JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (AUTONOMOUS) HYDERABAD

K.LAKSHMI PAVANI
III YEAR B.TECH CIVIL ENGINEERING pavani_lucky@yahoo.co.in phone.no.9885134400

G.NALINI
III YEAR B.TECH CIVIL ENGINEERING nalinireddy_ce@yahoo.com

STRUCTURAL FAILURES, REPAIR AND REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES

ABSTRACT Failure of a structure does not necessarily imply total or partial Collapse but, taken in the broad sense, would mean its failure to fulfill its intended purpose safely and economically without any signs of distress and without causing alarm to the users. Excessive cracking, deflections and vibrations are some of the causes that would alarm the users, and lead to structural distress necessitating modifications to restore the specified performance. Several structures all over the world had to be rehabilitated or replaced At exorbitant costs due to impaired performance. Structures should not only be cost effective and aesthetic but also satisfy the performance criteria under all conditions. Some of the causes of structural failures, and repair / rehabilitation schemes are Discussed in this brief article.

INTRODUCTION Failure of a structure is usually visualized as total collapse, and the subsequent Loss of property and sometimes, life. However, defined in the broad sense, failure Implies the inability of the structure to fulfill its intended purpose of carrying the Service loads safely and economically, satisfying all the limit states of design such as crack width and deflections, and at the same time appear to be safe as well. A Structure should satisfy the specified performance criteria during its intended service life without major repairs or modifications. A bridge structure, for instance, should not only be safe but also be free from excessive vibrations and any other signs of impending danger, imaginary or otherwise. Even non-structural cracks are likely to alarm the users, and be considered as signs of structural inadequacy. In a concrete structure, honeycombing may not always be determined to the safety, but it does certainly cause alarm, and may lead to deterioration there by shortening the service life. In short, a structure failure is the non-compliance of the performance with the specified parameters under all the specified loading conditions during the service life. Indeed a structure may withstand the service loads for considerable period of time, and then collapse all of a sudden without any warning of the impending danger. The sudden collapse of the dapped-end prestressed concrete beams of the Antioch School after 10 years of service, and that of the Congress Hall, Berlin after 23 years of construction can be cited as notable examples. The cause for the former was poor detailing at the dapped-ends where the reinforcement was not adequate to resist the tensile stresses at the support. This combined with creep and thermal movement appears to be the plausible explanation of collapse The partial collapse of the Congress Hall, Berlin was attributed to several factors including that of tight working schedule resulting in some local defects. However, the deformation of the arches forming the roof of the Hall remained small though nine of the twenty three prestressed cables connecting the two arches appeared to have broken off much earlier than the actual collapse. The crack width or deformation did not give any cause for alarm prior to the collapse. The only would indicate that the apparent soundness of a structure is no guarantee against subsequent failure and the engineer should guard the structure against all such pit falls in design and construction. Further, external signs such as cracking may be of no significance in some structures whereas they may be signals of distress in some others. An engineer has to be familiar with the analysis and deign of the structure in order to be able to distinguish between the two . Simple sticking to conventional practices without understanding the flow of forces in the structure and in each structural element as well as the sequence of construction does not always result in a sound structure.

It may be mentioned here that while diagnostic tests may often indicate the source of trouble and facilitate suitable rectification, a postmortem seldom reveals a definite cause. The distress to a structure may be caused by a simple defect or by an unfavorable combination of several defects, one loading to the other, which can usually be located by suitable tests and remedied. On the other hand, the collapse of the structure is generally brought about by a number of factors, which may not be deleterious to the structure individually .These causes can seldom be sorted out as primary and secondary causes. Often it is the combination of incorrect analytical assumptions, poor design and detailing together with indifferent workmanship, which leads to a total collapse of the structure. Any structure with visible distress in the form of visible cracks, spalled concrete or excessive deflections, rust or stains should be investigated in detail for preventive maintenance and rehabilitation. The importance of good planning, analysis, design and construction is brought out in this brief article. Causes, failures and defects in buildings, repairs and rehabilitation techniques are also discussed. CAUSES OF FAILURE Structural failures, in the form of cracks and subsequent distress, are a common phenomenon despite the rapid strides in design and construction technologies. The behaviour of materials and structures is better understood these days than few decades back. However, the dissemination of information is not rapid. A failure is never induced by a single parameter; an unfavorable combination of several factors is the usual cause. These causes seldom induce structural distress singly. Some of the principal causes of structural failures are discussed here in brief. COMPLEX NATURE OF CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY One of the major reasons for failures is the complex nature of construction industry .Engineers conceive, plan, analyse, design and prepare detailed drawings; these drawings are conveyed to the construction team , usually headed by engineers not involved with the planning or design of structures. Despite the calls for close integration of design and construction processes ,these two activities are separated by a wide chasm .Designers are rarely involved with construction, with the exception of a few site visits to check reinforcement detail; often the dimensions of the structures do not facilitate the comparison of steel provided with that specified . Further, material technology, especially concrete, requires the familiarity of designers as well as construction team. The manufacture of the basic construction materials and components is widely dispersed among several firms, small and large making the coordination a difficult job. The construction itself involves several trades such as masons, manual labourers,

