equations used in linear motion involve two kinds of motion ; a) Motions with . velocity ( zero acceleration ). b) Constant change in velocity ( constant . ). Motion with constant velocity vav = s t s = vav x t Motion with constant acceleration vav = u + v 2 s = (u + v) x t 2 v = u + at s = ut + at2 v2 = u2 + 2 as

Example : 1. A car accelerated at 6 ms-2 from an initial velocity of 2 ms-1 for 10s. Calculate: (i) the final velocity (ii) the distance moved Solution :

2. A driver traveling at a velocity of 108 kmh-1 . Suddenly he saw a cow at a distance 80 m in front of him, immediately he brakes the car and it stop after 6 s. Find (i) the deceleration of the car (ii) the distance traveled by the car from the time he applies the brakes until it comes to a stop (iii) Is the driver knock the cow ? Why ? Solution :

ANALYSING MOTION GRAPH

DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPH
The gradient of the graph . Therefore , the velocity of the object is The object is ..

The gradient of the graph is Therefore, the velocity of the object is

The gradient of the graph with time. Therefore, the velocity of the object .. with time.

VELOCITY-TIME GRAPH

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2.3 Analysing Learning Outcomes

Inertia

Student should be able to : 1. Explain what inertia is 2. Relate mass to inertia 3. Give examples of situations involving inertia 4. Suggest ways to reduce the negative effects of inertia

1. Also known is Newtons first law which state that an object continues in its ., or if moving it continues to move with uniform velocity, unless some .. to act upon it. 2. Inertia can be defined as the . of an object to remain in its state of rest, or if moving, to . its motion in a straight line.

The Relationship Between Mass and Inertia 1. The greater the mass of an object, the . difficult it is to . it moving, or to stop it if it is in a state of motion. 2. Therefore, the larger the mass of an object, the .. its inertia. 3. Base on that, the of an object can be defined as a measure of its inertia.

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Observing Inertia

Situation 1
1. A cloth clip is put on a piece of cardboard and place over a cup. 2. If the cardboard is flicked sharply, the clip will the cup. 3. This demonstration shows that the clip which was .. .., tends to remain in its original state of rest.

Situation 2
1. Two similar tins being suspended from the ceiling by a long string with tin A is empty while tin B filled with sand. 2. Tin B is found to be . to move compared to tin A when both tins are pushed with the same force. 3. Tin B is also found continue swinging for a period of time compared to tin A because tin B is difficult to stop. 4. The experiment shows that the the mass of an object the .. its inertia. Situations Involving Inertia 1. A passenger standing in a bus tends to move ... when the bus starts to move forward because the passenger has the inertia to remain at . when the bus moves forward. 2. When the bus stops suddenly, the passenger is .. forward because the inertia of the passenger has the tendency to keep moving ... 3. The water droplets on a wet umbrella will if the umbrella is rotated and stopped suddenly. This is because the inertia of the water droplets will cause it to moving even the umbrella has stopped rotating. 4. Tomato sauce is easier to pour by shaking the bottle and suddenly. This is because the inertia of the sauce will force it to continue it .. of moving and flow out.

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5. If we encounter a charging elephant, it would be wiser to run away in . This because the elephant has a . mass and will find it very difficult to direction quickly.

Reducing the Negative Effects of Inertia 1. Lorries carrying heavy load must be so that it will not fall off the lorry when the lorry moves or stops. 2. Seat belts are used to . the passengers to their seats during collision and prevent the passengers from thrown forward due to inertia. 3. Airbag will when an accident occurs and this prevents the driver from the steering wheel.

2.4

Analysing Momentum

Learning Outcomes Student should be able to :

1. Define the momentum of an object

2. Define momentum as the product of mass and velocity, p = mv 3. State the principle of conservation of momentum 4. Describe applications of conservation of momentum 5. Solve problems involving momentum Momentum 1. Momentum is a useful quantity to consider when bodies are involved in . and 2. Momentum is defined as the of an object multiplied by its

Momentum = mass x velocity p = mv

3. The SI units for momentum is 4. Momentum is a quantity.

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Example 1 A bullet of mass 0.01k g moves with a velocity 200 m s-1. What is the momentum of the bullet? Solution

Example 2 A trolley of mass 1.5 kg moves with a velocity 4 ms-1 hits a wall and rebounds along the initial direction with a velocity 3 ms-1 .Calculate (i) (ii) (iii) The initial momentum The final momentum The change of momentum

Solution

The Principle Of Conservation Of Momentum

Total momentum before collision

Total momentum after collision

The Principle of conservation of momentum states that The total momentum of a system is always fixed if there is no external force acting on the system or In any collision or interaction between two or more objects in an isolated system , the total momentum of the system will remain constant ; that is the total momentum before collision will be equal to the total momentum after the collision

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Types of collision There are two types of collision , that is (i) _____________collision (ii) _____________collision Inelastic collision In inelastic collision , after two objects moving with their respective velocities do collide, they stick together and move with a common velocity.

