Ultrasonic Proximity Detector

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report pertains to take vocational training which was undertaken under BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICAL LIMITED (BHEL) in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the BACHELOR IN ELECTRICAL ENGG. from BABA HIRA SINGH BHATTAL INST. OF ENGG. AND TECH. LEHRAGAGGA, SANGRUR . The main purpose of the training was to acquaint myself with practical experience of actual work condition in which we are required to work in future . I learnt a lot from the practical experience of the engg. & other personals under whom I was placed for training . This helped me to develop the habit of analysis critically various aspects of problem at the time of decision making.
I would like to thank to MRS. ANJALI MITTAL & MR. LAL SINGH for helping me during the training period . Finally,I would like to express my thanks to all of the technical & non technical persons for the co-operation & valuable guidance during my training period .
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MAKING PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (P.C.B.)
INTRODUCTION-Making a Printed Circuit Board is the first step towards building electronic equipment by any electronic industry. A number of methods are available for making P.C.B., the simplest method is of drawing pattern on a copper clad board with acid resistant (etchants) ink or paint or simple nail polish on a copper clad board and do the etching process for dissolving the rest of copper pattern in acid liquid.
MATERIAL REQUIRED
The apparatus needs for making a P.C.B. is :-
Copper Clad Sheet
Nail Polish or Paint
Ferric Chloride Powder. (Fecl)
Plastic Tray
Tap Water etc.
PROCEDURE
The first and foremost in the process is to clean all dirt from copper sheet with say spirit or trichloro ethylene to remove traces grease or oil etc. and then wash the board under running tap water. Dry the surface with forced warm air or just leave the board to dry naturally for some time. Making of the P.C.B. drawing involves some preliminary consideration such as thickness of lines/ holes according to the components. Now draw the sketch of P.C.B. design (tracks, rows, square) as per circuit diagram with the help of nail polish or enamel paint or any other acid resistant liquid. Dry the point surface in open air, when it is completely dried, the marked holes in P.C.B. may be drilled using 1Mm drill bits. In case there is any shorting of lines due to spilling of paint, these may be removed by scraping with a blade or a knife, after the paint has dried. After drying, 22-30 grams of ferric chloride in 75 ml of water may be heated to about 60 degree and poured over the P.C.B. , placed with its copper side upwards in a plastic tray of about 15*20 cm. Stirring the solution helps speedy etching. The dissolution of unwanted copper would take about 45 minutes. If etching takes longer, the solution may be heated again and the process repeated. The paint on the pattern can be removed P.C.B. may then be washed and dried. Put a coat of varnish to retain the shine. Your P.C.B. is ready.
REACTION
Fecl3 + Cu ----- CuCl3 + Fe
Fecl3 + 3H2O --------- Fe (OH)3 + 3HCL
Popular Electronics Heterodyne Detector

Last updated Sun Sep 10 18:10:59 EDT 2000
Schematic Diagram
eagle sch file*.

*
Eagle is a layout editor from CADSoft, a freeware version is available (Win & Lin)
Parts List
SEMICONDUCTORS ---------------------------------------------------IC1 567 phase-locked loop, integrated circuit U1 LM386 audio power amplifier, ic Q1, Q2 2N391M NPN transistor Q3 MPF102 JFET transistor RESISTORS (All fixed resistors are 1/4 watt, 5% units.) ---------------------------------------------------R1, R2 220,000 ohm R3-R6 2,200 ohm R7 1,000 ohm RS, R14 270 ohm R9 100,000 ohm R10 4,700 ohm R11 10,000 ohm R12 50,000 ohm, potentiometer R13 10,000 ohm, potentiometer CAPACITORS -------------------------------------------------C1, C2, C5 0.01 microF, Mylar C3 0.047 microF, Mylar C4 0.0022 microF. Mylar C6, C7, C11, C12 0.1 microF, ceramic-disc C8 10 microF, 16 WVDC, electrolytic C9 47 microF, 16 WVDC, electrolytic C10 470 microF 16 WVDC, electrolytic ADDITIONAL PARTS AND MATERIALS -------------------------------------------------SG1 Piezo tweeter (Ultrasound receiver) Power source, headphones or speaker, wire, solder.
Notes
The bat ultrasounds are picked up by the microphone SPKR1 and go through two stages of amplification at Q1 and Q2. Separately, a tunable (R12) single frequency is produced by the LM567 oscillator U1. The LM567 is a tone decoder but here its input is grounded and its voltage controlled oscillator is used as a precision oscillator. The oscillator frequency is given by
f = 1/(1.1*C4*(R10 + R12)) = 1/(1.1*0.0022*10-6*(4.7 + [0-50])*103) = [88-7.5] khz
The two signals are mixed at Q3 to produce both a signal in the audio range and higher frequencies that are then filtered out. The remaining audio signal undergoes a last stage of controlled (R13) amplification with the LM386 at U2 before being available for output at AUDIO OUT. The power source is a simple 9V battery, so this instrument is completely portable.
Ultrasound Receiver
RadioShack Cat.#: 900-6064 ($4.95) A small 40 Khz ultrasound receiver (Velleman / MA40A5R). The bandwith of these piezo-transducers has a narrow peak around 40 khz. A group of students at UNN has measured it.
LMC567 Oscillator
"The LMC567 is a low power general purpose LMCMOS[tm] tone decoder which is functionally similar to the industry standard LM567. It consists of a twice frequency voltagecontrolled oscillator (VCO) and quadrature dividers which establish the reference signals for phase and amplitude detectors. The phase detector and VCO form a phase-locked loop (PLL) which locks to an input signal frequency which is within the control range of the VCO." Fairchild CD4024. datasheet (pdf)
LM386 audio amplifier

