Revolution and Enlightenment, 1550-1800

The Scientic Revolution The Enlightenment The Impact of the Enlightenment Colonial Empires and the American Revolution

The Scientific Revolution

Objectives: Discuss how the Scientic Revolution gave Europeans a new way to view humankinds place in the universe

Background to the Revolution

These scientists relied on a few ancient authorities especially Aristotlefor their scientic knowledge Renaissance humanists had mastered Greek as well as Latin and thus had access to newly discovered works by Ptolemy, Archimedes, and Plato

Background to the Revolution

Background to the Revolution

These scientists relied on a few ancient authorities especially Aristotlefor their scientic knowledge Renaissance humanists had mastered Greek as well as Latin and thus had access to newly discovered works by Ptolemy, Archimedes, and Plato

These scientists relied on a few ancient authorities especially Aristotlefor their scientic knowledge Renaissance humanists had mastered Greek as well as Latin and thus had access to newly discovered works by Ptolemy, Archimedes, and Plato

Background to the Revolution

The invention of new instruments, such as the telescope and microscope, made fresh scientic discoveries possible The study of mathematics was promoted in the Renaissance by the rediscovery of ancient mathematicians Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton

A Revolution in Astronomy
Secrets of nature were written in the language of mathematics Major discoveries in science and astronomy overturned the conception of the universe held by Westerners in the Middle Ages

The Ptolemaic System

This system is called *geocentric because it places the earth at the center of the universe The universe is a series of concentric spheres The earth is xed motionless surrounded by crystal-like transparent orbs of light God dwells at the highest most exterior place of the universe

The Ptolemaic System

This system is called *geocentric because it places the earth at the center of the universe The universe is a series of concentric spheres The earth is xed motionless surrounded by crystal-like transparent orbs of light God dwells at the highest most exterior place of the universe

Copernicus and Kepler

Copernicus On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres *Heliocentric, or sun-centered, conception of the universe offered a more accurate explanation than did the Ptolemaic system The spheres rotate around the sun The moon around the earth and the earth around on its axis

Copernicus and Kepler

Copernicus On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres *Heliocentric, or sun-centered, conception of the universe offered a more accurate explanation than did the Ptolemaic system The spheres rotate around the sun The moon around the earth and the earth around on its axis

Kepler used detailed astronomical data to arrive at his laws of planetary motion Kepler showed that the orbits of the planets around the Sun were not circular, rather elliptical

Kepler used detailed astronomical data to arrive at his laws of planetary motion Kepler showed that the orbits of the planets around the Sun were not circular, rather elliptical

Galileo
*Galileo Galilei taught mathematics and was the rst European to make regular observations of the heavens using a telescope The Starry Messenger The Copernican model and Galileo threatened the Catholic Church

Galileo
*Galileo Galilei taught mathematics and was the rst European to make regular observations of the heavens using a telescope The Starry Messenger The Copernican model and Galileo threatened the Catholic Church

Newton
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Principia) The three laws of motion that govern the planetary bodies *universal law of gravitation Every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity

Newtons ideas created a new picture of the universe. It was now seen as one huge, regulated, uniform machine that worked according to natural laws

Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry

A revolution in medicine also began in the 16th century Ancient Greek, Galen Relied on animals for his medical and anatomical research

Andreas Vesalius One the Fabric of the Human Body He dissecting human bodies Individual organs and general structure of the human body He still clung to Galens erroneous idea that two kinds of blood owed in the veins and arteries

William Harvey On the Motion of the Heart and Blood He showed that the heart not the liver, as Galen had thoughtwas the beginning point for the circulation of blood in the body He showed that blood makes a complete circuit through the body

Science of chemistry arose in the 17th and 18th Robert Boyle controlled experiments and explored the properties of gases The volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it

Women and the Origins of Modern Science

Women as well as men were involved in the Scientic Revolution *Margaret Cavendish Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy She was critical of the growing belief that humans, through science, were the masters of nature

Descartes and Reason

*Rene Descartes, the father of rationalism Began by thinking and writing about the doubt and uncertainty that seemed to be everywhere Discourse on Method I think, therefore I am The mind cannot be doubted but the body and material world can, the two must be radically different

The Scientic Method

Scientic Methoda systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence *Francis Bacon, an English philosopher with few scientic credentials, believed that instead of relying on the ideas of ancient authorities, scientists should use inductive reasoning

Objectives: Discuss how the Scientic Revolution gave Europeans a new way to view humankinds place in the universe