Based on The Principle Of Conservation Of Momentum, The total momentum before collision = The total momentum after collision

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Example 3 A trolley of mass 1 kg and moving with a velocity of 6 ms-1 collides with a stationary trolley with a mass 3 kg . After collision they stick together with a common velocity. What is their common velocity? Solution

Example 4 A trolley of mass trolley M kg and moving with a velocity 4 ms-1 and collides with a trolley of mass 1 kg and moving in opposite direction with a velocity 2 ms-1 . After collision they stick together with a common velocity 2 ms-1. What is the value of M? Solution

Elastic collision In elastic collision , after two objects moving with their respective velocities do collide, those two objects will separate and move with different velocities.

Based on The Principle Of Conservation Of Momentum, The total momentum before collision = The total momentum after collision

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Example 5 A trolley of mass trolley 2 kg and moving with a velocity 0.6 ms-1 and collides with a stationary trolley with a mass 1kg . After collision the trolley of mass 2kg and moving with a velocity 0.2 ms-1. What is the velocity of the trolley of mass 1 kg after collision? Solution

Example 6

Based on the figure above, what is the (a) value of x (b) direction of motion of the ball with a mass 2 kg after collision Solution

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Explosion In explosion, two objects are initially at rest and after explosion those two objects will separate and move in opposite directions.

Based on The Principle Of Conservation Of Momentum The total momentum before collision = The total momentum after collision

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Example 7 A bullet of mass 0.05 kg is shot out from a gun of mass 1.5 kg. If the recoil velocity of the gun is 2 ms-1,what is the velocity of the bullet ? Solution

Example 8 A boy of mass 60 kg and a girl of mass 40 kg stand facing each other on a skating rink. The girl pushes the boy and he moves backwards at 2 ms-1 . What is the girls velocity? Solution

Similarities and Differences between Inelastic Collision and Elastic Collision

Similarities
Total momentum is _________________ Total energy is ____________________ Total mass is ______________________

Differences
Inelastic collision Both objects ___________ together after collision and move with a common velocity Elastic collision Both objects _______________ together after collision and move with different velocities

Total amount of ______________energy is not conserved

Total amount of kinetic energy is __________________

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The Applications of the Principle of Conservation of Momentum in rockets or jet engines . Rocket Engine

A rocket engine carries its fuel with it and can work in space as well as in atmosphere. Two fuels, such as liquid _____________ and liquid ____________ burn together explosively and force the gases produced out of the rocket nozzle in _________ speed and hence produces downwards momentum.

Following the principle of Conservation of Momentum, the rocket will propel upwards with a momentum that is equal to its previous momentum because momentum is conserved.

A jet engine uses the same principle of momentum conservation as the rocket engine except that it takes in ___________ to burn the fuel. So a jet engine will only work in the _______________. In the jet engine, air is __________ into the jet engine to be ____________ and is ________ up in the compressor. The compressed air is then ________ with fuel which is sprayed so that it starts to burn.

The exhaust chamber emits exhaust gases with a _______ velocity. This results in a momentum of equal magnitude but of opposite direction which moves the aeroplane forward.

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2.5 THE EFFECTS OF A FORCE

LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this subtopic, student will be able to : 1. Describe the effects of balanced forces acting on an object 2. Describe the effects of unbalanced forces acting on an object 3. Determine the relationship between forces, mass and acceleration,

4. Solve problem using F = ma

What is Force
1. Force is defined as an action which .. the state of motion of a body in a straight line.

F = ma
2. It can cause : (i) a .. object to move. (ii) a moving object to .. or to slow down. (iii) a moving object to change its .. of motion. (iv) an object to change in and shape. 3. Force is a . quantity. The SI unit is .. or N. NEWTON S LAWS OF MOTION Newtons First Law : An object will remain at rest or continue with a constant speed in a straight line unless acted on by an unbalanced force.

Newtons Second Law : The acceleration of a body ,a, is directly proportional to the net force acting on it, F , and inversely proportional to its mass, m. Newtons Third Law : For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

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The relationship between the acceleration ,a ,the net force ,F and the mass , m.