painters, carpenters, electricians and plumbers. Sometimes each trade works at cross purposes with the others; walls cannot be finished until plumbing and electrical fittings are in place, but the other jobs cannot be taken up without knowing surface finish levels of the walls. Too little concrete cover or plaster to water pipes or service ducts causes unsightly cracks. SOCIAL CHANGES The construction industry is presently drifting from being craft based to being industrialized .Earlier the artisans and masons used take pride in their jobs, and work with a sense of dedication. However, at the moment the process has not yet reached a state of industrialization with the accompanying advantages of standardization and professionalism .The loss of crafts skill has not been matched by the current levels of professionalism and comprehension of new techniques and materials .The interaction between various trades is not yet adequate to match the site conditions and new technology. Most of the jobs are handled by contractors and sub-contractors not always with the same degree of commitment as the designers or builders. In most of the cases, subcontractors employ barely ten workers, and always in a hurry to move from site to the other. The ancient wisdom of material handling, management, acceptance of responsibility and pride in the job are some of the casualties of the social changes brought about by the construction industry to speed up jobs and achieve economy. COORDINATION AND INTERACTION The faster rate of construction due to improved techniques calls for management and planning skills to achieve economy and safety envisaged in the project. Good coordination of various activities and jobs is essential to minimize delays and ensure quality of construction. Lack of interaction between various jobs may result in concealed defects, and subsequent deterioration of the structure. Often, service ducts laid after the construction of walls require openings, which cannot always be repaired satisfactorily. In case the openings are cut in critical of walls, slabs or beams without the knowledge of designers, the consequences may be serious. FAST RATE OF CONSTRUCTION The average rate of construction has increased significantly over the decades all over world. It is said that the empire state building grew out of the earth like a rocket at the rate of about four a half stories per weak. The entire structure of 381.0m height and 102 storey took barely 410 days to complete at accost of about US $50.0 million (1931).The 46-storey 179.0mhigh Hong Kong(designed by Norman Foster) was completed in a little over two years (June 1983-November 1985). The structure required over 1, 20,000 drawings, of which 2,500 were for the faade alone. The components were procured from

various countries; service modules from America, steel from England escalators from Germany and floor tiles from Italy Finland, for instance. The average time of construction with the deployment of advanced techniques is above five storeys per week in steel and about four storeys in storey in concrete. The usual time in Indian metropolitans is about four six weeks per storey, which is considerable improvement over the usual three month period per storey a few years back. Such a rate of construction leaves little time for conventional methods of supervision and quality control, unless planned well as a part of the construction scheme .Further, the compromises involved at various construction stages in maintaining the work schedule may lead to defects being overlooked or camouflaged. TRAINING AND EDUCATION The rapid strides in construction materials and technology would call for new dexterity and methods that require frequent training programmers to update skills and enhance efficiency. Lack of adequate training not only impairs productivity but may lead to unsatisfactory products as well. Training programs should include not only managers and engineers but also site supervisors, artsans, crafts persons and workers before adopting new technology. For instance, ready mix concrete (RMC) requires stronger form work and scaffolding besides the skills to convey and compact concrete at a faster rate than those required for conventional methods. STRUCTURAL INSPECTION Regular inspection and maintenance program go a long way in locating the sources of problems, and ensuring durability of structures. It is essential to visualize and plan for periodic inspection at the design stage itself. A structure may become unserviceable not only because of deterioration with time, but also because of increased loads or larger clearances required later. Structural design should include such future demands as well. The building owner should maintain records of periodic inspection and repairs. Such records help in assessing the structural condition for valuation of property besides planning timely rehabilitation measures. Usually large structures, such as bridges, power plants building, with single owner (the state or big corporate houses, for instance) have good maintenance program compared to structures with a multitude of private owner (residential flats, for instance). The inspection comprises routine and detailed jobs. The former involves visual observations on various components and simple in situ tests. Binoculars and digital cameras are deployed for routine inspections, and specific equipment for detailed jobs.

