3.

Induction motor control

3.2. Stator voltage control
Using the characteristics of the induction motor, we have understood that, the
speed can be controlled by varying the stator voltage. This method of speed control is
known as stator voltage control. Here the supply frequency is constant.
By using the simplified equivalent circuit of the induction motor shown in figure
3.1, the stator voltage control is explained as follows.
Figure 3.1.Equivalent circuit of induction motor
Let
R
1
& X
1
are the stator side resistance and reactance respectively
V
1
is stator voltage (or) supply voltage
f
1
is the supply frequency
I
1
, I
2
are the stator and rotor side current respectively
R
2
& X
2
are the rotor resistance & reactance respectively
According to the rotor side
Torque T =
S
R I
S

2
2
2
3
-------------------------- (3.1)
But
s
= ns
P

2
1

From the equivalent circuit as shown in the figure 3.1

I
2
=
( )
2
2 1
2
2
1
1
X X
S
R
R
V
+ +
,
_

+
Substitute the value of I2 in the equation (3.1)
Equation
( )

,
_

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+ +
,
_

+

S
S
R
X X
S
R
R
V
T

2
2
2 1
2
2
1
1
3 ) 1 . 3 (

( )

,
_

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+ +
,
_

S
R
X X
S
R
R
V p
2
2
2 1
2
2
1
2
1
1
3

1
]
1

p
S
1

------------------------ (3.2)
At the starting time S = 1

Starting torque
( ) ( )
1
]
1

+ + +

2
2 1
2
2 1
2
2
1
1
3
X X R R
R V p
T
S

..(3.3)
Here ( ) ( )
2 1 2 1
X X R R + <<< +
Therefore the equation (3.3) becomes
Starting torque T
S

( )
1
]
1

+
2
2 1
2
2
1
1
3
X X
R V P

(3.4)
Thus, the starting torque is directly proportional to the square of stator voltage,
rotor resistance and inversely proportional to the square of the leakage reactance. From
that for the same slip and frequency, a small change in stator voltage results in a
relatively large change in torque. For analyzing the control methods the speed torque
characteristics of the induction motor is necessary. Figure 3.2 shows the speed torque
characteristics of induction motor under stator voltage.
Figure 3.2. Speed Vs Torque of Induction motor under stator voltage
Here the slip at maximum torque remains unchanged
Because the slip at maximum torque
( ) [ ]
2
1
2
2 1
2
1
2
X X R
R
S
m
+ +
t
.. (3.5)
Since it is not a function of voltage. For a low slip power, thus speed range is very
narrow. So this method is not used for wide range of speed control and constant torque
load. This is applicable for requiring low starting torque and a narrow speed range at
relatively low slip.
Consider, the induction motor has no stator copper loss, friction loss, windage and
core loss. Electrical power converted into mechanical power. That means developed
power in the rotor
Pm = Total air gap power transferred across the air gap for a three phase induction
motor (Pag) capper loss in the rotor (Pcur)
Ie) P
m
= Pag Pcur
2
2
2
2 2
2
3 3 R I
S
R
I
( ) S
S
R
I
S
S
R I
,
_

,
_

1 3
1
3
2 2
2 2
2
2
( ) S Pag 1

1
]
1

S
R I
Pag
2
2
2
3

The motor efficiency

Pag
S Pag
Pag Rotorinput
Pm t Rotoroutpu ) 1 (
) (
) (

( ) S 1
(3.6)
From equation (3.6) we can observed that for low speed, slip will be
very high. Therefore Efficiency will be poor.It is an excellent method for reducing
starting current and increasing the efficiency during light load conditions. The losses are
reduced, mainly core losses, which are proportional to the square of the voltage. This
method is only suitable for speed control below the rated speed, since the terminal
voltage cannot exceeds rated value to prevent the damage of the windings insulations.
The maximum torque
( ) [ ]

'

+ + t

2
1
2
2 1
2
1 1
2
1
1
2
3
max
X X R R
V p
T

.. (3.7)
1
]
1

2 1
2
1
1
2
3
X X
V p

.. (3.8)
( ) ( ) [ ]
2 1 2 1
X X R R + << +
If the applied frequency is kf
1
and the voltage is kV
1
, K < 1
Then
Starting torque Ts =
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
]
1

+ + +
2
2 1
2 2
2 1
2
2
1
1
3
X X K R R
R KV
K
P

----------- (3.9)
[

Reactance X1 & X2 are also depends upon the frequency.]