F = ma
Based on the Newtons Second Law of motion, a F a 1 m we obtain a F m a =kF m F = kma In S.I. units , the definition of a force of 1 N is given as the amount of force which is applied on a mass of 1 kg and which causes it to experience an acceleration of 1 ms-2 Thus, 1 N = k ( 1 kg ) ( 1 ms-2 ) Thus k=1 Therefore F = ma Where F = net force m = mass a = acceleration

Example 1

Two forces act horizontally to a block of wood of mass 4 kg as shown in figure above. What is the acceleration and the direction of motion of the block.

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Example 2 An object of mass 2 kg is pulled on the floor by a force of 5 N and having a constant velocity. (a) What is the frictional force between the object and the floor. (b) Calculate the acceleration of the object if the object is pulled by a 17 N force? Solution

Example 3 A bus of mass 2 000 kg travels with a uniform velocity 40 ms-1 for a distance 2500 m before it comes to rest. Calculate (a) the average deceleration of the bus (b) the average force applied by the brakes to bring the bus to a standstill Solution

Example 4 When traveling at 120 km h-1 a car has to overcome a drag force due to air resistance of 900 N. If the car has a mass of 1000 kg, determine the average force that the motor needs to apply if it is to accelerate at 5.0 ms-2. Solution

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2.6 ANALYSING IMPULSE AND IMPULSIVE FORCE

LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this subtopic, student will be able to :

1. Explain what an impulsive force is

2. Give examples of situations involving impulsive force 3. Define impulse as a change of momentum, Ft = mv - mu 4. Define impulsive force as the rate of change of momentum in a collision 5. Explain the effect of increasing / decreasing time of impact on the impulsive force 6. Describe situations where an impulsive force needs to be reduced 7. Describe situations where an impulsive force is beneficial 8. Solve problems involving impulsive forces

Definition and S.I. unit for Impulse 1. Impulse is defined as the ____________________________________ Impulse = m(vu) m = mass v = final velocity u = nicial velocity

2. Unit of impulse = ______________ or N s 3. Impulse is a ________________quantity.

4. From Newtons second law of motion, F= m(vu) t 5. Ft = m( v u ) = change in momentum 6. Impulse is also defined as the product between impulsive force, F with the time impact, t. Impulse = Ft F = Impulsive force t = time impact

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Impulse = area under graph F t Example 1 An object of mass 5 kg falls from a building. Its velocity is 6 ms-1 before it touches the ground. How much is the impulse on the object once it hits the ground. Solution

Example 2 Figure shows a trolley of mass 1.5 kg hits the wall with a velocity 5 ms-1 and bounces back with a velocity of 4 ms-1.

Calculate the magnitude of the impulse during collision. Solution

Example 3 A box of mass 2 kg is pulled with a force of 40 N for 5 s. How much is the impulse upon the object. Solution

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Impulsive Force
1. Impulsive force is defined as the .. in a collision or explosion. F = mv mu t 2. It is show that , the impulsive force (a) directly proportional to ... (b) inversely proportional to the . Acts on it 3. Therefore, if the time of impact .., the magnitude of impulsive force is . 5. The impulsive force can also be reduced by .. the change in momentum. 6. The SI unit of impulsive force is . Or N. Situations Involving Impulsive Forces Situations Explanation Hockey stick Made of a .. wood in order to . The time of contact of the stick with the ball. Hence, the impulsive force is . And the ball moves Catching a ball Storage of Goods A baseball player moves his hand to the .. while catching the ball. This will .. the time of collision and .. the impulsive force. Goods such as glass, eggs and television are kept in soft polystyrene in order to . The impact of a big force on it. The longer the time is taken, the . The impulsive force act on it. A long jumping athlete has to bend his legs to when landing on the mattress. When he bends his legs, the time taken to land is increased, therefore the impulsive force is decreased.

Jumping from a high position

Ways To Reduce Impulsive Force. 1. The front and the rear parts of the car are made of metal so that the car easily . During an accident. 2. Safety belts are used to slow down and stop the motion of the passenger been thrown when the car stopped suddenly. 3. .. are built in some cars in order to . The time of collision when an accident occurs. This is because it will be filled with air when the accident happen and .. the impulsive force on the passenger.

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2.7

SAFETYY FEATURES IN VEHICLES

There are several safety features installed to a vehicle in order to avoid a serious injury to the driver and passengers. 1.