A comprehensive inspection requires close access to every structural component by to every structural component by means of specially designed equipment or auxiliary equipment (scaffolding, ladders and safety belts). Adequate clearances, 1.2m horizontal and 2.0 m vertically should be provided for easy movements of personnel. Special inspection trolley will be required to provide access to structural components above ground floor level. The safety of the inspection personnel should not be jeopardized in any case. It is recommended that structures be inspected on rainy days to observe any cracks, leakages and obstructions to drainage. Inspection at different times of the year is also essential to note the structural performance under all weather conditions. SYSTEMS TO BE INSPECTED Structural deterioration usually commences at any of the vulnerable (exposed as well as concealed) components. It is essential to inspect each component in order to minimize the probability of overlooking any defective or distressed element. Indeed there are instances where in structures certified safe collapsed within a few weeks of inspection; in some cases the structure was even retrofitted a few weeks before the collapse. Some of systems to be inspected are described below Metallic handrails are prone to damage and deterioration, and required periodic inspection and painting. The fasteners holding the railings to the structure are to be checked as well. Cracks, damage and spalling should be investigated in concrete handrails. Drainage system should be cleaned and repaired where necessary. The drainpipes should be accessible, and free from any obstructions and leakage. Usually damage commences at the plumbing lines; all the water supply lines should be checked for leakage and for damp patches in the vicinity. Electrical piping and other service lines should be inspected for damage. Edge beams and faade are to damage more than the inner beams, should be observed closely for any sign of distress to them and to any fasteners. Any water proofing system on the roof slab is prone to damage due the human movements; the damaged fabric of waterproofing layer is more detrimental to a structure than its absence.

Non -destructive techniques (such as Schmidt rebound hammer, ultrasonic tester and X-ray equipment) should supplement visual inspection, where necessary. Standard format should be developed along with checklists to help trained personnel in inspecting and reporting. The checklist of jobs depends upon the type of structure and site conditions in any case .The inspection team should plan the job carefully , collect data , analyze and store the results after finalizing the recommendations . The reports should be stored properly so that they can be retrieved later for review.

CONCRETE REPAIR SYSTEMS The performance of repaired structures depends upon the repair materials to a significant degree. Equally important are the methods of application, surface preparation, construction practices and the inspection methods. For durable concrete repairs, the material of repair should be compatible with the existing concrete in mechanical properties (strength and modulus of elasticity), drying shrinkage, thermal expansion and creep. Repair materials should be chemically and electro-chemically compatible with the existing concrete. Specifications of materials and the method of application should be adopted in conjunction with the properties of substrata, environment and loading conditions of structures. Durable repair can be achieved can by proper design and construction practices. REPAIR MATERIALS Several repair materials and techniques commercially; their use depends upon the nature and intensity of damage, environment, required life, the importance of the structure and funds available. The basic repair materials can be classified as grouts, coatings, mortars and various types of concrete; the concretes include polymer systems, epoxy resins, fibre reinforcement and composites GROUTS Cement grouts can be used for cracks ranging from 1mm to 2mm widths. Alternatively, cracks can be chased out to a width of 5 to 10mm and pointed with cement and sand mortar. Low viscosity liquid polymers can be used in a similar way as cement grout for repair of cracks. It may be applied by brush or by temporary ponding. When no further material penetrates the cracks, the surplus material is removed and the surfaces cleaned. Cracks in reinforced concrete may require sealing or resin injection to prevent ingress of moisture, oxygen and harmful agents. Low viscosity epoxy resin systems are generally used for repair of cracks. Normal grout injection will not be effective when repairing live cracks; the cracks may widen or new cracks may form at the interfaces of the hardened grout and concrete later. Materials that can accommodate considerable strains without cracking are selecting for repairing live cracks. These include elastomers, polysulphides, polyurethanes, certain silicons and acrylics. SURFACE COATINGS Coatings are applied to concrete surfaces to prevent ingress of moisture and to provide protection against aggressive environment. Preparation of substrata prior to the use of surface coatings is essential. Depending upon the condition of the concrete, requirements

of the structure and the environment, the following factors should be considered in concrete coating selection. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Ingress of aggressive environment. Ultraviolet light resistance. Elastic/crack bridging abilities. Chemical resistance. Abrasion resistance. Ease of application. Expected service life. Ease of re-application of coating. Aesthetic appearance.