( ) ( )
1
1
]
1

+ + +

2
2 1
2 2
1
2
2
1
1
3
X X K R R
R V PK
T
s
S

----------- (3.10)
From the equation (3.10), we have seen that the torque is directly proportional to
the transformation ratio K
The maximum torque
( )
( )
( ) [ ]

'

+ + t

2
1
2
2 1
2 2
1 1
2
1
1
2
3
X X K R R
KV
K
p
Tm

( ) [ ]

'

+ + t

2
1
2
2 1
2 2
1 1
2
1
1
2
3
X X K R R
V pK

..(3.11)
From the equation 3.11, we have seen that the maximum torque is also directly
proportional to the transformation or turns ratio. We can control the speed of the AC
motor by controlling the stator voltage, using single AC voltage controllers for single
phase motors and three phase Ac voltage controllers for three phase motors. This method
of speed control is described as follows.
3.2.1 AC Voltage Controllers fed drive
Now days by connecting a reverse parallel pair of thyristors or Triac between a.c
supply and load, the voltage applied to the load can be controlled. The load may be AC
Motor. This type of power controller is known as AC regulators. Therefore AC voltage
controllers converts fixed mains voltage directly to variable alternating voltage without
change in frequency. The important applications where AC voltage controllers are wildly
used in speed control of poly phase induction motors, domestic and industrial heating,
light controls, on load transformer tap changing static reactive power compeer salons etc.
Depends upon the supply the ac voltage controller can be classified as single
phase controller and three phase controllers. Because of the usages of three phase motors
in industry in this section let us discussing three phase ac voltage controller fed AC drive.
In the above discussion the squirrel-cage induction motor should be used for wide
variation of speed. Since the torque to current ratio decreases with the voltage, this
method of speed control is suitable for applications requiring a low torque at low speeds.
Figure 3.3. Three phase Y connected AC voltage controller circuit
Figure 3.4. Three phase connected AC voltage controller circuit
Figure 3.3, 3.4 shows two commonly used symmetrical three phase ac voltage
controller circuits for wye and delta connected stators respectively. For small size motors,
each ant parallel thyrsitor pair can be replaced by a triac. With a delta connection, a third
harmonic current may circulate, increasing the motor losses. Each thyrsitor pair of the
circuit shown in figure 3.3, carries the line current, whereas each thyrsitor pair of circuit
shown in figure 3.4, carries only the phase current. In the delta connection, the phase
current is

,
_

3
1
times of line current, therefore in figure 3.4 the thyrsitor current rating is
reduced by a factor of 3 .Under normal operation, the maximum voltage to which the
thyristors of circuit shown in figure 3.3 are subjected
,
_

2
3
times smaller than that of
thyristors of circuit shown in figure 3.4.However,under normal condition or balanced
conditions, the maximum voltage is same as the peak of the line voltage. If any abnormal
condition arise because of thyristors in one of the phases are leaved conductive by device
failure or misfiring, all the phases intended to be off. Since such an abnormal condition
can always arise, the thyristor voltage rating is chosen to be higher than the peak of the
line voltage .Thus the voltage controller using delta connection would less then the
voltage controller using star or wye connection.
The cheaper controller is done by replacing one thyristor in each phase of star
connected circuit by a diode. But it introduces even harmonics. Asymmetrical circuits are
obtained by removing one or two antiparallel thyristor pairs from the star connected
circuit and connecting corresponding motor phases directly to the source. These circuit
cause asymmetrical operation of the induction motor and increases harmonics.
Each thyristors is the above circuits are fired in the sequence of their numbers with a
phase difference of 60 degree like three phase full converter.
Let
Rin Resistance in the induction motor
Xin Inductive reactance in the induction motor
Therefore, the phase angle
,
_

Rin
Xin
1
tan
For the firing angle

, the motor terminal voltage remains constant and nearly
equal to the supply voltage. Both motor voltage and current are sinusoidal. For higher
values of firing angle

,the current flows discontinuously and the motor voltage

decreases with an increase in

.The zero motor voltage and current are reached at

=150 degree and 180 degree.

