BEN-GURION UNIVERSITY OF THE NEGEV FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MELTING AND SOLIDIFICATION OF A PHASE-CHANGE MATERIAL WITH INTERNAL FINS

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the M.Sc. Degree

BY: Vartan SHATIKIAN

JUNE 2004

BEN-GURION UNIVERSITY OF THE NEGEV FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MELTING AND SOLIDIFICATION OF A PHASE-CHANGE MATERIAL WITH INTERNAL FINS

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the M.Sc. Degree

BY: Vartan SHATIKIAN SUPERVISORS: Prof. Ruth LETAN Dr. Gennady ZISKIND
Author: Supervisors: Chairman of Graduate Studies Committee:

JUNE 2004

Abstract
The present study explores numerically the processes of melting and solidification of the phase-change material (PCM) in a latent heat storage system with internal partitions or plate-type fins. The heat is transferred to the system through its horizontal base, to which conducting vertical fins are attached. Phase change material is stored between the fins. The material used in the simulations is a commercially available paraffin wax, and the fins are made of aluminum. The latent heat storage system is open at the top to ambient air. The study includes three main steps. First, the processes of melting and solidification are studied in a relatively large partitioned heat storage unit, yielding detailed information on the phase and temperature distributions inside the PCM and the partitions during the transient phase-change processes. Then, a detailed parametric investigation is performed for melting in a relatively small heat sink, 5mm to 10mm high, where the fin thickness varies from 0.15mm to 1.2mm, and the thickness of the PCM layers between the fins varies from 0.5mm to 4mm, while the base temperature varies from 6C to 24C above the mean melting temperature of the PCM. Finally, melting and solidification in the sink are explored for the case where the temperature of the sink base changes periodically. Transient two-dimensional simulations are performed using the Fluent 6.0 software. The melting temperature of the wax, 2325C, is incorporated in the simulations along with its other properties, including the latent and sensible specific heat, thermal conductivity and density in solid and liquid states. Numerical simulations yield temperature evolution in the fins and the PCM. Timedependent heat fluxes are calculated separately for the processes of heat transfer from the base to the PCM both directly and indirectly, through the fins. The computational results show how the transient phase-change process, expressed in terms of the molten volume fraction of the PCM, depends on the thermal and geometrical parameters of the system, including the temperature difference between the base and the solid PCM, thickness of the fins and the PCM layer between them, and the height of the fins. Dimensional analysis is performed based on such dimensionless parameters as the Fourier number, which takes into account the transient heat conduction, and the Stefan number, which reflects the phase change. Comparison with the literature is presented and discussed.

II

Acknowledgments
My sincerely gratitude and appreciation is due to Prof. Ruth Letan for her kindness, generous guidance and assistance.

I am most grateful to Dr. Gennady Ziskind who instructed me during this study. His excellent guidance, support and understanding throughout my study are extremely valued.

Special thanks to Mr. Vadim Dubovsky for his friendly encouragement and invaluable help in my study.

I would like to thank the Ehud Ben-Amitai foundation and Ben-Amitai family for their generous gift.

I would like to express my gratitude to Salim and Rachel Banin fund for their financial help.

III

Contents
Page

. 2.

Introduction Literature survey 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Phase-change materials Theoretical background Transient melting in an enclosure Periodic melting and solidification in an enclosure Phase change with internal fins

1 3 3 5 11 29 37 47 47 52 56 56 65 80 80 86 87 95 112 114

3.

Numerical study 3.1 3.2 Physical model Computational procedure

4.

Numerical results 4.1 4.2 Preliminary results Detailed study

5.

Analysis of results 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Heat-transfer rates Melt fractions Temperatures Dimensional analysis

6. 7.