Butyl rubber, polyisobutylene and glass fibre reinforced plastics are effective water proofing agents. Intumescent coatings can be also useful in structural repairs. Mastic asphalt, bitumen and bituminous emulsions, latex-cement coat, epoxy and polyurethane resin coatings are used for deteriorated structures for water proofing and protection from chemical attack. Bonding coats are applied on concrete surfaces in order to integrate old concrete and the new repair material .Epoxy and polymer latex bonding aids are used as bonding coats. Factory blended ready made polymer modified cementitious bonding aids based on special spray dried co-polymer powders blended with cement ,fine sand and special additives, which can be gauged with water at site ,are available under different brand names .polyvinyl acetate is commonly used as bonding agent to ensure adhesion of repair material to parent concrete. MORTARS In structures where, concrete surface is extensively cracked and/or spelled, it is necessary to remove the damaged concrete. The repair mortars are broadly categorized as cementitious, polymer modified cementitious and resin systems. The properties of cement mortar/ concrete can be modified with the addition of suitable admixtures such as super plasticizers, hydrophobic agents, pozzolanas, flyash, rice husk ash, silica fumes, volcanic ash and diatomaceous earth. Polymer modified cementitious mortars are mainly used for repair of reinforced concrete. Styrene butadiene rubber, acrylic and modified acrylic latexes are most commonly used as modifiers in repair mortars. The latex modified concrete has good workability, and can be handled in a manner similar to ordinary concrete. Where the cover to be replaced is less than 12mm and areas to be repaired are relatively small, resin mortars can be adopted. When resin mortars are used, the protection of stell reinforcement depends only open the impermeability of the envelope. This requires very careful application including surface preparation of the steel

reinforcement to a very high standard. Resin mortars are based on reactive resins filled with carefully graded aggregates. Epoxy resins are not commonly used, but polyster and acrylic resins are also common. Epoxies, ploysters and acrylic resins are classified as thermosetting materials because, when cured, the molecular chains are locked permanently together. Epoxy resins consist of a reactive resin and a hardener for curing. Correct proportioning and mixing are essential when using epoxy resin systems. The curing of epoxy resin systems is an exothermic reaction, and the rate of curing is temperature dependent. Polyester resin systems are chemically simpler than the epoxy systems; both the reactive components are present in the resin. The hardener is a catalyst, which is required to initiate the reaction. Mixing and proportioning of hardener component is less critical than for epoxy resins. There is a reduction in volume in the set polymer; polyester resin formulations are generally limited to small areas at a time. Acrylic resin systems form high strength materials by chemical cure mechanism. In general, acrylic resins are based on monomers of very low viscosity or blends of monomers with methylmethacrylate monomer. Acrylic resins permit higher proportions of fillers because they have lower viscosity, and he mortars exhibit less shrinkage upon curing as a result. FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETES Fibre reinforced concrete is an ideal material for rehabilitation of structures, which needs high strength concrete has improved properties over conventional concretes. It has improved tensile strength, ductility, impact resistance and toughness. Various fibers such as steel, polypropylene, glass, coir and other natural fibers can be adopted, though steel fibre is the most widely used material. Suitable fibre dispensers are used to avoid balling of fibres during mixing. Recent developments in fibre reinforcement composites(FRCs) have resulted in highly efficient construction material. FRCs are unaffected by elecro-mechanical deterioration, and can resist corrosive effects of acids, alkalis, salts and and similar aggregates under a wide range of temperatures. REHABILITATION METHODS The rehabilitation method adopted depends to a large extent upon the degree of deterioration. Repairs planned may be structural or non-structural. The former may involve general renovation or strengthening depending upon the degree of deterioration. Strengthening may also be necessitated by upgradation of the structure for a heavier loading. Some of the rehabilitation methods, their suitability, advantages, disadvantages are discussed here.