"The LM386 is a power amplifier designed for use in low voltage consumer applications. The gain is internally set to 20 to keep external part count low, but the addition of an external resistor and capacitor between pins 1 and 8 will increase the gain to any value up to 200." National LM386 datasheet (pdf)
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
AN INTRODUCTION
An op amp is a high-gain, direct-coupled differential linear amplifier whose response characteristics are externally controlled by negative feedback from the output to the input. OP amps, widely used in computers, can perform mathematical operations such as summing, integration, and differentiation. OP amps are also used as video and audio amplifiers, oscillators, etc. in the communication electronics. Because of their versatility op amps are widely used in all branches of electronics both in digital and linear circuits. OP amps lend themselves readily to IC manufacturing techniques. Improved IC manufacturing techniques, the op amp's adaptability, and extensive use in the design of new equipment have brought the price of IC ops amps from very high to very reasonable levels. These facts ensure a very substantial role for the IC op amp in electronics. Fig shows the symbol for an op amp. Note that the operational amplifier has two inputs marked (-) and (+). The minus input is the inverting input. A signal applied to the minus terminal will be shifted in phase 180 at the output. The plus input is the noninverting plus input. A will signal applied to the terminal appear in the same
phase at the output as at the input. Because of the complexity of the internal circuitry of an op amp, the op amp symbol is used exclusively in circuit diagrams. IC-741 An operational amplifier often referred to as op Amp, is a very high gain high performance amplifier designed to amplify ac and dc signal voltages. Modern integrated circuit technology and largescale production techniques have brought down the prices of such amplifiers within reach of all amateurs, experimenters and hobbyists. The Op Amp is now used as a basic gain element, like an elegant transistor, in electronic circuits. A symbol used to represent an operational amplifier in schematics is shown in fig. The operational amplifier has two inputs and only one output. One input is called the inverting input and is denoted by a minus sign. A signal applied to this input appears as an amplified but phase inverted the signal output. The second input is called a non-inverting input and is denoted by a plus sign. A signal applied to this input appears at the output as an amplified signal, which has the same phase as that of the input signal. The availability of two input terminals simplifies feedback circuitry and makes the operational amplifier a highly versatile device. If a feedback is applied from the output to the inverting input terminal, the result is a negative feedback, which gives a stable amplifier with precisely controlled gain characteristics. On the other hand, if the feedback is applied to the non-inverting input, the result is positive
feedback, which gives oscillators and multivibrator. Special effects are obtained by combination of both types of feedback.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL
The above figure shows the basic circuit, including the negative feedback loop of an op amp. The output is fed back to the inverting input terminal in order to provide negative feedback for the amplifier. The input signal is applied to the inverting input. As a result, the output will be inverted. It is possible to operate the op amp as a non-inverting amplifier by applying the signal to the plus input. In this circuit the feedback network is still connected to the inverting input.
For the circuit of op amp showing negative feedback loop, the output of the amplifier is defined as -RF Vout= -------- Vin RR
RF Vout = + (1 + -----) Vin RR