3.3. Adjustable frequency drives
The synchronous speed is directly proportional to the supply frequency.
Because
P
f
N
S
120

.. (3.12)
f N
S

Hence the synchronous speed and the motor speed can be controlled, below and
above the normal full load speed by changing the supply frequency. The voltage induced
in the stator E is proportional to the product of the supply frequency and the air gap flux.
If the stator drop is neglected the motor terminal voltage can be considered proportional
to the product of the frequency and the flux. Any reduction in the supply frequency,
without a change in the terminal voltage, causes an increase in the air gape flux.
i.e.) the induced emf E
1
= 4.44 f
1
T
1
.. (3.13)
1
1
1
44 . 4 T
f
E

Therefore,
1
1
1
1
f
V
B
B
f
E

.. (3.14)
Hence to keep the flux density (B) constant the ratio
1
1
f
E
is kept constant.
As the frequency is decreased the emf is also decreased which decreases the speed (N),
but the flux density (B) remains constant, hence no saturation of poles. This concept of
frequency change was used in 1980 to 1940 by using motor generator set and alternator.
The implantation of transistor and Thyristor has made the frequency change very simple
and compact.
3.3.1 Various Schemes of induction motor speed control
Scheme 1
Figure 3.5. Scheme 1
In figure 3.5, transformer is used to step-up or step down the supply voltage and
also provides the isolation. Single phase or three Phase Bridge is used to provide a
variable D.C. voltage. L.C filter is used to give smooth variable D.C. volt to inverter. The
inverter provide, variable frequency voltage to the induction motor (I.M). This scheme is
simple but gives low power factor at low speeds due to phase angle control. It is also an
economical method.
Scheme -2
Figure 3.6. Scheme 2
It uses single phase or 3 bridge rectifier to provide unfiltered fixed D.C. output
voltage. The filtered DC voltage is converted to a variable D.C. voltage by use of D.C.
Chopper. The filtered, variable D.C. voltage is converted to variable frequency Ac
voltage by voltage source inverter, the output of which varies the speed of induction
motor. This method provides higher power factor at all speeds. This method is also more
complicated and costlier. Figure 3.6 shows the block diagram of this method.
Scheme 3
Figure 3.7. Scheme 3
It uses a bridge rectifier, to L-C filter and provides a constant D.C. voltage to
PWM Inverter. The pulse width modulation inverter various the output voltage and
frequency both and provide an A.C voltage for the speed control of induction motor.This
scheme is compact, reliable and costlier but provides higher power factor at all the
speeds. The harmonic contents are reduces and the output voltage is also sinusoidal.
Compare to other scheme, this is the best scheme.
It has the following merits:
1. Due to sinusoidal PWM, the O/P of the inverter is very close to sine wave. Low
order harmonies are completely illuminated and higher order harmonics are
filtered.
2. The pulsation is torque at low speed is avoided and at the same time the heating
due to harmonics is reduced.
3. Filters are not necessary after the inverter
4. As bridge rectifier is used to a fixed dc voltage is given to PWM inverter, the
power factor remains high at all the speeds.
Demerits in the PWM techniques is, as the number of pulses per half cycle are
increased for PWM, the switching losses in transistor and Thyristor increases which
may give low efficiency.
3.4 Stator frequency Control
If a voltage boost, at low frequency is given, the air gap flux

or
1
1
f
E
can be
kept constant and hence torque is also constant. When the normal frequency (50Hz) is
reached, voltage becomes maximum hence
1
1
f
V
decrease with frequency is increased,
which decreases the motor torque and increases the speed.
Desired frequency
Let K =
Normal frequency (f1)
Reactance at high frequency = k(X
1
+X
2
)
Starting torque
( )
( ) ( )
1
]
1

+ + +

2
2 1
2 2
2 1
2
1
2
1
3
X X K R R
R
K
pV
T
S

( ) ( ) [ ]
2
2 1 1
2
1
3
X X K K
pV
+

( ) ( ) [ ]
2 1 2 1
X X K R R + <<< +
=
( )
2 1 1
3
2
1
3
X X K
pV
+
3
1
K
T
S
(3.15)
Similarly the maximum torque
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1 1
2
2
1
2 1 1
2
1
2
3 1
2
3
X X K
pV
X X K K
pV
Tm
+