Summary References

Appendices A1. Periodic melting A2. Velocity fields in the system A3. Different time step calculations A4. ASME article
IV

116 120 121 122

Nomenclature
a A cp Fo

amplitude, C cross-section area, m2 specific heat at constant pressure, J/kg C Fourier number, = l t
2

specific sensible enthalpy, J/kg specific enthalpy change due to the phase change, J/kg heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 C specific total enthalpy, J/kg

k l lf lt lb L m Nu P q q q Ra s* Ste t T

thermal conductivity, W/m C characteristic length, m fin length, m fin thickness, m spacing between the fins, m specific latent heat, J/kg mass, kg Nusselt number, =
hl k

perimeter of the cross-section area, m heat transfer rate, W heat flux, W/m2 rate of heat generation, W/m3 Rayleigh number, = g Tw Tm l 3

dimensionless melt or solid layer thickness Stefan number, = time, s temperature, C c Pl T f L T0

u V x, y

velocity components, m/s volume, m3 Cartesian coordinates, m

Greek letters thermal diffusivity, m2/s

thermal expansion coefficient, K-1 liquid fraction phase shift efficiency of the fin dimensionless temperature, = dynamic viscosity, kg/m s density, kg/m3 period, s-1

T Tm Tw Tm

Subscripts amb cr f i l m ref s w

0 ambient critical fin component liquid melting reference value solid wall initial

VI

List of figures
Page Figure 2.1. Classification of energy storage materials (Zalba et al., 2003). Figure 2.2. Melting front positions for melting from a vertical isothermal plate: a) SteFo = 0.0005, b) SteFo = 0.002, c) SteFo = 0.006, d) SteFo = 0.010 (from Bertrand et al., 1999). Figure 2.3. Schematic diagram of the test arrangement, (Hale and Viskanta, 1979). Figure 2.4. Comparison of measured and predicted (Neumann model) solid-liquid interface position during solidification from below, (Hale and Viskanta, 1979). Figure 2.5. Comparison of measured and predicted (Neumann model) solid-liquid interface position during melting from above, (Hale and Viskanta, 1979). Figure 2.6. Comparison of measured and predicted (Neumann model) solid-liquid interface position during solidification from above, (Hale and Viskanta, 1979). Figure 2.7. Comparison of measured and predicted (Neumann model) solid-liquid interface position during melting from below, (Hale and Viskanta, 1979). Figure 2.8. Comparison of the predicted melting front profiles with experimental results, (Ho and Viskanta, 1984). Figure 2.9. Correlation of melt fraction from vertical wall of rectangular cavity, (Ho and Viskanta, 1984). Figure 2.10. System geometry, (Gadgil and Gobin, 1984). Figure 2.11. Time evolution of the melting front position, (Gadgil and Gobin, 1984). Figure 2.12. Melting rates for enclosures of different aspect ratios having same T, (Gadgil and Gobin, 1984). Figure 2.13. Schematic diagram of the test cell, top view (a) and front view (b), (Gau and Viskanta, 1986). 19 18 17 15 16 15 13 13 12 12 11 10 3

VII

Figure 2.14. Interface shape traced at preselected times during melting from a side using pour-out method (Twh=38 C, A=0.714), (Gau and Viskanta, 1986). Figure 2.15. Correlation of the average Nusselt number in terms of the characteristic Rayleigh number Rac, (Gau and Viskanta, 1986). Figure 2.16. Scale drawing showing the experimental apparatus and instrumentation, (Zhang and Bejan, 1989). Figure 2.17. View of the inside surface of the heated plate during a later convection stage, (Zhang and Bejan, 1989). Figure 2.18. The history of the temperature distribution along the heated plate, (Zhang and Bejan, 1989). Figure 2.19. Correlation of Nusselt number, (Zhang and Bejan, 1989) Figure 2.20. Experiment cell (all dimensions are in mm), (Pal and Joshi, 2000). Figure 2.21. Comparison between computed and experimental solid-liquid interfaces, (Pal and Joshi, 2000). Figure 2.22. Time-wise variation of local Nusselt number on the heated wall (computed) for a power level of 30 W, (Pal and Joshi, 2000). Figure 2.23. Time-wise variation of average Nusselt number, (Pal and Joshi, 2000). Figure 2.24. Time-wise variation of melting rates, (Pal and Joshi, 2000). Figure 2.25. Schematic diagram of the physical configuration and coordinate system, (Ho and Chu, 1993). Figure 2.26. Temporal variations of the imposed enthalpy oscillations at the hot wall (a), the heat transfer rates (b) and the melting rate (c), (Ho and Chu, 1993). Figure 2.27. Influence of the time period on the heat transfer rates and the melting rate, (Ho and Chu, 1993). Figure 2.28. Effect of the Rayleigh number on the heat transfer rates and the melting rate, (Ho and Chu, 1993). Figure 2.29. Dependence of temporal variations of the heat transfer rates 31 30 30 29 28 28 27 26 24 23 23 22 21 20 19