OP AMP OPERATED AS NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER
The minus sign indicates that the sign of the output is inverted as compared to the input. The equation for the gain of this amplifier is RF Gain = ------RR For the non inverting amplifier RF Vout = (1 + -----) Vin RR
and its gain is RF 1 + ----RR Equations indicate that the output voltage is dependent only on the ratio of the feedback resistors RF and RR and that the gain of the op amp is dependent only on these resistors.
OP AMP OPERATED AS A VOLTAGE FOLLOWER
VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER
A non inverting op amp with negative feedback has a stable voltage gain, high input impedance, and low output impedance. Ideally, this circuit approaches a perfect voltage amplifier described by these equations:-
Vout Vin Zin = Zout= 0
R2 R1
------- = ------- + 1
In an ideal voltage amplifier, the gain is constant. Furthermore, the input impedance is infinite, which means the amplifier will not load the circuit driving it. Also, the zero output impedance means the amplifier can drive the small resistive loads without a decrease in voltage gain. With a 741, we can build a voltage amplifier that approaches the ideal. If AOL/ACL is greater than 1000, the input impedance is in mega ohms and the output impedance is in fractions of an ohm.
VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER VOLTAGE-TO-CURRENT CONVERTER
The given figure shows another feedback circuit. Notice that the feedback is negative because the returning voltage opposes the input voltage. A mathematical analysis of this circuit shows that it acts approximately like a perfect voltage-to-current converter, a circuit with these equations:-
Vin iout = -----R Zin = Zout= 0 In a perfect voltage-to-current converter, the output current depends only on the input voltage and the value of R. For instance, if Vin = 2V and R=1k, then 2V iout = --------- = 2 mA 1 k The infinite input impedance means the voltage-to-current
converter will not load down the circuit driving it. Also, the infinite output impedance implies the circuit acts like a current source; it will force exactly 2 mA through any load resistance. One application of the voltage-to-current converter is in building an electronic voltmeter. The outstanding advantage of this type of voltmeter is its extremely high input impedance. The high input
impedance means it will not disturb the circuit whose voltage is being measured.
VOLTAGE-TO-CURRENT CONVERTER
CURRENT AMPLIFIER
The figure illustrates the fourth type of negative feedback. Analysis of this circuit shows it acts approximately like a perfect current amplifier with these equations:iout iin R2 R1 Zin = 0 Zout = A perfect current amplifier provides current gain rather than voltage gain. Furthermore, it has zero input impedance, which means it will not disturb the circuit driving it. Also, the infinite output impedance
------- = ------ + 1
means it can force a fixed value of current through any size load resistance.
CURRENT AMPLIFIER CURRENT-TO-VOLTAGE CONVERTOR
The figure illustrates a third type of negative feedback. A mathematical analysis shows that this circuit acts approximately like a perfect current-to-voltage converter. One described by these equations: Vout = R x iin Zin = Zout =
In a perfect current-to-voltage converter, the output voltage depends only on the input current and the value of R. For example, if iin=5mA and R = 1 k, then Vout = 1k x 5 mA = 5V The zero input impedance means the converter looks like a perfect current sink (ground). The zero output impedance means the circuit will produce 5 V, no matter how small the load resistance. One application of the current-to-voltage converter is building an electronic ammeter. The outstanding advantage of this type of ammeter is its extremely low input impedance. Since ammeters are connected in series, the almost zero input impedance will not disturb whose current is being measured.
OP AMP CONNECTED AS A SUMMER
In the circuit, the op amp is connected as an algebraic summer. It can be seen that if RF=R1=R2, the output voltage
V0= -(V1+V2) The output voltage is the sum of the input voltages with the sign inverted. If the input voltages of with the sign inverted. If the input voltages are of opposite sign, the circuit acts to invert and subtract the input voltages. Fox example, if V1= +3V and V2=-2.5V, then V0= - (+3-2.5)= -0.5 V The output voltage can be made equal to the sum of a desired ratio of input voltages, depending on the values of RF, R1 and R2. For example, if RF=2R1=3R2, then since RF R1 V0= - (2V1 + 3V1) The operational amplifier connected as a summer can be modified to provide three or more inputs. RF R2 V0= - ( ----- V1 + ------- V2)
RF x R R R= --------------RF + R R
R is connected to the non inverting input to compensate for possible input-bias error. The resistance of both inverting and non inverting inputs is equalized.
Operational amplifier connected as a summer. OP-AMP SPECIFICATIONS
The manufacturer provides a circuit diagram, a basic diagram and specifications for each op amp type, including performance graphs. The 741 is available in two grades, the military (M) and commercial (C). It also comes in different packages. The manufacturer lists the following maximum ratings for the 741HC: Supply voltage Internal power dissipation Differential input voltage 18 V 500 mW 30 V
Operating temperature
0 to 70 C
The following characteristics are also of interest to the technician and designer. Input bias current Input resistance Input voltage range Common-mode rejection ratio for RS 10 K Output resistance Output short-circuit current Supply current Power consumption Large-signal voltage gain, RL 2 K and Vout = 10 V Output voltage swing, RL 2K 15,000 13 V, typical 75 25 mA 2.8 mA, typical 85 mW, typical 800nA 0.3 to 2 M 13 V, typical
(a)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM;
(b) TERMINAL DIAGRAM OF 741C.
THE 567 TONE DETECTORS
A useful device that uses a PLL is the 567-tone detector. Here you do not get to fiddle with the loop as much as with the 4046, but this makes the circuit easy to use. The center frequency of the VCO is set by a timing resistor Rt and timing capacitor Ct: fo = 1/1.1RtCt. This relation does appear to be obeyed, more or less. The maximum oscillator frequency is at least 100 kHz, but 500 kHz is typical. The power supply at pin 4 (!) is 10 V maximum, but the open-collector output at pin 8 can be pulled up to 15 V if desired. The input at pin 3 can be pulled from 10 volts below ground to 0.5 V above pin 8, but should be capacitor coupled to avoid any unwanted currents. The input resistance is about 20k.
A typical circuit using the 567 is shown at right. The values shown provided fo = 150 kHz, although the formula gave 115 kHz. The capture bandwidth depends on the input voltage and oscillator frequency, and also on the loop filter capacitor connected to pin 2 (here 4.7 nF). The bandwidth can be estimated from the formula BW = 1070 sqrt(Vi/foClf) in % of fo. Clf is in F, Vi in V, and fo in Hz. The maximum bandwidth is about 14%. The formula for this circuit gave 14%, about the maximum. The capacitor on pin 1 filters the output at pin 8, while the capacitor at pin 4 decouples the power supply. These values were the ones furnished in the application notes for the device, but any reasonable values can be used. Only the timing capacitor and the loop filter capacitor affect the operation of the PLL. This circuit was found to lock from about 139 kHz to 159 KHz, which agrees with the bandwidth formula.
The output is taken from the open collector at pin 8, filtered by the capacitor on pin 1. This pin will sink 100 mA, so a considerable load can be switched. The rise and fall times are advertised at 30 ns and 150 ns, respectively, for a typical device. A circuit that produces two outputs in quadrature, 90 apart in phase, is shown at the left. The output at pin 5 should probably be buffered, but the application notes indicate that it can handle a load of anything greater than 1k input resistance. The power and ground connections are not shown in the diagram, and are the same as in the basic circuit.
The circuit at the right produces two outputs, one at twice the frequency of the other. If pin 5 is connected to pin 1 instead of pin
3 (this merely passes the oscillator output to the output transistor), the same waveform appears on pins 5 and 8.
DESCRIPTION
This electronic circuit is basically an infrared active proximity detector. It is built using easily available components and is energized by the DC supply of 5 volts using regulator LM7805 and supplied to the complete circuit, except transistor T3 (and lamp L1 or any other device or relay), for which 12 volts potential developed across capacitor C2 is used. Diode D3 protects the circuit against wrong supply polarity.
When the high-efficiency IR LEDs (IRLED1 and IRLED2), driven by pnp transistor T1 with a modulating frequency of about 20 kHz (available from pin 5 of IC1 LM567, the versatile PLL tone decoder IC), emit infrared light. At this juncture, the output at pin 8 of IC1 is at high level and the astable built around timer LM555 (IC2) is enabled. As a result, LED1 blinks and buzzer BZ1 beeps at a rate determined by the values of timing components R6, R7, and C8. Simultaneously, DC lamp driver or relay transistor T2 controlled by the output of IC2 caused lamp L1 to blink, which serves as a warning signal. This condition is maintained until IC1 receives a valid 20kHz signal at its pin 3. Whenever the IR beam radiated by IR LED1 and IR LED2 is reflected by a nearby object, IC1 receives 20kHz reflected signal at its pin 3 on detection by phototransistor T2 (in Darlington configuration). As a result, IC2 pulls its output pin 8 low as it gets locked to the detected 20kHz tone. Consequently, reset pin 4 of timer IC2 is also pulled low and thus the astable is disabled. Pin 3 of IC2 goes low and the buzzer starts sounding continuously (LED remains lit) or the device connected by the relay at once. After wiring and testing, enclose the circuit board in a suitable and attractive cabinet.
ULTRASONIC PROXIMITY DETECTOR