Crumple zones . In a crash, the bonnet and boot of the car is designed to crumple, making the collision last a slightly longer time. The chassis contains parts that have grooves or beads cast into them. In a collision, these beads act as weak points in the members, causing them to crumple in a concertina shape. The force exerted on the car (and on its passengers ) is then smaller.

2.

Strong steel struts or framework of the car The strong steel struts prevents the collapse of the front and back of the car into the passenger compartment. Also gives good protection from a side-on collision.

3.

Padded dashboard , seat and headrest. . To reduce the risk of injury , the interior of the car must be made to absorb the impact. The car can have padded dashboards. The seat is padded and the headrest reduces the risk of the passengers neck being damaged in near-end collision.

4.

Collapsible steering wheels Steering wheel of a car is made of material soft enough to lighten the collision time and to cushion the momentum impact of the drivers head during an accident.

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5.

Shatterproof windscreen glass . Usage of shatterproof windscreen to prevent the passengers from being injured by glass pieces during accident because the glass pieces will not scattered easily .

6.

Automatic air bag . An air bag in a car is designed to inflate only when the vehicle experiences a 20 km h-1 or greater impact. The cars computer control make a decision in few milliseconds to detonate the gas cylinders that inflate the air bag. As the driver lunges forward into the air bag, allowing the driver to slow in a longer time. Injury is thus minimized. The air bag also spreads the impact force over a larger area of the body.

7.

Seatbelt An inertial reel seatbelt is taut but allows enough free movement during normal traveling. When an accident occurs, as the car exceeds a certain deceleration value, a locking mechanism will engage and stop the driver from crashing forward. The driver is not brought to a stop immediately and this helps reduce the force acting on a driver.

8.

Tyre design The tyre of a car should be broad and with friction grooves so as to control better the stability and change of momentum of the car.

9. Safety helmets Safety helmets are compulsory for motor cyclists. There is a growing amount of evidence to suggest that many injuries to pedal cyclists would also be much less serious if they wore safety helmets too. The purpose of a safety helmet is to protect the wearers head from large forces in an accident. It works on exactly the same principle as the seat belt and crumple zone. Inside the helmet there is a layer of expanded from or other similar padding. In a crash , if the motor cyclists head hits another vehicle or the road, the webbing and the padding inside the helmet allow the head to move a short distance before distance. The time allowed for the cyclists moving head to slow down and stop is longer. So the average force on the head is smaller.

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10. Accident avoidance systems. New vehicle safety technologies now concentrate on preventing accidents rather than reducing their effects. These include: Antilock brake systems (ABS) Usage of the ABS which will not immediately stop the car once the brakes are applied. The car will be momentarily brought to rest so that the impulsive force is smaller. Variable-ratio response steering systems Intelligent speed adaptation systems Reverse collision warning systems

11. Protecting the pedestrian Vehicles are designed to protect pedestrians also. Vehicles are designed with a low, energy-absorbing bumper to reduce knee and hip damage to pedestrians. Bumper bars are placed below waist level to reduce the likehood of the pedestrian being run over. Bonnet of a car can reduce casualty in car accidents. When the car hits a pedestrian, the bonnet of the car will automatically spring upwards . This will prolong the collision time and hence reduces the impulsive force acting on the pedestrian

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2.8 Understanding Gravity

LEARNING OUTCOMES: A student should be able to : 1. Explain acceleration due to gravity 2. State what a gravitational field is 3. Define gravitational field strength 4. Determine the value of acceleration due to gravity 5. Define weight as the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity, W = mg 11. Solve problems involving acceleration due to gravity

Gravitational Field 1. A . is a region in which an object experiences a ... due to gravitational attraction. 2. The force that acts on an object in a gravitational field is called the force of gravity. 3. The gravitational field strength is defined as the on.. in the field.

Acceleration due to Gravity 1. All objects .. with the same constant acceleration due to the force of gravity . 2. The constant acceleration is known as the .. which has a value of about 9.8 ms-2/ 10 ms-2

Weight and Mass 1. The weight of an object is defined as . acting on it. 2. The SI unit for weight is .. or .. W = mg Where W the weight m the mass of the object g the acceleration due to gravity 3. Weight is a . Quantity 4. The mass of an object is.. of materials contained in the object. 5. The SI unit for mass is ... 6. The mass of an object is .. everywhere on the Earth and . influenced by the acceleration due to gravity.