VIII

and the melting rate on the subcooling factor, (Ho and Chu, 1993). Figure 2.30. Schematic diagram of the physical configuration and coordinate system, (Ho and Chu, 1994). Figure 2.31. Histories of melting rate and heat transfer rates under a fixed large-amplitude wall-temperature oscillation with different time period, (Ho and Chu, 1994). Figure 2.32. Schematic diagram of the experimental equipment, (Casano and Piva, 1999). Figure 2.33. Comparison between computed (lines) and measured (symbols) temperature distributions for tests of different periods (a: 4 h; b: 8 h; c: 16 h), (Casano and Piva, 1999). Figure 2.34. Schematic of the test cell, (Eftekhar et al., 1984). Figure 2.35. Photographs of the liquid-solid interface, (Eftekhar et al., 1984). Figure 2.36. Digitized location of the interface, (Eftekhar et al., 1984). Figure 2.37. Variation of fsNu as a function of Ra/Ste, (Eftekhar et al., 1984). Figure 2.38. Latent heat storage vessel schematic, (Inaba et al., 2003). Figure 2.39. Time history of Q/Qt: a) effect of fin thickness, b) effect of fin pitch, and c) effect of cooling wall temperature, (Inaba et al., 2003). Figure 2.40. Semi-infinite phase change material storage with a fin, (Lamberg and Siren, 2003). Figure 2.41. The results of case studies 13 and the analytical solution when t=3600 s in a semi-infinite n-octadecane storage, TwTm=20 _C, (Lamberg and Siren, 2003).

31

32

33

34

36 37 38 38 39 40

41

42

43

Figure 3.1. Physical model. Figure 3.2. Computational model.

47 52

Figure 4.1. Phase distribution of PCM during melting as a function of time. Figure 4.2. Heat transfer rate vs. time for PCM and partition during melting. Figure 4.3. Temperature evolution in the partition during melting.

57 58 59

IX

Figure 4.4. Temperature evolution in the PCM during melting. Figure 4.5. Phase distribution of PCM during solidification as a function of time. Figure 4.6. Heat transfer rate vs. time for PCM and partition during solidification. Figure 4.7. Temperature evolution in the partition during solidification. Figure 4.8. Temperature evolution in the PCM during solidification. Figure 4.9. Total heat flux from the base, case 2. Figure 4.10. Total heat flux from the base, case 3. Figure 4.11. Total heat flux from the base, case 4. Figure 4.12. Total heat flux from the base, case 5. Figure 4.13. Total heat flux from the base, case 6. Figure 4.14. Heat fluxes in different geometries, T = 6 C. Figure 4.15. Heat fluxes in different geometries, T = 12 C. Figure 4.16. Heat fluxes in different geometries, T = 18 C. Figure 4.17. Heat fluxes in different geometries, T = 24 C. Figure 4.18. Melt fraction, case 2. Figure 4.19. Melt fraction, case 3. Figure 4.20. Melt fraction, case 4. Figure 4.21. Melt fraction, case 5. Figure 4.22. Melt fraction, case 6. Figure 4.23. Melt fraction, T = 6 C. Figure 4.24. Melt fraction, T = 12 C. Figure 4.25. Melt fraction, T = 18 C. Figure 4.26. Melt fraction, T = 24 C. Figure 4.27. Temperature distribution on the symmetry line of PCM, case 2. Figure 4.28. Temperature distribution on the symmetry line of PCM, case 3. Figure 4.29. Temperature distribution on the symmetry line of PCM, case 4. Figure 4.30. Temperature distribution on the symmetry line of PCM, case 5. Figure 4.31. Temperature distribution on the symmetry line of PCM, case 6. Figure 4.32. Temperature evolution of the fin, T = 6 C.