This ultrasonic proximity detector comprising independent, batterypowered transmitter and receiver sections makes use of a pair of matched ultrasonic piezoceramic transducers operating at around 40 KHZ each. This circuit can be used in exhibitions to switch on prerecorded audio/video message automatically when a visitor evincing interest in a product comes near an exhibited product. Fig. 1 shows the transmitter circuit. It comprises CMOS timer IC 7555 (IC1) configured as an astable multivibrator, which may be tuned to the frequency of the ultrasonic piezo ceramic transmitters resonant frequency of around 40 KHZ using preset VR1. A complementary pair of transistors T1 and T2 is used for driving and buffering the transducer while it draws spikes of current form IC1 circuit to sustain oscillations and thereby avoids any damage.
Fig.1: Transmitter circuit The receiver front-end (refer Fig. 2) is designed to provide a very high gain for the reflected faint ultrasonic frequency signals detected by the ultrasonic transducer. The amplifiers built around N1 and N2, gain of around 80 each. These two stages should have a high open-circuit gain, wide bandwidth and very low bias current apart from being capable of single-supply operation. Qued op-amp LM324 is used here due to its low cost. For higher efficiency, you may use single op-amps such as CA3130 or CA3140.
Fig.2: Receiver circuit When a visitor pauses before a product, it signifies his interest. Switching diode D1 followed by a filter comprising capacitor C5 and resistor R10 is used to meet this requirement. The filter also helps to bypass brief bursts of ambient noise in the ultrasonic range. The third stage comprising N3 works as a comparator to provide a triggering pulse when a visitor stops by. This pulse can be used to trigger a timer or a monostable, whose output may then be used to switch on the audio/video message concerning the product for a predetermined period.
When somebody comes in front of the ultrasonic piezoceramic transducer pair, the status LED (LED1) glows because of the signal reflected from the body of the visitor. The circuit can be assembled on any general-purpose PCB. The transmitter and the receiver should be aligned such that the transmitted ultrasonic signal is optimally received by the receiver after reflection. Fig. 3 shows the pin configuration of transistors T1 and T2, while Fig. 4 shows installation of the ultrasonic piezoceramic transducer pair operating at around 40 KHZ.
555 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
(TIMER OPERATION)
The 555 integrated circuit is an extremely versatile timer that can be used in many different applications. This IC is a monolithic timing circuit that is a highly stable controller capable of producing accurate time delays or oscillations. Additional terminals are producing are provided for triggering or resetting if desires. In the time delay mode of resistance and a capacitor. For a stable operation as an oscillator, the free running frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the output structure can source or sink up to 200ma or drive TTL Circuits. This integrated circuit contains nearly 25 transistor, a diode or two, and more than 10 resistors. Obviously, if you built this IC from separate components, it would be many, many times larger than on a monolithic chip. The 555 timer offers timing from microseconds through hours and operates in both astable and monostable modes. It has an adjustable duty cycle, and the output can drive TTL devices. Its output can operate in normally on and normally off modes and the IC offers a frequency stability of 0.005% per degrees centigrade.
Applications for the 555 chip include precision timing, pulse generation, pulse width modulation, pulse position modulation, sequential timing, and missing pulse detection.
555-INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
IC 555-ASTABLE OPERATIONS: If the circuit is connected as shown in figure (pins 2 and 6 connected). It will trigger itself and free run as a multivibrator. The external capacitor charges through Ra and Rb and discharges through Rb only. Thus, the duty cycle may be precisely set by the ratio of these two resistors. In this mode of operation the capacitor charges and discharges between 1/3 Vcc and 2/3 Vcc. As in the triggered mode, the charge and discharges times, and therefore, the frequency are independent of the supply voltage. Figure shows the actual waveforms generated in this mode of operation. The charge time (output high) is given by: t1 = 0.685 (Ra + Rb) C
And the discharge time (output low) by:
t2
= 0.685 (Rb) C
Thus, the total period is given by: T = t1 + t2 = 0.685 (Ra + 2Rb) C
The frequency of oscillation is then: f= 1.46 (Ra + 2Rb) C
ULTRASONIC SENSING ALARM
General Description This is a very interesting project with many practical applications in security and alarm systems for homes, shops and cars. It consists of a set of ultrasonic receiver and transmitter which operate at the same frequency. When something moves in the area covered by the circuit the circuits fine balance is disturbed and the alarm is triggered. The circuit is very sensitive and can be adjusted to reset itself automatically or to stay triggered till it is reset manually after an alarm.
Technical Specifications - Characteristics Working voltage: 12V DC Current: 30 mA How it Works As it has already been stated the circuit consists of an ultrasonic transmitter and a receiver both of which work at the same frequency. They use ultrasonic piezoelectric transducers as output and input devices respectively and their frequency of operation is determined by the particular devices in use. The transmitter is built around two NAND gates of the four found in IC3 which are used here wired as inverters and in the particular circuit they form a multivibrator the output of which drives the transducer. The trimmer P2 adjusts the output frequency of the transmitter and for greater efficiency it should be made the same as the frequency of resonance of the transducers in use. The receiver similarly uses a transducer to receive the signals that are reflected back to it the output of which is amplified by the transistor TR3, and IC1 which is a 741 op-amp. The output of IC1 is taken to the non inverting input of IC2 the amplification factor of which is adjusted by means of P1. The circuit is adjusted in such a way as to stay in balance as long the same as the output frequency of the transmitter. If there is some movement in the area covered by the ultrasonic emission the signal that is reflected back to the receiver becomes distorted and the circuit is thrown out of balance. The output of IC2 changes abruptly and the Schmitt trigger circuit which is built around the remaining two gates in IC3 is triggered. This drives the output transistors TR1,2 which in turn give a signal to the alarm system or if
there is a relay connected to the circuit, in series with the collector of TR1, it becomes activated. The circuit works from 9-12 VDC and can be used with batteries or a power supply.
Construction First of all let us consider a few basics in building electronic circuits on a printed circuit board. The board is made of a thin insulating material clad with a thin layer of conductive copper that is shaped in such a way as to form the necessary conductors between the various components of the circuit. The use of a properly designed printed circuit board is very desirable as it speeds construction up considerably and reduces the possibility of making errors. Smart Kit boards also come pre-drilled and with the outline of the components and their identification printed on the component side to make construction easier. To protect the board during storage from oxidation and assure it gets to you in perfect condition the copper is tinned during manufacturing and covered with a special varnish that protects it from getting oxidised and also makes soldering easier. Soldering the components to the board is the only way to build your circuit and from the way you do it depends greatly your success or failure. This work is not very difficult and if you stick to a few rules you should have no problems. The soldering iron that you use must be light and its power should not exceed the 25 Watts. The tip should be fine and must be kept clean at all times. For this purpose come very handy specially made sponges that are kept wet and from time to time you can wipe the hot tip on them to remove all the residues that tend to accumulate on it. DO NOT file or sandpaper a dirty or worn out tip. If the tip cannot be cleaned, replace it. There are many different types of solder in the market and you should choose a good quality one that contains the necessary flux in its core, to assure a perfect joint every time. DO NOT use soldering flux apart from that which is already included in your solder. Too much flux can cause many problems and is one of the main causes of circuit malfunction. If nevertheless you have to use extra flux, as it is the case when you have to tin copper wires, clean it very thoroughly after you finish your work. In order to solder a component correctly you should do the following: @Clean the component leads with a small piece of emery paper. @Bend them at the correct distance from the components body and insert the component in its place on the board. @You may find sometimes a component with heavier gauge leads than usual, that are too thick to enter in the holes of the p.c. board. @In this case use a mini drill to enlarge the holes slightly. Do not make the holes too large as this is going to make soldering difficult afterwards.