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The differences between mass and weight are summarized as follow: Subject The definition Mass,m The quantity of material contained in an object Scalar quantity Constant everywhere on the Earth kilogram Weight,W The force of gravity acting on it

Physical quantity The value

Vector quantity Dependent on the acceleration due to gravity Newton

The SI unit

Example : A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 10 ms-1. If g = 10 ms-2 and air resistance can be neglected, calculate: (i) the maximum height reached (ii) the velocity before it reaches the ground Solution :

Example 2 An astronaut who landed on the moon brought back a stone. On the Moons surface, the stone had a weight of 8.0 N . On weighing the stone on Earth , a weight of 50 N is recorded. ( acceleration due to gravity for Earth is 9.81 ms-2) Calculate , (a) the mass of the stone on Earth (b) acceleration due to gravity for Moon

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Free fall An object falls with an acceleration due to gravity, g is said to be free falling. This happen when the object falls without encountering any resistance. The following graph shows he graph velocity against time of any free-falling object :

The gradient of the graph is 9.8 ms-2 From the equation s = ut + at2 , u=o , a=g u=o , a=g

Thus s = t= 2s
g These means that the time for free fall will depend upon (i) height from where the object is let go off (ii) the value of the acceleration due gravity The free fall time does not depend on (i) the mass of the object (ii) the shape of the path (straight line or parabola)

Example 1 A man release a stone into a well. If the distance between the top of the well and the water surface is 30 m , what is the time taken for the stone to reach the surface of the water. Solution

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Example 2 A trolley moving with a uniform velocity of 5 ms-1 on a table . The height of the table is 1.25 m. Calculate (a) time taken to reach the floor

(b)

the value of x

Solution

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2.9 Analysing Forces In Equilibrium

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
A student should be able to : 1. Describe situations where forces are in equilibrium 2. State what a resultant force is 3. Add two forces to determine the resultant force 4. Resolve a force into two effective component forces 5. Solve problems involving forces in equilibrium

Forces in Equilibrium
The principle of the forces in equilibrium states, When forces act upon an object , the object is said to be in a state of equilibrium when the resulting force acting on the object is zero ( no net force acting upon it) When the equilibrium is reached, then the object is in two states, that is (i) remains stationary (if the object is stationary) (ii) moves at a constant velocity ( if the object is moving) Based on , F = ma or a = F m When the equilibrium of forces is achieved, then, F = 0 , hence a =0 Thus a = 0 , it means the object remains stationary or moves at a constant velocity.

Newtons Third Law of Motion

Newtons third law of motion states , To every action there is an equal but opposite direction

Examples Forces in Equilibrium

(a)

Weight = Normal reaction

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(b)

Weight = Tension (c)

Buoyant force = Weight

(d)

Weight = Normal reaction (e)

Weight = Normal reaction

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Pulling force = Frictional force (f)

Weight = Lifting force Driving force = Dragging force (g)

Weight = Normal reaction Engine thrust = Air resistance + Frictional force (h)

Buoyant force = Weight of load + Weight of

helium gas

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Two Forces in Equilibrium

P + Q=0 P =-Q Example 1 Figure shows a stationary wooden block of mass 2 kg resting on a table.

Calculate (a) the weight of the wooden block (b) the normal reaction Example 2 The Figure below shows a boat being pulled by two forces with a magnitude of 100 N each at angle 600 . Calculate the resultant force that acts on the boat by using the parallelogram of forces method.

F1 = 100N 600

F2 = 100N Using a scaled diagram : 1 cm : 25 N

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Three Forces in Equilibrium

P + Q +R=0 When three forces in equilibrium the triangle of forces in one direction (in order)

Example 2 The following figure shows a steel sphere of mass 12 kg suspended from a length of rope which is pulled to the side by a horizontal force of M. The tension of another rope is N.

(a) (b)

Draw a triangle of forces. Calculate the value of (i) M (ii) N

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Resolution of Forces 1. A single force can be resolved into two component forces which are perpendicular to each other. 2. This is known as the resolution of forces

Fy F Fx Fx = F cos Fy = F sin A force can be resolved into two components, that is, (i) the horizontal component, Fx and (ii) the vertical component , Fy

For an object on a inclined plane, the weight ,W of the object can be resolved into two components ; (i) parallel to inclined plane, A (ii) perpendicular to inclined plane, B

A = W sin B = W cos

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Example 6 Find the values of Px and Py for the following figures.