60

61

62 63 63 65 66 66 67 67 68 68 69 69 70 71 71 72 72 73 73 74 74 75 76 76 77 77 78

Figure 4.33. Temperature evolution of the fin, T = 12 C. Figure 4.34. Temperature evolution of the fin, T = 18 C. Figure 4.35. Temperature evolution of the fin, T = 24 C.

78 79 79

Figure 5.1. Heat transfer rates from base, case 2: a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C. Figure 5.2. Heat transfer rates from base, case 3: a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C. Figure 5.3. Heat transfer rates from base, case 4: a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C. Figure 5.4. Heat transfer rates from base, case 5: a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C. Figure 5.5. Heat transfer rates from base, case 6: a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C. Figure 5.6. Evolution of the melting process of the PCM and temperature distribution in the fin for case 2:a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C. Figure 5.7. Evolution of the melting process of the PCM and temperature distribution in the fin for case 3:a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C. Figure 5.8. Evolution of the melting process of the PCM and temperature distribution in the fin for case 4:a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C. Figure 5.9. Evolution of the melting process of the PCM and temperature distribution in the fin for case 5:a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C. Figure 5.10. Evolution of the melting process of the PCM and temperature distribution in the fin for case 6:a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C. Figure 5.11. Temperature distribution along the fin at base temperature 91 90 89 88 87 84 83 82 81 80

XI

T = 24 C, Melt fraction =0.5.

Figure 5.12. Temperature distribution along the fin at base temperature

93

T = 24 C, Melt fraction =0.9.

93

Figure 5.13. Melt fraction of the PCM at different base temperatures, case 2. Figure 5.14. Melt fraction of the PCM at different base temperatures, case 3. Figure 5.15. Melt fraction of the PCM at different base temperatures, case 4. Figure 5.16. Melt fraction of the PCM at different base temperatures, case 5. Figure 5.17. Melt fraction of the PCM at different base temperatures, case 6. Figure 5.18. Correlation for melt fraction of case 2. Figure 5.19. Correlation for melt fraction of case 2. Figure 5.20. Correlation for melt fraction of case 2. Figure 5.21. Correlation for melt fraction of case 2. Figure 5.22. Correlation for melt fraction of case 2. Figure 5.23. Dimensionless heat flux from the base, case 2. Figure 5.24. Dimensionless heat flux from the base, case 3. Figure 5.25. Dimensionless heat flux from the base, case 4. Figure 5.26. Dimensionless heat flux from the base, case 5. Figure 5.27. Dimensionless heat flux from the base, case 6. Figure 5.28. Dimensionless temperature of the PCM, case 2. Figure 5.29. Dimensionless temperature of the PCM, case 3. Figure 5.30. Dimensionless temperature of the PCM, case 4. Figure 5.31. Dimensionless temperature of the PCM, case 5. Figure 5.32. Dimensionless temperature of the PCM, case 6. Figure 5.33. Melt fraction evolution in all cases considered in this work. Figure 5.34. Correlation for melt fraction taking into account 96 97 98 98 99 99 100 101 101 102 102 103 103 104 104 105 106 96 95 95 94

XII

the fin thickness. Figure 5.35. Correlation for melt fraction taking into account the fin thickness, for maximum T.