@Take the hot iron and place its tip on the component lead while holding the end of the solder wire at the point where the lead emerges from the board. The iron tip must touch the lead slightly above the p.c. board. @When the solder starts to melt and flow wait till it covers evenly the area around the hole and the flux boils and gets out from underneath the solder. The whole operation should not take more than 5 seconds. Remove the iron and allow the solder to cool naturally without blowing on it or moving the component. If everything was done properly the surface of the joint must have a bright metallic finish and its edges should be smoothly ended on the component lead and the board track. If the solder looks dull, cracked,or has the shape of a blob then you have made a dry joint and you should remove the solder (with a pump, or a solder wick) and redo it. @Take care not to overheat the tracks as it is very easy to lift them from the board and break them. @When you are soldering a sensitive component it is good practice to hold the lead from the component side of the board with a pair of long-nose pliers to divert any heat that could possibly damage the component. @Make sure that you do not use more solder than it is necessary as you are running the risk of shortcircuiting adjacent tracks on the board, especially if they are very close together. @When you finish your work cut off the excess of the component leads and clean the board thoroughly with a suitable solvent to remove all flux residues that may still remain on it. @There are quite a few components in the circuit and you should be careful to avoid mistakes that will be difficult to trace and repair afterwards. Solder first the pins and the IC sockets and then following if that is possible the parts list the resistors the trimmers and the capacitors paying particular attention to the correct orientation of the electrolytic. @Solder then the transistors and the diodes taking care not to overheat them during soldering. The transducers should be positioned in such a way as they do not affect each other directly because this will reduce the efficiency of the circuit. When you finish soldering, check your work to make sure that you have done everything properly, and then insert the ICs in their sockets paying attention to their correct orientation and handling IC3 with great care as it is of the CMOS type and can be damaged quite easily by static discharges. Do not take it out of its aluminium foil wrapper till it is time to insert it in its socket, ground the board and your body to discharge static electricity and then insert the IC carefully in its socket. In the kit you will find a LED and a resistor of 560 which will help you to make the necessary adjustments to the circuit. Connect the resistor in series with the LED and then connect them between point 9 of the circuit and the positive supply rail (point 1). Connect the power supply across points 1 (+) and 2 (-) of the p.c. board and put P1 at roughly its middle position. Turn then P2 slowly till the LED lights when you move your fingers slightly in front of the transducers. If you have a frequency counter then you can make a much more accurate adjustment of the circuit. Connect the frequency counter across the transducer and adjust P2 till the frequency of the oscillator is exactly the same as the resonant frequency of the transducer. Adjust then P1 for maximum sensitivity. Connecting together pins 7 & 8 on the p.c. board will make the circuit to stay triggered till it is manually reset after an alarm. This can be very useful if you want to know that there was an attempt to enter in the place which are protected by the radar.
Adjustments This kit does not need any adjustments, if you follow the building instructions. Warning If they are used as part of a larger assembly and any damage is caused, our company bears no responsibility. While using electrical parts, handle power supply and equipment with great care, following safety standards as described by international specs and regulations. If it does not work Check your work for possible dry joints, bridges across adjacent tracks or soldering flux residues that usually cause problems. Check again all the external connections to and from the circuit to see if there is a mistake there.
See that there are no components missing or inserted in the wrong places. Make sure that all the polarised components have been soldered the right way round. Make sure that the supply has the correct voltage and is connected the right way round to your circuit. Check your project for faulty or damaged components. If everything checks and your project still fails to work, please contact your retailer and the Smart Kit Service will repair it for you. Componets R1 = 180 KOhm R2 = 12 KOhm R3, 8 = 47 KOhm R4 = 3,9 KOhm R5, 6, 16 = 10 KOhm R7, 10, 12, 14, 17 = 100 K R9, 11 = 1 MOhm R13, 15 = 3,3 KOhm C1, 6 = 10uF/16V C2 = 47uF/16V C3 = 4,7 pF C4, 7 = 1 nF C5 = 10nF C8, 11 = 4,7 uF/16V C9 = 22uF/16V C10 = 100 nF C12 = 2,2 uF/16V C13 = 3,3nF C14 = 47nF TR1, 2, 3 = BC547 , BC548 P1 = 10 KOhm trimmer P2 = 47 KOhm trimmer IC1, 2 = 741 OP-AMP IC3 = 4093 C-MOS R = TRANSDUCER 40KHz T = TRANSDUCER 40KHz D1, 2, 3, 4 = 1N4148
IC 555-MONOSTABLE OPERATIONS: In the monostable mode of operation, the timer functions as a one shot. Referring to figure the external capacitor is initially held discharged by a transistor inside the timer. Upon applications of a negative trigger pulse to pin 2, the flip-flop is set, which releases the short circuit across the external capacitor and drives the output high. The voltage across the capacitor increases exponentially with the time constant. t = Ra C When the voltage across the capacitor equals 2/3 Vcc. The comparator resets the flip-flop, which, in turn, discharges the capacitor rapidly and drives the output to its low state. Figure shows the actual waveforms generated in this mode of operation. The circuit triggers on a negative going input signal when the level reaches 1/3 Vcc. Once triggered, the circuit will remain in this state until the set time is elapsed, even if it is triggered again during this interval. The time that the output is in the high state is given by: t= 1.1 Ra C Applying a negative pulse to the reset terminal (pin 4) during the timing cycle discharges the external capacitor and causes the cycle to start over again. The timing cycle will now commence on the positive edge of the reset pulse. During the time the reset pulse is applied, the output is driven to its low state.
TRANSISTOR
The name is transistor derived from transfer resistors indicating a solid state Semiconductor device. In addition to conductor and insulators, there is a third class of material that exhibits proportion of both. Under some conditions, it acts as an insulator, and under other conditions its a conductor. This phenomenon is called Semi-conducting and allows a variable control over electron flow. So, the transistor is semi conductor device used in electronics for amplitude. Transistor has three terminals, one is the collector, one is the base and other is the emitter, (each lead must be connected in the circuit correctly and only then the transistor will function). Electrons are emitted via one terminal and collected on another terminal, while the third terminal acts as a control element. Each transistor has a number marked on its body. Every number has its own specifications. There are mainly two types of transistor (i) NPN & (ii) PNP
NPN Transistors:
When a positive voltage is applied to the base, the transistor begins to conduct by allowing current to flow through the collector to emitter circuit. The relatively small current flowing through the base circuit causes a much greater current to pass through the emitter / collector circuit. The phenomenon is called current gain and it is measure in beta.
PNP Transistor:
It also does exactly same thing as above except that it has a negative voltage on its collector and a positive voltage on its emitter.
Transistor is a combination of semi-conductor elements allowing a controlled current flow. Germanium and Silicon is the two semi-conductor elements used for making it. There are two types of transistors such as POINT CONTACT and JUNCTION TRANSISTORS. Point contact construction is defective so is now out of use. Junction triode transistors are in many respects analogous to triode electron tube. A junction transistor can function as an amplifier or oscillator as can a triode tube, but has the additional advantage of long life, small size, ruggedness and absence of cathode heating power. Junction transistors are of two types which can be obtained while manufacturing.
The two types are: -
1)
PNP TYPE: This is formed by joining a layer of P type of

