21 Chapter 3 ANALYSIS PROCEDURES

3.1 General The job of a structural engineer is to ensure that the buildings modelled are built to withstand the gravity forces, wind forces earthquake forces etc. The modelled building frames shall be analysed for the response. The response may be member internal forces and displacements. This necessitates the use of appropriate structural analysis procedures. Two analysis procedures are briefly described in this chapter: Firstly, code-specified [58] equivalent lateral load procedure (static analysis) and secondly, the time history analysis (dynamic analysis), a performance based analysis technique, The first is a procedure that is analysed to mimic real loads caused by earthquakes, while the later is meant to test the building performance against an actual earthquake excitation. Six, nine, twelve and fifteenstorey steel building plane frames were analysed applying both analysis procedures. The goal is to determine which method of analysis will produce the best results with the minimal analysis specifications.

Typically, seismic loads are resisted by axial member forces in the bracings, gravity forces (dead loads and imposed loads) and partly seismic forces are resisted by beam shear forces and bending moments and column moments and compressive forces. To determine member forces and displacements SAP2000 Version 11 is used. In this analysis beam-column connections are assumed to be fully restrained and

22 geometrical nonlinearity in the frames is ignored by considering bi-linear material nonlinearity as shown in Fig. 3.1.

Fig.3.1: The simplest hysteretic model with no stiffness shown after yield occurs Source:http://www.ruaumoko.co.nz/Gif/Loops/Loop02.GIF.(Force-displacement curve, Fy = yield force,k0=initial stiffness,r=stiffness reduction factor)

The design of BRBF is not governed by any building code but recommended provisions are available. Structural Engineers Association of California (SEAOC) group in association with various research agencies developed the recommendations. Researchers and manufacturers have developed several types of BRBs and they are commercially available in the United States.

The design dead and live loads of 9.87kN/m and 13.77kN/m were used for analysis and design of above referred frames respectively. The damping ratio for dynamic analysis was assumed to be 5% of the critical damping. The importance factor of 1.0 and zone factor 0.36 was used to obtain design base shear. The beams and columns were designed as per IS: 800-2007 and seismic provisions [5,58] . The BRBs were designed as per FEMA-450, in which the response modification factor 5 for MRFs and 8 for BRBFs respectively. The yield stress of the structural steel was taken as 250MPa.

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The building model frames considered are shown in Fig. 3.2.1 -3.2.8 and the details are shown in Table 3.1.

Fig. 3.2.1: Six storey steel moment resisting frame model with nodal numbers and element numbers (Generated from SAP 2000 V.11.analysis model)

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Fig. 3.2.2: Six storey steel buckling restrained braced frame model with nodal numbers and element numbers (Generated from SAP 2000 V.11.analysis model)

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Fig. 3.2.3: Nine storey steel moment resisting frame model with nodal numbers and element numbers (Generated from SAP 2000 V.11.analysis model)

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Fig. 3.2.4: Nine storey steel buckling restrained braced frame model with nodal numbers and element numbers (Generated from SAP 2000 V.11.analysis model)

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Fig. 3.2.5: Twelve storey steel moment resisting frame model with nodal numbers and element numbers (Generated from SAP 2000 V.11.analysis model)

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Fig. 3.2.6: Twelve storey steel buckling restrained braced frame model with nodal numbers and element numbers (Generated from SAP 2000 V.11.analysis model)

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Fig.3.2.7. Fifteen storey steel moment resisting frame model with nodal numbers and element numbers (Generated from SAP 2000 V.11.analysis model)

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Fig. 3.2.8: Twelve storey steel buckling restrained braced frame model with nodal numbers and element numbers (Generated from SAP 2000 V.11.analysis model)

31 Table 3.1: Steel Model Building Frame Details. Model Building Frame MRF6 MRF9 MRF12 MRF15 BRBF6 BRBF9 BRBF12 BRBF15 No. of Storeys 6 9 12 15 6 9 12 15 Storey Height(m) 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 Bay Width(m) 6.000 6.000 6.000 6.000 6.000 6.000 6.000 6.000 Total Frame Height(m) 18.000 27.000 36.000 45.000 18.000 27.000 36.000 45.000

No. of Bays 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Note: MRF6=six-storey moment resisting frame; 4th digit indicates number of braced frame; 5th digit indicates number of storeys.

storeys.BRBF6=six-storey buckling restrained

3.2 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure The Equivalent Lateral Force (ELF) Procedure involves applying static forces on the structure and analysing how it reacts to these forces. Also, the forces are usually applied at the joints of the members, which make the crosssectional members act like twoforce members. The most important force in this procedure is the base shear, or the sum of all the lateral forces affecting the structure. The strength or capacity of the members must be able to withstand the base shear. To find out if the appropriate members are selected or not, the story drift check has to be performed. Other factors, such as the seismic response coefficient, response modification factor and importannc factor must be taken into account when following this procedure. The Indian seismic code carefully enumerates the equations and conditions that must be satisfied when following the ELF procedure.