109

110

Figure A1.1 a) evolution of melt front, and b) temperature distribution in the unit, a =12 C, = 150 sec. Figure A1.2 a) evolution of melt front, and b) temperature distribution in the unit, a = 12 C, =180 sec. Figure A1.3 a) evolution of melt front, and b) temperature distribution in the unit, a = 18 C, = 120 sec. Figure A1.4 a) evolution of melt front, and b) temperature distribution in the unit, a =18 C, =150 sec. Figure A1.5. Temperature distribution of the PCM, (a=12 C, =150 sec). Figure A1.6. Temperature distribution of the PCM, (a=12 C, =180 sec). Figure A1.7. Temperature distribution of the PCM, (a=18 C, =120 sec). Figure A1.8. Temperature distribution of the PCM, (a=18 C, =150 sec). Figure A2. Velocity fields for case 2 (a) V/V0=0.3, b) V/V0=0.6) and case 4 (c) V/V0=0.6). Figure A3. Heat .transfer rate at different time step calculations for case 3 with T = 18 C. 121 120 116 117 117 118 118 116 115 115

List of tables
Page Table 2.1. Comparison of organic and inorganic materials for heat storage, (Zalba et al., 2003). Table 2.2. Summary of reviewed literature. Table 3.1. Geometry parameters. Table 3.2. Properties of aluminum and air used for computation. Table 3.3. Properties of the PCM used for computation. Table 3.4. Properties of PCM used in the detailed study, cases 26. 5 44 48 48 49 51

XIII

1. Introduction
Thermal energy storage systems that utilize latent heat of phase-change materials (PCMs) have received significant attention, because of their large heat storage capacity. Phase-change heat transfer problems are relevant both to the storage of thermal energy from intermittent source such as the sun and to various processes in geophysics and technology. Phase-change materials including organic paraffins, metallic alloys and inorganic salts undergo reversible phase transformation. Due to their isothermal behavior during the melting and solidification processes, such materials can be used in such diversified applications as latent heat storage in building or thermal control in electronic modules. A latent heat storage system is preferable to sensible heat storage in applications with a small temperature swing because of its nearly isothermal storing mechanism and high storage density, based on the enthalpy of phase change (latent heat). In a latent heat thermal storage (LHTS) system, during phase change the solidliquid interface moves away from the heat transfer surface. In the case of solidification, conduction is the sole transport mechanism, and in the case of melting, natural convection occurs in the melt layer and this generally increases the heat transfer rate compared to the solidification process. During the phase-change process, the surface heat flux decreases due to the increasing thermal resistance of the growing layer of the molten or solidified medium. This thermal resistance is significant in most applications and especially when the organic phase-change materials are used, because the latter have rather low thermal conductivity. The decrease of the heat transfer rate calls for the usage of proper heat transfer enhancement techniques in the LHTS systems. It is possible to enhance the internal heat transfer of PCM with various means, including fins, metal honeycombs, metal matrices (wiremesh), high conductivity particles or graphite. The use of finned surfaces with different configurations has been proposed by various researchers, (Velraj et al. (1999), Zalba et al., (2003)), as an efficient means to improve the charge/discharge capacity of a LHTS system. Several other heat transfer enhancement techniques for LHTS systems also have been studied, including inserting a

metal matrix into a PCM, using PCM with dispersed high conductivity particles, and micro-encapsulation of PCM. The present study explores numerically the processes of melting and solidification of the phase-change material (PCM) in a latent heat storage system with internal partitions or plate-type fins attached to a horizontal base which is heated or cooled. Phase change material is stored between the fins, and it melts or solidifies as a result of heat exchange with the base, the conducting partitions, and the ambient air. The study includes three main steps. First, the processes of melting and solidification are studied in a relatively large partitioned heat storage unit, yielding detailed information on the phase and temperature distributions inside the PCM and the partitions during the transient phase-change processes. Then, a detailed parametric investigation is performed for melting in a relatively small heat sink, 5mm to 10mm high, where the fin thickness varies from 0.15mm to 1.2mm, and the thickness of the PCM layers between the fins varies from 0.5mm to 4mm, while the base temperature varies from 6C to 24C above the mean melting temperature of the PCM. Finally, melting and solidification in the sink are explored for the case where the temperature of the sink base changes periodically. The material used in the simulations is a commercially available paraffin wax, and the fins are made of aluminum. The melting temperature of the wax, 2325C, is incorporated in the simulations along with its other properties, including the latent and sensible specific heat, thermal conductivity and density in solid and liquid states. Transient two-dimensional numerical simulations are performed using the Fluent 6.0 software. The computational results show how the transient phase-change process, expressed in terms of the molten volume fraction of the PCM, depends on the thermal and geometrical parameters of the system, including the temperature difference between the base and the solid PCM, thickness of the fins and the PCM layer between them, and the height of the fins. Dimensional analysis is performed based on such dimensionless parameters as the Fourier number, which takes into account the transient heat conduction, and the Stefan number, which reflects the phase change.