Apparent Weight in a Lift Note : The value of R is equals to the reading on the scale of the weighing machine. I - Lift at rest or moves up / down at a constant velocity R

a = 0 ms-2

mg

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II Lift moves up at an acceleration of a ms-2 R

mg III Lift moves down at an acceleration of a ms-2 R

mg IV Lift moves down when the cable of the lift breaks or Free Fall Situation R

a = g = 10 ms-2

mg

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Examples : 1. A student of mass 50 kg is standing on the platform of a weighing machine placed on the floor of a lift. What is the scale reading of the machine if (a) the lift is stationary

(b) the lift moves upward at an acceleration of 2.0 ms-2

(c) the lift moves downward at an acceleration of 3.5 ms-2

(d) the lift is free falling

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Situation

Equation

Conclusion

At rest

Moving up with uniform velocity

Moving up with acceleration

Moving up with deceleration

Moving down with uniform velocity

Moving down with acceleration

Moving down with deceleration

Cable of lift breaks causing the lift to free fall

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2.10 Understanding Work, Energy, Power and Efficiency LEARNING OUTCOMES:

A student should be able to : 1. Define work as the product of applied force and displacement of an object, W= Fs 2. State that when work is done, energy is transferred from one object to another 3. Define kinetic energy and state that Ek = mv2 4. Define gravitational potential energy and state that Ep= mgh 5. State the principle of conservation of energy 6. Define power 7. Explain what efficiency of a device is 8. Solve problems involving work, energy, power and efficiency

a) The Definition and S.I. unit of Work 1. Work is defined as the and the .. of an object in the .. of the force 2. Work = Force x Displacement W=Fxs 3. The SI unit for work is . or . 4. Work is a ... 5. No work is done if

a. The object is stationary. b. No force on the object in the direction of displacement c. The direction of motion of the object is perpendicular to the force

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Work done also can get from the graph force-displacement.

Work Done against the Force of Gravity

1. A force must be applied to lift an object of weight , mg to the height of h metre. 2. Work = Force x Displacement W =Fxs = mg x h W = mgh Example 1 A horse pulls a carriage with a total force 40 N for 50m . Calculate the work done on the carriage by the horse. Solution

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Example 2 Figure shows an ice cube is pulled by a force 20N At an angle of 60o to the surface of the smooth surface.

Calculate the done on the ice cube? Solution

Example 3 Figure shows a graph force-displacement of spring which is compressed by a force increases from 0 N to 100 N for 0.15 m.

Calculate the work done on the spring. Solution

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(b) The Definition and S.I. unit of Energy(E) 1. Energy can be defined as the capacity . 2. The SI units is or ... 3. Energy is a ... 4. When energy is converted from one form to another, is done.

Example : A student of a mass 50 kg walks up a flight of stairs 1.5 m high. Calculate: (i) the work done by the student (ii) the energy required to walk up the stairs

Kinetic Energy 1. Kinetic Energy is the energy possessed by a . object. 2. The kinetic energy, Ek of an object of mass, m kg travelling at a velocity of v ms-1 is given as :

v ms-1

m kg
W = Ek = m v 2 Example 1: A trolley with a mass of 3 kg moves from 10 ms-1 to 16 ms-1 over a distance of 10 m. Determine: (i) the change in the kinetic energy of the trolley (ii) the force that acts on the trolley

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Solution : Example 2 -1 A bullet of mass 0.02 kg moves at a velocity 150 ms .What is the kinetic energy of the bullet ? Solution

Example 3 A moving lorry of mass 800 kg has an energy of 160 k J. What is the velocity of the lorry. Solution

Potential Energy 1. Potential Energy is the energy stored in the object because of its . or ... 2. There are two kinds of potential energy : (i) Gravitational Potential Energy (ii) Elastic Potential Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy 1. The gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in the object because of its ... 2. The gravitational potential energy is equal to the work done to raise an object to a particular height. Ep = W = Fs = mg x h = mgh Example 1 A ball of mass 0.2 kg is thrown to a height 15 m. How much gravitational potential energy does the ball gain? Solution

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Example 2 A boy of mass 50 kg sitting on the top end of an inclined sliding board has an energy of 2 kJ. What is the height the inclined sliding board from the ground? Solution

Elastic Potential Energy 1. Elastic Potential Energy is the energy stored in the object as a result of .. or . it.

rubber ban

2. The elastic potential energy is equal to the work done to extend the Ep = F x Ep Elastic Potential Energy F Force to extend the elastic object. x Extension of the elastic object

elastic object.

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION of ENERGY 1. The Principle of conservation of energy states that the energy can neither be . nor , but can be .. from one form to another.

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example 1 A stone is thrown with a velocity 20 ms . What is the maximum height can be reached by the stone? Solution
-1

Example 2 Figure shows a ball of mass 0.5 kg slides from rest at point A through a frictionless rail height 0.8 m down .