The Enlightenment

Objectives: 1. Describe how eighteenth-century intellectuals used the ideas of the Scientic Revolution to reexamine all aspects of life 2. Relate how people gathered in salons to discuss the ideas of the philosophes

Path to the Enlightenment

18th century philosophical movement of intellectuals who were greatly impressed with achievements of the Scientic Revolutions
Isaac Newton and John Locke

Newton: the worldmachine Locke: theory of knowledge and tabula rasa People believed that they could discover the natural laws to produce an ideal society

Philosophes and Their Ideas

The intellectuals of the Enlightenment were called *philosophes Writers, professors, journalists, economists, etc. Most were French with a few important English thinkers Three key thinkers: Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot

Montesquieu
Came from French nobility, writing The Spirit of the Laws Tried to use the scientic method to nd the natural laws that govern the social and political relationships of human beings Wrote on governments: republics, despotism, and monarchies *separation of power

Voltaire
Came from prosperous middle-class wrote pamphlets, novels, plays, letters, essays, and histories especially well known for his criticism of Christianity *deism

Author of the rst Encyclopedia He wrote the text to change the general way of thinking Many articles attacked religious superstition and supported religious toleration Consumed by doctors, clergy, teachers, and lawyers

Diderot

Toward A New Social Science Economics

The Physocrats, a French group interested in identifying the natural economic laws that govern human society *Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations wrote on *laissez-faire, let it be the state should not interfere in economic matters

The Later Enlightenment

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind People adopted laws and governments to preserve private property The Social Contract Entire societies agree to be governed by its general will

Social World of the Enlightenment The Growth of Reading

The number of published titles issued each year by French publishers rose from 300 in 1750 to about 1,600 in the 1780s Along with magazines came daily newspapersa relatively cheap and even free publication at coffeehouses

The Salon
Salons were elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy upper class in which writers and artists gathered together with aristocrats, government ofcials, and wealthy middle-class people

Religion in the Enlightenment

Most Europeans in the 18th century were still Christians Catholic parish churches remained an important center of life New movements emerged, particularly Methodism

*John Wesley, an Anglican minister, had a mystical experience in which the gift of Gods grace assured him of salvation He street preached, especially to lower classes Methodism led to the abolition of slavery and gave the lower and middle classes in English society a sense of purpose and community

Objectives: 1. Describe how eighteenth-century intellectuals used the ideas of the Scientic Revolution to reexamine all aspects of life 2. Relate how people gathered in salons to discuss the ideas of the philosophes

The Impact of the Enlightenment

Objectives: 1. Discuss how Enlightenment beliefs were reected in the art, music, and literature of the time 2. Summarize how Enlightenment thought inuenced the politics of Europe in the eighteenth century

The Arts Architecture and Art

The ideas of the Enlightenment also had an impact on European culture The palace of Louis XIV at Versailles, in France, had made an enormous impact on Europe grandiose residences emerged, blending the secular and the sacred

By 1730, a new artistic style spread all over Europe: *rococo Unlike the baroque style, rococo emphasized grace, charm, and gentle action a highly secular style Its lightness and charm spoke of the pursuit of pleasure, happiness, and love

Music
*Johann Sebastian Bach, a renowned organist as well as a composer Mass in B Minor

Handel, a German who spent most of career in England He is probably best known for his religious music, namely Messiah Bach and Handel perfected the baroque style

Classicism style emerged in the late 18th century The style is best demonstrated by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart While there are many examples, he is most known for Don Giovanni

Enlightenment and Enlightened Absolutism

The philosophes believed in natural rights for all people: law, religious worship, speech, press, and property They argued that nations should be governed by enlightened rulers

Some Absolutist Rulers attempted to practice *Enlightened absolutism Prussia, Austria, and Russia will be examples Did they allow freedom of speech, press, the right to private property?