2. Literature survey
As mentioned in the Introduction, phase change processes are encountered in the nature and in various fields of science and engineering. Accordingly, a very large body of literature exists on the variety of phase-change problems. This survey is restricted to the works relevant to the present investigation It includes a review of the phase-change materials which are or could be used in heat storage applications, theoretical background related to mathematical modeling of phase change processes, and numerical methods used for the problems of solid-liquid phase change. Then, the existing literature on phasechange in enclosed spaces is discussed. The presented works concern both transient and periodic melting and solidification. Finally, the recent studies on phase change problems with internal cooling fins are surveyed.

2.1 Phase-change materials

Classification of phase-change materials used in latent-heat energy storage systems is presented in figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1. Classification of energy storage materials (Zalba et al., 2003).

One can see from figure 2.1 that, in general, heat can be stored in gas-liquid, solidliquid, solid-gas, and solid-solid phase transitions. The liquid-gas and solid-gas transitions are characterized by large volume change, thus requiring heavy and complicated pressure vessels or special design features. Solid-solid transformation, such as transition of the rhombic form of sulfur to the monoclinic form, is of interest because the energy exchange at that transformation can be significant and a number of materials display this phenomenon in a temperature range near their melting point. Solid-liquid transition is of great importance because most classes of materials undergo this type of transition without exhibiting large volume change, while releasing or absorbing significant quantities of energy. Various materials have been investigated for the energy storage systems based on the solid-liquid phase change. In order to be suitable for heat storage, these materials should satisfy a number of conditions related to their properties: 1) Thermal properties: Phase change temperature fitted to application; High change of enthalpy near the temperature of use; Sufficient thermal conductivity in both liquid and solid phases. 2) Physical properties: Low density variation; High density; Small or no undercooling. 3) Chemical properties: Stability; Absence of phase separation; Compatibility with container materials; Non-toxicity, non-flammability, friendliness to environment. 4) Economic properties: Low price and abundance. A comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of organic and inorganic materials is shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Comparison of organic and inorganic materials for heat storage (Zalba et al., 2003).

Organic

Inorganic

Advantages
No corrosiveness Low or no undercooling Chemical and thermal stability

Advantages
Greater phase change enthalpy

Disadvantages
Lower phase change enthalpy Low thermal conductivity Inflammability

Disadvantages
Undercooling Corrosion Phase separation Phase segregation, lack of thermal stability

2.2 Theoretical background and mathematical modeling

Solid-liquid phase-change (melting or solidification) heat transfer phenomena are accompanied by a phase transformation of the medium and by either absorption or release of thermal energy in the active zone. The energy absorbed or released from the surrounding system is commonly transferred by conduction or convection. The essential and common features of a system undergoing solid-liquid phase-change are that an interface exists separating two regions of differing thermophysical properties and that a moving surface, at which energy is absorbed or released, separates the two phases. To solve the problem, it is necessary to determine the manner and rate at which the solidliquid interface moves with time. For this reason, problems of this type are referred to as moving boundary problems. Because of the motion of the solid-liquid interface, the problems posed are nonlinear, so that few exact analytical solutions are available, and those that do exist are primarily for one-dimensional planar geometry. Following a review by Viskanta (1983), no exact analytical solutions exist for a finite dimension system when both phases are present, including planar geometry.