What is the velocity of the ball at the bottom of the rail. Solution

Example 3 Figure shows a trolley is released from a rest at point X through a frictionless inclined plane.

What is the velocity of the trolley at point Y. solution

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Example 4 Figure shows a ball moves on a frictionless curve track with a velocity 6 ms-1 at point A.

What is the velocity of the ball when it reaches at point B? Solution

(c) The Definition and S.I. unit of Power (P) 1. Power is defined as the .. at which .. . Power = Work done Time taken P=W t 2. The SI unit of power is watt (W) or Js-1. 3. When work is done, the object gains energy, therefore Power = Change in energy Time taken P=E t 4. Power is also can be expressed in terms of force and velocity. P= W t = Fxs t = Fx s t P=Fxv

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Example : A car moves at a constant velocity of 20 ms-1. Find the power of the car if the force that acts on it is 1000N. Solution :

Example 13 A monkey of mass 20 kg climbs a coconut tree of height 15 m in 2.5 s. What is the power of the monkey?

Solution

(d) The Definition of Efficiency Efficiency = useful energy transferred x 100% total energy supplied = useful energy output energy input x 100%

1. The efficiency of a machine is less than 100 % because some energy is converted into . or other types of energy. 2. Maximising efficiency is important in order to conserve resources. 3. Following are the examples of how to maximize the efficiency. (i) When having a shower during hot weather, a water temperature is needed . Hence, .. the electrical energy is used. should be used in air-conditioner to control the temperature of a room. When the temperature is cool enough, electrical energy supplied is automatically switch off.

(ii)

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Example A crane lifts a load of 400 kg to a height of 100 m in 20 s. If the power input is 25 000 W, calculate (a) the useful energy output (b) the energy input (c) the efficiency of the crane. Solution

(e) Appreciating the importance of maximising the efficiency of devices.

1. Energy conservation demands that the total energy output of a machine or device must equal its energy input. 2. However , when we measure the energy output as work done on the load by a machine or device, we find it is less than the energy input. a. It is because the machine or device also does work against frictional forces and sometimes does work in moving itself. b. The work done against friction converts input energy into wasted heat energy and a little noise energy. So the energy equation now looks like this:

Energy Input

= useful energy + wasted energy output output

Maximising the efficiency of machine or device makes the best use of the input energy and reduces wasted energy output.

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Maximising the efficiency of machine and device can helps (a) to conserve resources since fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are non-renewable resources (b) to protect the environment from deforestation ,oil spills and radioactive wastes (c) to reduce the emission of air pollutants and greenhouse gases from power stations (d) to reduce the energy bills

The following are several ways of increasing the efficiency of machines and devices:

Machines:

Moving surfaces are made as smooth as Possible.

Lubricants such as oil and silicone are used to separate surfaces. Rollers and ball bearings are used to separate rotating axles from their mountings. Cushions of air are used as elastic lubricant. Machines which move through fluids are made streamlined in shape to reduce the frictional drag.

Heat engines: Heat engine must be designed with capability to do a greater amount of mechanical work while discharging waste heat at a lower temperature.

Electrical devices: (i) Lamp: o o A fluorescent lamp is more efficient than a filament light bulb. Use a lamp with a reflector so that the illumination can directed to specific area.

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A lighting of a room should depend on the size of the room.

(ii) Water heater When having a shower during a hot weather, a lower temperature is needed (iii) Refrigerator o o o The doors of the refrigerator must always be shut tight. Thermostat should be used in refrigerator to control the temperature The power of refrigerator needed depend on the size of the family.

Another ways: Recycling also conserves energy resources. Recycling saves energy because we do not have to make new bottles, papers e.t.c.

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2.11 Understanding Elasticity

LEARNING OUTCOMES: A student should be able to : 1. Define elasticity 2. Define Hookes Law 3. Define elastic potential energy and state that Ep= kx2 4. Describe applications of elasticity 5. Solve problems involving elasticity

Elasticity 1. Elasticity is defined as the ability of object to return to its original and .. after the applied force is ...

Hookes Law

1. Hookes Law state that the of a spring is to the force applied to it , provided the . is not exceeded.

Force, F (N)

Not obeying Hookes Law Elastic limit Spring obeying Hookes Law

Extension, x (cm)

2. The elastic limit of a spring is defined as the that can be applied to a spring so that the spring will be able to return to its original length once the applied force is ...

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3. If a force stretches a spring .., the spring . be able to return to its original length even though the force is removed. We can say that the spring have a extension.