2
1
K
Tm (3.16)
Figure 3.8.Speed torque characteristics under stator frequency control
Figure 3.8 shows the speed torque characteristics from the above equations. It can
be seen that starting torque is higher on low frequency (low speed) but maximum torque
remain constant by
1
1
f
V
or
1
1
f
E
control up to normal speed. The maximum torque
decreases above normal speed up to 2.p.u. The Induction motor operates as series motor
above speed (2 pu).
3.5 Constant air gap flux (E/f) operation
As air gap flux is constant, the emf (E) is also constant. To keep the air gap flux
constant E/f ratio is must be kept constant. From the equivalent circuit of induction motor
E
1
= j I
m
X
m
= j I
m

1
L
m
. (3.17)
Where
I
m
= Magnetizing current
X
m
= Magnetizing reactance.
E
1
E
1
=
1

1
2f
1
L
m
Magnetizing inductance

1
Stator flux

1
I
m
L
m
I
m
as L
m
is nearly constant.
Hence a constant air gap flux requires a constant magnetizing current at all speeds
and load. In practice the magnetizing current can be kept constant at rated or nominal
value corresponding to normal full load operation at rated voltage and frequency or
magnetizing current Im may be kept at slightly higher value, related to normal voltage
and frequency at no load.
From the equivalent circuit
Rotor current refer to the primary side
( )
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
'
'
'
1
1
]
1

+
,
_

X
S
R
E
I
(3.18)
As
2 1 2
' L X
Slip S =
1
2

m
f
1 2 2
2
The equation (3.18) becomes
( ) ( ) [ ]
2
1
2
2 2
2
2
2
1
1
2
'
'
L R
E
I

,
_

.... (3.19)
Hence if air gap flux ( 1) is kept constant, then rotor current I
2

is independent of
supply frequency but a function of rotor frequency only. If rotor frequency (f
2
) is zero
then I
2

= 0 and stator current I

1
= I
m
only. This is only possible, if rotor speed approaches
synchronous speed (
m
=
1
).Figure 3.11 shows the stator current with respect to rotor
frequency in the constant air gap flux control.
Figure 3.11. Characteristics under constant air gap control
3.5.1. Torque characteristics
Motor torque / phase
( )
S
R
X
S
R
E
S
R I
T
S S
'
'
'
1 ' '
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 2 2
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
,
_

.. (3.20)
( ) ( ) [ ]
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
' '
'
SX R
SR E
S
+

..(3.21)
Here
1
2
1
2

f
f
S
&
p
f
n
S
1

p p
f
n
S
1 1
2
2


Where p- Number of poles
2 1 2
' L X
m
1
= number of phases
Hence equation (3.21) becomes
Motor torque
( ) ( )
1
]
1

+
1
]
1

2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
1
1
1
'
'
L R
R E
pm T

... (3.22)
As
1
1

E
is constant the air gap flux is constant, the motor torque T is a
function of rotor frequency (2) only and independent of supply frequency. Also torque
is proportional to per unit slip (s).
The slip in rad / see
2
=
1
-
m
= s
1
Where
u P S
m
.
1
1

(3.23)
Thus the ratio of torque speed characteristics is similar for all frequencies less
than f
1
(kf
1
) but shift towards left. The maximum torque occurs when
0
2

d
dT
2
2
(max)
L
R
t
Hence the maximum torque of the motor
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
L
E
pm Tm
1
]
1

.. (3.24)
Thus the maximum or breakdown torque of induction motor is directly
proportional to the square of the air gap flux and inversely proportional to rotor leakage
inductance (L
2
). From equation (3.22) and (3.24) we get
S
S
S
S Tm
T
max
max 2
max 2
max 2
2
2 2
+