2.2.1 One-dimensional phase-change heat transfer problems The analytical methods available can be classified as follows: rigorous (exact), moment (integral), calculus of variations, perturbation and others. Exact analytical solutions of the phase-change problems are known only for a very limited number of physical situations with simple geometries and boundary conditions: e.g., a semi-infinite slab with boundary conditions of the first kind (constant temperature), commonly referred to as the Neumann problem (Carslaw and Jaeger, 1959), or semi-infinite solid with a boundary condition of the second kind (constant heat flux). When an exact solution does not exist, various numerical approaches can be applied. In particular, the finite difference methods for the numerical solution of one-dimensional phase-change heat transfer problems were reviewed by Viskanta (1983), who concludes that one-dimensional problems are amenable to efficient and accurate numerical solution with only moderate effort.

2.2.2 Methods of solution for multidimensional phase-change heat transfer problems Multidimensional problems are of greater practical importance but are much harder to solve than one-dimensional problems. A variety of numerical methods have been proposed in the literature for solving multidimensional phase-change heat transfer problems, including highly versatile finite difference and finite element methods. The available finite difference methods for phase-change problems have been broadly divided by Viskanta (1983) into two groups, based on the choice of the dependent variables used: (A) the temperature-based methods, and (B) the enthalpybased methods.

A. Temperature-Based Methods: In this group the temperature is the sole dependent variable, and energy conservation equations are written separately in the liquid and solid regions. The temperatures in the two phases are coupled through an energy balance at the solid-liquid interface. The existing solutions can be divided into four main categories: 1. Explicit finitedifference scheme 2. Implicit finitedifference scheme

3. Moving boundary immobilization method 4. Isotherm migration method These categories are briefly described below.

1. Explicit finitedifference scheme

A large number of one-dimensional and two-dimensional problems have been solved using the explicit finitedifference method. The main drawback of this method is the necessity to place restriction on the maximum step size to avoid numerical instability. This is particularly critical when the Stefan number ( Ste
Sensible heat of solid ) is Latent heat

small. Even though two problems, one with Ste=0.1 and the other with Ste=0.01, may have nearly identical solutions, the stability criterion for an interior node ( were and

Ste /N,

are the step sizes, and N=2, 4, 8 for one-, two-, and three-dimensional for Ste=0.1 that is one-tenth that for is reduced to improve the accuracy of the

problems, respectively) forces one to use

Ste=0.01. A severe penalty is also paid when

results.

One way to handle the latent heat effect numerically is to include it as an energy source or sink in the energy equation. An apparent specific heat (called also weak solution technique) is defined to account for the enthalpy change, including latent heat. The apparent specific heat concept assumes or approximates the latent heat effect as taking place over a small but finite temperature range. This technique has the advantage of also being applicable to impure substances (mixtures, solutions, etc.) for which the latent heat is released over a finite temperature range.

2. Implicit finitedifference method

For certain problems it is possible that the restriction imposed on the time step will lead to a prohibitively large number of computations. For such problems, it would be preferable to attempt a solution by an implicit finite-difference scheme, which is not subject to a stability restriction. Unfortunately, the use of implicit schemes usually yields a system of nonlinear finite-difference equations for the unknown temperatures, which must be solved by iterative methods. Following the Viskantas review (1983), this is the major reason why the implicit finite-difference schemes have been less popular than the

explicit finite-difference schemes in the numerical solution of phase-change heat transfer problems in the past.

3. Moving boundary immobilization method

This finite-difference scheme, also based on retaining the temperature as the dependent variable, employs a transformation of the spatial variables to cause the moving boundary to be stationary in the transformed coordinate system. In the transformed space, the solid and the liquid each occupy a fixed region, but the governing differential equations contain parameters of the interface location. However, in general, the transformed coordinate system will not be orthogonal. As a consequence, the derivation of a finite-difference representation of the conservation equations involves features that are not found in conventional diffusion problems where orthogonal coordinate systems are the rule. Also, the equations are usually more complicated and must be solved iteratively.