4. For a spring that obeys Hookes Law, Fx F=kx where F Force on the spring x Extension of the spring k Spring constant

Force, F (N)

0 a

Extension, x (m)

k = b = gradient of F-x graph. a 5. The SI units for k is .. or 6. The spring constant (k) shows the . of the spring. 7. The spring which has a larger value of k , is difficult to be extended. Hence, it is said to be ... stiff or also known as a .. spring 8. The spring which has a small value of k , is easy to be extended. Hence, it is said to be stiff or also known as a ..spring

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Factors Affecting the Stiffness of a Spring

1. Physical Condition (i) Length of spring The longer the spring, elastic will the spring be. Therefore, the stiffness of the spring is .. (ii) Diameter of spring wire The greater the diameter of the spring wire, ..elastic will the spring be. Therefore, the stiffness of the spring is .. (iii) Diameter of spring coil The larger the diameter of the spring coil, . elastic will the spring be. Therefore, the stiffness of the spring is ... (iv) Material of spring Different materials of springs will give a .. elasticity. A steel spring is .. elastic compared with a copper spring. Therefore, the stiffness of the spring is ...

2. Spring System Two springs can be connected in series or in parallel . The series system is more elastic than the parallel system. Therefore, the stiffness of the series spring is decreased

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3. Value of Spring Constant, k A spring which is less elastic , has a higher value of spring constant, k. Therefore, the stiffness of the spring is increased, as the spring constant is increased. F (N) Spring A ( k is high )

Spring B ( k is low)

x (cm) ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY 1. Elastic Potential Energy is the energy stored in a spring when it is .. or ... 2. The elastic potential energy is a result of the work done to extend or compress the spring. F (N)

x (cm)

Elastic Potential Energy = Area under the graph of F-x Ep = F x Substituting F = kx ( from Hookes Law ) Ep = ( kx ) ( x ) Ep = kx2

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Example 1 The original length of a spring is 5 cm. With a load of mass 20 g, the length of the spring is extended to 7 cm. Determine (a) the extension of the spring with a load 40 g (b) the length of the spring with a load 60 g. the load required to extend the spring to 20 cm.

Solution

Example 2

Spring A extends by 2 cm when it hung with a 10 g weight. Spring B extends by 4 cm when it hung with a 10g weight. Find the total stretch in each of the spring systems shown in the following figure.

Solution

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Example 3 The original length of a spring is 12 cm. With a load of 20 g , the length of the spring is extended to 15 cm. What is the elastic potential energy stored in the spring?

Solution

Example 4 Figure shows a graph of force, F against extension, x for a spring.

What is the potential energy stored when the spring is extended by 0.4 m?

Solution

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Example 5 Figure shows a ball of mass 10 g pushed against one end of a spring on a smooth surface. The original length of the spring is 14 cm and its spring constant is 200 N m-1.

Determine (a) the elastic potential energy stored in the spring. (b) the maximum velocity reached by the ball after the compressive force on the spring is removed.

Solution

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Why is a solid is elastic ? o o o o o The property of elasticity is caused by the existence of two forces between molecules or atoms in the solid material. The two forces are force of repulsion and force of attraction between molecules. When a compressive force is applied to the solid, force of repulsion between the molecules pushes the molecules back to their equilibrium positions. When a stretching force is applied to the solid force of attraction between the molecules pulls the molecules back to their equilibrium positions. In the absence of an applied external force on the solid, the force of attraction is balanced by the force of repulsion or the resultant force is zero.

Use of Elasticity in Everyday Life: (1) Cushion / mattress: The spring in a cushion or mattress undergo many cycles of compression during use and each time the cushion is able to return to its original shape. (2) Electric meter : Electric meters such as ammeter, voltmeter and galvanometer have spiral springs. The springs are used to stop the pointer at a specific point on the scale or to return the pointer to the zero mark on the scale after a measurement has been taken (3) Vehicles spring support: It enables the passengers in a vehicle to be seated in a comfortable position when the vehicle goes on a bumpy road because springs shock absorbers are mounted on the wheels of vehicles to absorb impacts and damp vibrations resulting from movement on the bumpy road or uneven road surface. (4) In sports : The elastic strings of a tennis or a badminton racket enable them to rebound the ball or shuttle. The ropes used by rock climbers have elastic properties that can save lives during climbing accidents. The ropes are made of a continuous-drawn nylon fibre core and a protective textile covering . This reduces the stopping force acting on a falling climber. A bow bends or elastic twine of the bow is stretched to store the elastic potential energy used to propel the arrow.

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