Prussia: Army and Bureaucracy

Frederick William I strove to maintain a highly efcient bureaucracy of civil service workers His other major concern was the army, creating the fourth largest in Europe

Frederick II the Great was one of the best educated and most cultured monarchs in the 18th century He abolished the use of torture, granted limited freedom of speech and press

The Austrian Empire

The sprawling empire and its composite of different ethnicities, languages, religions, and cultures made it difcult to rule Joseph II attempted to reform, creating a society based on reason His reform programs largely failed His successors undid almost all of his reforms

Russia under Catherine the Great

Catherine the Great (r. 1762-96) was familiar with the works of the philosophes and seemed to favor enlightened reforms She promised to reform the law code, that all are equal before the law She continually postponed the application of this law due to war

Enlightened Absolutism?
Only Joseph II truly attempted to apply the radical changes that the enlightened philosophers proposed All three rulers were chiey guided by a concern for the power and well-being of their states Ultimately, 18th century monarchs sought a balance of power, preventing any one from dominating the others

War of the Austrian Succession

In 1740, a major war broke out in connection with the succession to the Austrian throne Maria Theresa took the throne when her father, Charles V, died Prussia invaded because a women ruled Austria. France allied with Prussia. Austria allied itself with Great Britain

The War expanded and was fought in other parts of the world, the far east, India, and North America

The Seven Years War New Allies

A great reversal occurred in alliances France allied with Austria Russia allied with France Britain allied with Prussia The reversal was precipitated by colonial rivalries between Britain and France

The War in Europe

Europe witnessed the clash of the two major alliances: the British and prussians against the Austrians, Russians, and French This conict spread, creating a global war

The War in India and North America

The struggle between Britain and France in the rest of the world had more decisive results The greatest conicts arose in the North America French North America was run by the French government as a vast trading area: fur, leather, sh, and timber

The British and French fought over two primary areas in North America: the water ways of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Ohio River valley The French were able to gain the support of the Indians. As traders and not settler, the French viewed by the Indians with less hostility than the British

Objectives: 1. Discuss how Enlightenment beliefs were reected in the art, music, and literature of the time 2. Summarize how Enlightenment thought inuenced the politics of Europe in the eighteenth century

Colonial Empires and the American Revolution

Objectives: 1. Explain how the colonies of Latin America and British North America were developing in ways that differed from their European mother countries 2. Analyze why the American colonies revolted against Great Britain and formed a new nation

Colonial Empires in Latin America

In the 16th century, Portugal came to dominate *Brazil Spain established an enormous colonial empire in the western hemisphere A new civilization arose which we call Latin America

Latin America was a multiracial society Intermarriage between Europeans and Native Americans *mestizos African slaves and Europeans *Mulattoes

Economic Foundations
One source of wealth came from abundant supplies of gold and silver, which were sent to Europe Farming was the long lasting and most rewarding source of prosperity for Latin America

Trade provided another avenue for prot: sugar, tobacco, diamonds, and animal hides Both Spain and Portugal closely regulated the trade of their American colonies to keep others out

State and Church

Colonial ofcials in Latin America had much freedom in carrying out imperial policies Spanish and Portuguese rulers were determined to Christianize the native peoples The Catholic Church, through Dominicans, Franciscans, and Jesuits, gained great inuence These missionaries converted people, taught trades, and encouraged to grow crops

Britain and British North America

A new dynasty came to powerthe *Hanoverians George I, from the German state of Hanover, became king *Robert Walpole served a s head of cabinet (Prime Minister) pursued a peaceful foreign policy

The American Revolution

After the Seven Years War, British leaders wanted to get new revenues from the colonies a source to fund the cost of war and defense of the colonies 1765, Stamp Act, required on all printed materials, newspapers, etc. Rebellion erupted

The War Begins

The colonies organized the First Continental Congress of 1774 to consider to take up arms and organize militias War erupted in 1775 at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts 1776, Second Continental Congress approved a declaration of independence written by Thomas Jefferson, an Enlightened thinker

Foreign Support and British Defeat

Of great importance to the colonies cause was support from foreign countries during their rebellion The French supplied arms and money to the rebels from the beginning of the war

Spain and the Dutch Republic also entered the war against Great Britain The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, recognized the independence of the American colonies

The Birth of a New Nation

The states feared concentrated power and each one was primarily concerned for its own interests The Articles of Confederation did little to provide for a strong central government The Constitutional convention in 1787 drafted a new national government

The Constitution
The new system created a federal system in which power would be shared between the national government and the state governments The federal governments powers were broken into three separate branches to prevent a monarchy: executive, legislative, and Judicial

The Bill of Rights

The new congress created a Bill of Rights10 amendments (changes) to the constitution granting freedom of religion, speech, press, etc. Many of these rights directly derived from the European intellectual during the Enlightenment

Objectives: 1. Explain how the colonies of Latin America and British North America were developing in ways that differed from their European mother countries 2. Analyze why the American colonies revolted against Great Britain and formed a new nation