germanium to an N-P Junction
2)
NPN TYPE: This is formed by joining a layer of N type

germanium to a P-N Junction.
Both types are shown in figure, with their symbols for representation. The centre section is called the base, one of the outside sections-the emitter and the other outside section-the collector. The direction of the arrowhead gives the direction of the conventional current with the forward bias on the emitter. The conventional flow is opposite in direction to the electron flow.
OPERATION OF PNP TRANSISTOR:A PNP transistor is made by sand witching two PN germanium or silicon diodes, placed back to back. The centre of N-type portion is extremely thin in comparison to P region. The P region of the left is connected to the positive terminal and N-region to the negative terminal i.e. PN is biased in the forward direction while P region of right is biased negatively i.e. in the reverse direction as shown in Fig. The P region in the forward biased circuit is called the emitter and P region on the right, biased negatively is called collector. The centre is called base.
The majority carriers (holes) of P region (known as emitter) move to N region as they are repelled by the positive terminal of battery while the electrons of N region are attracted by the positive terminal. The holes overcome the barrier and cross the emitter junction into N region. As the width of base region is extremely thin, two to five percent of holes recombine with the free electrons of N-region which result in a small base current while the remaining holes (95% to 98%) reach the collector junction. The collector is biased
negatively and the negative collector voltage aids in sweeping the hole into collector region. As the P region at the right is biased negatively, a very small current should flow but the following facts are observed:1) A substantial current flows through it when the emitter junction is biased in a forward direction.
2) The current flowing across the collector is slightly less than that of the emitter, and
3)
The collector current is a function of emitter current i.e. with the decrease or increase in the emitter current a corresponding change in the collector current is observed.
The facts can be explained as follows:1. As already discussed that 2 to 5% of the holes are lost in recombination with the electron n base region, which result in a small base current and hence the collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.
2.
The collector current increases as the holes reaching the collector junction are attracted by negative potential applied to the collector.
3.
When the emitter current increases, most holes are injected into the base region, which is attracted by the negative potential of the collector and hence results in increasing the collector current. In this way emitter is analogous to the control of plate current by small grid voltage in a vacuum triode. Hence we can say that when the emitter is forward biased and
collector is negatively biased, a substantial current flows in both the circuits. Since a small emitter voltage of about 0.1 to 0.5 volts permits the flow of an appreciable emitter current the input power is very small. The collector voltage can be as high as 45 volts.
THE ULTRASONIC TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