GUNITING Guniting is known as shotcreting sometimes; the latter nomenclature is generally adopted when coarse aggregate is also used. Basically the technique comprises applying cement mortar under high pressure directly on a surface. The high pressure application ensures dense surface of high strength and low permesbility. Besides, the technique ensures good bond between old surface and fresh concrete, when adequate care is taken in surface preparation, mix design and application. Guniting is particularly useful method for repairing R.C.C. columns and beams which have cracked or where reinforcement has deteriorated. Form work is not usually necessary, and even intricate shapes can be successfully constructed. The total thickness of shotcrete should not be less than about 75mm so that a clear cover of 25mm to the additional reinforcement in the case of beams, and a clear cover of 40mm in case of columns is ensured. The average thickness of shotcrete should be 50mm, if no additional reinforcement is provided. Careful guniting ensures long service life of structures. However it is essential to observe several precautions at every stage in order to obtain the desired results and durable structures. It is desirable to test the gunited components for soundness, homogeneity and strength. Trhe quality of guniting can be ascertained from the cores drilled from the final surfaces. But this is an expensive process and may not always be feasible; it is better to rely on non destructive tests such as sounding, rebound hammer and ultrasonic tests. The code of practice recommends casting test panels of size 300 X 300 X 75mm periodically during guniting for quality control(IS :9012-1978). As a further precaution to enhance durability of gunited surfaces, it is desirable to apply poxy coatings over gunited surfaces. Several types of epoxy coatings are available commercially. Another development in the process is silica fume shotcrete. Silica fume, when added to dry mix shotcrete, improves substantially the adhesive and cohesive properties of fresh concrete by creating a dense sticky mix almost devoid of bleeding. Silica fume shotcrete facilitates over head repairs; a greater thickness can be achieved in a single pass than that with ordinary Portland cement shotcrete. Its superior adhesive characterstics are advantageous in wet conditions; the quantity of rebound is significantly reduced. BONDED PLATES Structural elements (beams, columns and slabs) can be strengthened by gluing plates externally. Such plates improve the load bearing capacity of the structure by supplementing the corroded steel bars. Shear strength of the concrete limits the use of the technique; such application should be preceded by in situ tests to ascertain the properties of concrete. Usually steel plates of 3-4 mm thickness are adopted, but FRP and ferrocement plates are also effective.

Before gluing the plate, the surface should be well prepared by sand blasting, water jetting or similar methods. The metal plates are degreased in a bath and covered with a primer. The glue of 1.5 to 2.0mm thickess is applied over the plates, usually without a primer. The plates are applied under pressure to squeeze the film of glue and allow the plate to follow the profile of the backing; often self-expanding bolts are fixed to hold the plates in position. The plates should be protected against corrosion, where necessary. EXTERNAL PRESTRESSING In certain cases, strengthing by post-tensioned tendons can be an effective method. The tendons may comprise strands, wires or high tensile strength rods depending upon the structure . This technique is adopted to strengthen a structure in the case of excessive cracking and deflections. This technique requires considerable skill and experience; the design and location of anchor plates, deviator blocks and protection to the cables require special attention. the capacity of the existing concrete and embedded reinforcement to resist the anchorage forces and the additional forces introduced due to the cable profile should be checked . The external cables should be grouted and the anchoraged protected adequately; all the metal parts should be given anti-corrosive treatment. NEW DEVELOPMENTS Corrosion protection of , durability of concrete structures and effective rehabilitation measures are the current topics of active research in several countries .besides the developments in corrosion protection and materials techniques of damage assessment, several promising rehabilitation methods are under evaluation. Rehabilitation of concrete structures by means of electrodeposition technique is reported recently. The process involves the precipitation of calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide on the surfaces of cracked concrete by electrolysis. A weak direct current is passed between rebars(cathode) and an electrode(anode) in sea water. A hard layer of electrodeposits is formed on the submerged surface of concrete. This techniques results in increased impermeability as well as closure of earlier cracks. The depth of chloride penetration in concrete prisms treated by electrolysis is introduced to 40 percent of that in untreated concrete. External unbounded steel reinforcement is another technique with considerable potential in the repair of reinforced concrete structures. Rehabilitation and retrofitting by wrapping fibre reinforced plastic sheets is widely adopted these days due to the simplicity of applications and effectiveness in enhancing the structural performance. Several such developments are in progress, and many more cost-effective techniques are likely to emerge in near future.

CONCLUSION Structural failure is the non-compliance of the performance with the specified parameters under all the specified loading conditions during the service life. Failure of a structure is usually visualized as a collapse and the subsequent loss of property and sometimes life. A structure should not only be safe but also appear to be safe; the limit states of serviceability should be satisfied under all the loading conditions during its intended service life without major repairs or modifications. Excessive cracking, deflections and vibrations are some of the causes that would alarm the users, and lead to structural distress necessitating modifications to restore the specified performance. A structure may withstand the service loads for considerable period of time, and then collapse all of a sudden without any warning of the impending danger. Several structures all over the world had to be rehabilitated or replaced at exorbitant costs due to impaired performance. Some of the causes of structural failures, and repair/rehabilitation schemes are discussed in this brief article along with repair and rehabilitation techniques.

REFERENCES 1. R. F. Mast, Roof collapse at Antioch School, Journal of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, Vol. 26, No. 3, May-June, 1981, pp. 30-53. 2. Learning from construction failures: Applied forensic engineering, Ed. Campbell, P., Whittles Publishing, 2001, pp. 301. 3. D. S. Prakash Rao, Durability of concrete structures, Technical monograph, Indian Concrete Institute, 2000, p 107.