... (3.25)
The torque speed characteristics of induction motor on constant air gap flux is
shown in figure 3.12.
Figure 3.12.Torque-Speed Characteristics on constant air gap flux
3.6. Voltage fed Inverter
The voltage fed inverters, receive dc voltage at one side and convert it to ac
voltage on the other side. The ac voltage and frequency may be variable or constant
depending on the application. They have a stiff voltage source at the input (Thevenin
impedance is zero). A large capacitor can be connected at the input if the source is not
stiff. The dc voltage may be fixed or variable. The inverter output can be single phase or
polyphase, and can have square wave, sine wave, PWM wave, stepped wave, or Quasi-
square wave at the output. Voltage fed inverters are used extensively, and some of their
applications may be as flows.
1. AC motor drives
2. AC Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)
3. Induction heating
4. AC power supply from battery, photovoltaic array or fuel cell
5. Static VAR generator(SVG) or compensator (SVC)
6. Active harmonic filter
The important Characteristic of a voltage fed inverter is that the ac fabricated
voltage wave is not affected by the load parameters. The other name of voltage fed
inverter is voltage fed converter since, in the same circuit we can use as an inverter as
well as rectifier. In this section, we will study various types of voltage fed inverters.
1.6.1 Single phase inverters
3.7. Current fed Inverter
In current fed or current source inverters, a stiff dc current source (ideally with
infinite Thevenin impedance) at the input. A variable voltage source can be converted
to a variable current source by connecting a large inductance in series and controlling
the voltage within a feedback current control loop. Like wise we can produce the
current source. The application of current fed inverters include the following,
1. Speed control of large power induction and Synchronous motors
2. Variable frequency starting of 60HZ wound field synchronous motors
3. High frequency induction heating
4. Superconducting magnet energy storage (SMES)
5. DC motor drives
6. Static VAR compensators
7. Static VAR compensators
8. Active harmonic filters
Closed loop drive
The cascade drive, like separately excited d.c. motor, has linear torque current
relationship. The speed control is normally obtained by double loop control system. The
above figure shows the block diagram of control system. The inner current loop adjusts
the current in cascade circuit by variation of inverter firing angle and the current
determines the motor torque.
The actual cascade current is measured by the current transformer on Ac side of
inverter and the desired value is set by outer speed loop, which measures the difference
between the desired speed and actual Tacho Generator (T.G) value. Thus, as usual,
speed error produces the motor torque which reduces the error. Current limit is set by the
speed controller. In this manner, the cascade current is limited to 120% of rated current.
If desired speed is more than measured speed, the motor accelerates with maximum
current and torque until the set speed is reached. The current and torque then reduces
automatically to a value regarded by the load. For sudden reduction of set speed, the
current is reduced to a low value and the breaking action of the load reduces the rotor
speed. The control system is much simple and a speed accuracy better than 0.1%is
achieved.
1.1 Four Quadrant Operation of slip power cascade drive
Four quadrant operation of sub synchronous converter cascade can be made using
suitable switching. Switch S1,S2,S3 and S6 are on during normal operation in quadrant
one. Switch S3 is OFF and switch S4 ON for reversing the motor which is plugging on
motor, operating in quadrant III (Revese motoring).
A four quadrant sub synchronous converter cascade, employing D.C dynamic
breaking can be done by. Switching OFF S3 and S4. The stator can be connected to
rectified power supply from rotor by closing switch 85 and opening switch S6. Breaking
torque equal to rated torque may be developed. Thus the drive can operate in all four
quadrant of speed torque plane. The contactors must operate when the current is zero.
Due to delay in operation of contactors, much breaking is also employed. The drive is
loss free.
Open Loop voltage / Frequency (V/F) Control of inverter drive.
Inverter
Controlled
rectifier
M
Firing
circuit
Firing
Circuit
Oscillator
f
1
Error
Amplifier
V
e
V
f
Desired
Speed
Ramp unit and
Voltage Boost
Input
set

T = C o n s t a n t
T w = C o n s t a n t
V o l t ( V )
V o l t a g e
b o o s t
F r e q u e n c y i n p . u .
0
0 . 5 1 . 0 1 . 5 2
S
p
e
e
d
T K = C o n s t a n t
1
2
The above figure shows the block diagram of speed control of induction
motor using voltage sours inverter (VSI) with V/F control so as to keep the stator flux
constant. An input volt (desired speed) is compared to link feed back volt (VF) by the
comparator and onto output is amplified which varies the firing angle of Thurston in such
a way that link village in increased to desired value. The link voltage in limited so that
current in not exceed due to current feed back. The same input setting (input set)
automatically adjust the oscillator frequency so an to keep the V/F control and adjusts
the inverter frequency an per desired speed.
The input setting (desired speed) in given through a ramp unit so that the
inverter voltage and frequency changer gradually. As the motor in started on low
frequency the stating torque in at maximum, hence motor acceleration and reaches to
steady stale speed as desired. The torque speed character in ton will be such that the slip
will increase to 0.04 at full sped. The motor operation on constant load torque unto
normal sped (p.u) and then on constant h.p mode from sped of l.p.u to 2.pu(iov% to
200%) and than high sped serine motoring The sped con be senesced by changing phase
sequence of Inverter.