Circuit of a new type of remote control switch is described here. This circuit functions with inaudible (ultrasonic) sound. Sound of frequency up to 20 kHz is audible to human beings. The sound of frequency above 20 kHz is called ultrasonic sound. The circuit described generates (transmits) ultrasonic sound of frequency between 40 and 50 kHz. As with any other remote control system this circuit too comprises a mini transmitter and a receiver circuit. Transmitter generates ultrasonic sound and the receiver senses ultrasonic sound from the transmitter and switches on a relay. The ultrasonic transmitter uses a 555 based astable multivibrator. It oscillates at a frequency of 40-50 kHz. An ultrasonic transmitter transducer is used here to transmit ultrasonic sound very effectively. The transmitter is powered from a 9-volt pp3 single cell. The ultrasonic receiver circuit uses an ultrasonic receiver transducer to sense ultrasonic signals. It also uses a two-stage amplifier a rectifier stage, and an operational amplifier in inverting mode. Output of op-amp is connected to a relay through a complimentary relay driver stage. A 9-volt battery eliminator can be used for Receiver circuit, if required. When switch S1 of transmitter is pressed, it generates ultrasonic sound. The sound is received by ultrasonic receiver transducer. It converts it to electrical variations of the same frequency. These signals are amplified by transistors T3 and T4. The amplified signals are then rectified and filtered. The filtered DC voltage is given to inverting pin of op-amp IC2. The noninverting pin of IC2 is connected to a variable DCvoltage via preset VR2 which determines the threshold value of ultrasonic signal received by receiver for operation of relay RL1. The inverted output of IC2 is used to bias transistor T5. When transistor T5 conducts, it supplies base bias to transistor T6. When transistor T6 conducts, it actuates the relay. The relay can be used to control any electrical or electronic equipment.
Important hints while using ultrasonic transmitter and receiver pair: 1. Frequency of ultrasonic sound generated can be varied from 40 to 50 kHz range by adjusting VR1. Adjust it for maximum performance. 2. Ultrasonic sounds are highly directional, So when you are operating the switch the ultrasonic transmitter transducer of transmitter should be placed to wards ultrasonic receiver transducer of receiver circuit for proper functioning. 3. Use a 9-volt PP3 battery for transmitter. The receiver can be powered from a battery eliminator and is always kept in switched on position. 4. For latch facility use a DPDT relay if you want to switch on and switch off the load. A flip-flop can be inserted between IC2 and relay. If you want only an ONtime delay uses a 555 only at output of IC2. The relay will be energized for the required period determined by the timing components of 555 monostable multivibrator. 5. Ultrasonic waves are emitted by many natural sources. Therefore. Sometimes, the circuit might get falsely triggered , especially when a flip-flop is used with the circuit, ad there is no remedy for that.
PRECAUTION
1. Add Ferric Chloride (Fecl3) carefully, without any splashing. Fecl3 is irritating to the skin and will stain the clothes. Place the board in solution with copper side up. Try not to breathe the vapours. Stir the solution by giving see-saw motion to the dish and solution in it. Occasionally warm if the solution over a heater-not to boiling. After some time the unshaded parts change their colour continue to etch. Gradually the base material will become visible. Etch for two minutes more to get a neat pattern. Don't throw away the remaining Fecl3 solution. It can be used again for next Printed Circuit Board P.C.B.
2. 3.
4.
5.
USES
Printed Circuit Board are used for housing components to make a circuit for compactness, simplicity of servicing and case of interconnection. Thus we can define the P.C.B. as : Prinked Circuit Boards is actually a sheet of bakelite (an insulating material) on the one side of which copper patterns are made with holes and from another side, leads of electronic components are inserted in the proper holes and soldered to the copper points on the back. Thus leads of electronic components terminals are joined to make electronic circuit.
In the boards copper cladding is done by pasting thin copper foil on the boards during curing. The copper on the board is about 2 mm thick and weights an ounce per square foot.
The process of making a Printed Circuit for any application has the following steps (opted professionally): * * * Preparing the layout of the track. Transferring this layout photographically M the copper. Removing the copper in places which are not needed, by the process of etching (chemical process) Drilling holes for components mounting.
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD
Printed circuit boards are used for housing components to make a circuit, for comactness, simplicity of servicing and ease of interconnection. Single sided, double sided and double sided with plated-through-hold (PYH) types of p.c boards are common today. Boards are of two types of material (1) phenolic paper based material (2) Glass epoxy material. Both materials are available as laminate sheets with copper cladding. Printed circuit boards have a copper cladding on one or both sides. In both boards, pasting thin copper foil on the board during curing does this. Boards are prepared in sizes of 1 to 5 metre wide and upto 2 metres long. The thickness of the boards is 1.42 to 1.8mm. The copper on the boards is about 0.2 thick and weighs and ounce per square foot.