32 3.2.1 Seismic Response Coefficient The formula for seismic response coefficient (Ah) given in the code is used to determine the base shear V. This formula forms the basis of the design spectrum of the ELF procedure. According to IS: 1893(Part-1)-2002, the base shear can be obtained by multiplying the seismic response coefficient by the structures seismic weight. This includes the dead load and other loads, such as live and snow loads.

3.2.2 Response Modification Factor When a structure is proposed to analyse and design, it is expected that the building has to sustain permanent damage. Even the best designed buildings are

susceptible to inelastic deformation. Keeping this point in mind, the goal of the engineer is to design a building that will not collapse for higher earthquakes. The response modification factor(R) accounts the ability of the structure to absorb energy without collapse. The more ductile the structure is, the higher its modification factor. Response reduction factor depends on the perceived seismic damage performance of the structure. It is characterised by ductile or brittle deformations. However, the ratio (I/R) shall not be greater than 1.0.

3.2.3 Importance Factor It is factor assigned to each structure according to its Occupancy Category. Importance factor (I) depending upon the functional use of the structures, characterised by hazardous consequences of its failure, post-earthquake functional needs, historical value, or economic importance.

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3.2.4 Analysis Procedure ELF procedure comprises steps 1 to 7 as described below: 1 Evaluate the approximate period Ta of the fundamental vibration mode using an expression for steel frame building Ta = 0.085 h0.75 where h = Height of building, in m. This excludes the basement storeys, where basement walls are connected with the ground floor deck or fitted between the building columns. But, it includes the basement storeys, when they are not so connected. 2 The design horizontal seismic coefficient (Ah) for a structure shall be determined by the following expression: Ah=(Z/2)( I/R)(Sa/g) (3.2) (3.1)

Z=Zone factor for the Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) and service life of structure in a zone. The factor 2 in the denominator of Z is used so as to reduce the Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) zone factor to the factor for Design Basis Earthquake (DBE). Sa/g= Average response acceleration coefficient. 3 The seismic resultant design base shear( Vb ) shall be computed by the following expression; Vb=Ah W W=Seismic weight of building. (3.3)

34 4 Vb shall be distributed over the height of the structure into a number of storey forces. 5 Internal forces and displacements of the structure under the force Vb, by using a static analysis shall be established 6 These seismic action effects shall be combined to other action effects (gravity loading in the seismic situation) 7 Carried out all seismic checks required for the structural elements.

3.2.5 Analysis Implementation The ELF Procedure was the last step in the analysis process before proportioning of frame members. This includes calculating the story forces for each individual level, assigning it in SAP2000 and running the simulation to get our deflection by elasticity test result. Once this result has been obtained, we are able to test if the model building frames have to satisfy the requirement for max allowable story drift. An equivalent static analysis is conducted to determine the member forces in the frame members and the horizontal drifts in the storeys. It is assumed that all connections are rigid (moment) connections in the frame.

The forces in the members of MRFs are computed by using ELF procedure and presented in Appendix-A and the member forces of BRBFs are computed by using ELF procedure and presented in Appendix-B.

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3.3 Non-Linear Time History Analysis

The Nonlinear Time History (NTH) analysis differs from the ELF procedure in two respects. First, time history analysis with elasto-plastic braces is used rather than response spectra analysis. Second, an optimization procedure is used to determine brace areas rather than approximating the fundamental natural period with a formula that is independent of brace area. The nonlinear time history analysis is described in this chapter.

3.3.1 Structural Model

The structural model consists of a horizontal displacement degree-of-freedom (Ui), at each storey i where i = 1 is the top storey and i = n is the bottom storey as shown in Fig; 3.3.. The equations of motion are given in Equation 3.4. M+C+R=F (3.4)

where M is the mass matrix, C is the damping matrix, R is the resistance vector, F is the force vector, U is the displacement vector, is the velocity vector, and is the acceleration vector. The resistance vector is a nonlinear function of the displacement vector, however; a linear approximation of the resistance vector in the vicinity of the current displacement vector U* is shown in Equations 3.5 and 3.6. RR* +K*U U =U-U* (3.5) (3.6)

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Fig. 3.3: Structural model of buckling restrained braced frame

3.3.2 Stress and Strain

It is assumed that the behavior of BRB is the same in tension and compression, and that the behavior is elastic-perfectly-plastic (elasto-plastic) as shown in Fig. 3.4.The current strain in the braces of story i is given in Equation 3.7.

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Figure 3.4 Elasto-plastic Stress and Strain

*i ={L /(L2+H2)} (ui*- ui+1*) for i<n *i ={L /(L2+H2)} (ui*) for i=n

(3.7) (3.8)

The current stress in the braces of storey i is given in Equation 3.9.

*i =min(max(ipre +E(*i - ipre),-y), y)

(3.9)

where E is Young's modulus of elasticity, y is the yield stress, and ipre and ipre are the previously computed stress and strain in storey i, respectively. If *i=y , then the braces in storey i have yielded.

3.3.3 Stiffness Matrix If the brace in storey i have yielded, the current storey stiffness is zero, otherwise, is equal to the elastic stiffness as given in Equation 4.10.

38 ki* =0 if *i=y otherwise (3.10)

ki*=EAiL2/(L2+H2)3/2

If there are 5 storeys in the frame, then the current stiffness matrix is given in Equation 2.11.

(3.11)

3.3.4 Resistance Vector The current horizontal resistance force provided by the braces in storey i is given in Equation 3.12. ri* =LAi*/(L2+H2)1/2
If there are five storeys, the current resistance vector is given in Equation 3.13.

(3.12)

(3.13) For a building subject to horizontal ground acceleration (g), the effective horizontal force is the same at every storey. If there are five stories, the force vector is given in Equation 3.14.

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(3.14) where 1 is a vector of one's.

3.3.5 Mass Matrix

It is assumed that the mass is constant with time and is the same for all storeys. Let the mass at each story be m, then the mass matrix is given in Equation 3.15.

(3.15) where I is the identity matrix

3.3.6 Damping Matrix It is assumed that the damping matrix is constant with time and is massproportional. Let the damping ratio be , and let the natural circular frequency of the fundamental elastic mode be . If there are five stories, then the damping matrix is given in Equation 3.16.

(3.16)

40 The damping ratio is specified by the user, and for the fundamental elastic mode is determined by inverse vector iteration which begins with a starting vector of one's, v0 = 1, and iterates as shown in Equation 3.17. vk+1=K-1Mvk=Mk-1vk (3.17)

where the vector vk+1 becomes the mode shape vector for the fundamental mode and K is the elastic stiffness matrix (no plastic yielding).The natural circular frequency is calculated at each iteration from the Rayleigh quotient as shown in Equation 3.18 and it stops when the change in is negligible.

=(vkTvk/vkTMvk)1/2 =(vkTKvk/mvkTvk)1/2

(3.18)

3.4 Nonlinear Response History Analysis Numerical integration procedure with direct use of Taylors series is used to integrate Equation (3.4) which is a second-order nonlinear differential equation. Average acceleration has been proven to be a stable integration technique equivalent to the trapezoidal rule. The ground acceleration (g) changes with time. It is normally specified as a set of discrete values at equally spaced time steps ranging from 1 to n steps. This set of discrete values is called an accelerogram. Let gj be the ground acceleration at the jth time step, and let t be the length of time between time steps.

Average acceleration assumes that the acceleration throughout each time step is constant. Thus, the acceleration at all times between time step j and time step j+1 is given in Equation 3.19. = (j+ j+1) (3.19)

41 Acceleration is then integrated to get velocity given by Equation 3.20. = (j+ j+1)+ j (3.20)

where the constant of integration is determined such that at t = 0, the velocity is equal to the velocity at time step j. Now velocity (Equation 3.20) integrates to get displacement given in Equation 3.21.

(3.21) where the constant of integration is determined such that at t = 0, the displacement is equal to the displacement at time step j. Evaluating the previous two Equations 3.20 and 3.21 at t = t is shown in Equations 3.22 and 3.23. (3.22) (3.23) From the above two Equations (3.24) (3.25) These are the basic equations used by the Newmarks method to update velocities and accelerations from time step j to time step j+1. Writing Equations 3.4, 3.5, and 3.6 at time step j+1 are shown in Equations 3.25, 3.26, and 3.27. (3.26) (3.27) (3.28)

42 Substituting Equations 3.24, 3.25, 4.27, and 4.28 into Equation 4.26 gives Equation 3.29.

(3.29)
Rearranging Equation 4.25 gives Equation 3.29,

(3.30)
where:

(3.31)

(3.32) Substituting Equations 3.14, 3.15, and 3.16 into Equations 3.31and 3.32gives Equations 3.33and 3.34.

(3.33)

(3.34)
The forces in the members of MRFs are computed by using NTH analysis and presented in Appendix-C and the member forces of BRBFs are computed by using ELF procedure and presented in Appendix-D.