Ultrasonic Proximity Detector

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MAKING PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (P.C.B.)

Copper Clad Sheet

Nail Polish or Paint

Ferric Chloride Powder. (Fecl)

Tap Water etc.

Fecl3 + Cu ----- CuCl3 + Fe

Fecl3 + 3H2O --------- Fe (OH)3 + 3HCL

Popular Electronics Heterodyne Detector

eagle sch file*.

LM386 audio amplifier

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL

RF Vout = + (1 + -----) Vin RR

OP AMP OPERATED AS A VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

Vout Vin Zin = Zout= 0

VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER VOLTAGE-TO-CURRENT CONVERTER

CURRENT AMPLIFIER CURRENT-TO-VOLTAGE CONVERTOR

OP AMP CONNECTED AS A SUMMER

Operational amplifier connected as a summer. OP-AMP SPECIFICATIONS

(b) TERMINAL DIAGRAM OF 741C.

THE 567 TONE DETECTORS

ULTRASONIC PROXIMITY DETECTOR

555 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

And the discharge time (output low) by:

Thus, the total period is given by: T = t1 + t2 = 0.685 (Ra + 2Rb) C

The frequency of oscillation is then: f= 1.46 (Ra + 2Rb) C

ULTRASONIC SENSING ALARM

The two types are: -

PNP TYPE: This is formed by joining a layer of P type of

NPN TYPE: This is formed by joining a layer of N type

THE ULTRASONIC TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

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