4. Isotherm migration method

In the isotherm migration method the position of an isotherm is examined as a function of time. The main advantage of the isotherm migration method is that the phasechange interface is followed exactly and directly calculated, and that the region represented is the only region in which a temperature change has occurred and no interpolation of isotherms is needed. Finally, property reevaluation at each time step for temperature dependent properties is eliminated, as the same properties are carried along with each isotherm. However, there are several disadvantages of the method. First, the governing equation becomes nonlinear. Second, a starting solution is often required, necessitating a small time step during the numerical solution. Third, the magnitude of the isotherm displacement may be multi-valued for certain boundary and initial conditions. Finally, if the temperature at the boundary rises and then falls, the same temperature may occur at two different positions at the same time, which presents a difficulty in tracking the interface by temperature.

B. Enthalpy-Based Methods: In the enthalpy models the enthalpy is used as a dependent variable along with temperature. The basic equations for phase-change heat transfer written explicitly in terms of enthalpy are also referred to as a weak solution formulation. The basic equation of the enthalpy model is:

d dt

dV
V S

dA
S

k T dA
V

q' ' 'dV (2.1)

conductivity,

generation, A is the area, S is the external surface, and V is the volume. The velocity field is set equal to zero to avoid difficulties, and the solution methods are based on it. The phase boundary position is not explicitly determined, and the problem is made equivalent to one of heat conduction without phase change. Although the interface is not tracked explicitly, its position can be approximately determined from knowledge of enthalpy distribution. The enthalpy method avoids the energy balance and the discontinuity at the solid-liquid interface. The advantages of the method are that one does not need to track the interface, and the analyses can be performed without assuming anything about the nature of the substance. Of course, for obtaining the solution a specification of the properties of the substance will be necessary. Bertrand et al. (1999) present the first results of comparison exercise of numerical solution of phase-change problem that include the simulation of coupled natural convection and melting from an isothermal vertical wall. The exercise is restricted to the simulation of phase change of pure substances, driven by laminar natural convection in 2D enclosures. Among the 10 sets of results received, most contributions have used fixed grid or enthalpy methods (FG), including that incorporated in a software package Fluent, and two have used a front-tracking of the transformed grid procedure (TG). The comparison covers two ranges of Prandtl numbers, corresponding to the melting of metals or organic materials. The results of the test cases are presented in detail and show that, while qualitative agreement is obtained in most situations, it is still relevant to

where

is the density,

is the gradient operator, T is the temperature, q is the rate of heat

is the specific enthalpy, v is the velocity field, k is the thermal

proceed to thorough numerical comparisons before assessing the accuracy of the different algorithms. A necessary general remark concerning the present exercise is that the choice of the problem itself (fusion of a pure substance) is such that the front-tracking methods are better adapted to the problem than the fixed grid procedures. The front-tracking methods would however fail to simulate situations where the transition from the liquid to the solid phase is not a macroscopic surface, and enthalpy methods are to be used in most solidification problems where a solid-liquid interfacial region is present between both phases.

Figure 2.2. Melting front positions for melting from a vertical isothermal plate:

a) SteFo = 0.0005, b) SteFo = 0.002, c) SteFo = 0.006, d) SteFo = 0.010 (from Bertrand et al., 1999).

Review of the recent literature that deals with the phase-change processes in rectangular enclosures is presented for three subjects: 1). Transient melting in an enclosure. 2). Periodic melting and solidification in a rectangular enclosure. 3). Phase change with internal fins.

2.3 Transient melting in an enclosure

Hale and Viskanta (1979) performed an experimental and analytical study of melting and solidification of several PCMs such as stearic acid, sodium phosphate dodecahydrate, sodium sulfate decahydrate, and n-octadecane, cooled or heated from above or below. A onedimensional analysis was performed using an empirical correlation to account for the effect of natural convection. Comparison of experimental data for n-octadecane with predictions based on Neumann and other analyses which account for natural convection heat transfer at the solid-liquid interface was shown for stable and unstable conditions.

Figure 2.3. Schematic diagram of the test arrangement

(Hale and Viskanta, 1979). The test cell where melting and freezing took place was placed inside a temperature control chamber which was maintained as close to the fusion temperature of the test material as possible without initiating the melting/freezing process. This was accomplished with two heat exchangers, which were installed in the chamber through which water from a constant temperature bath was circulated. Two copper heat exchangers formed the top and bottom

walls of the test cell and served as nearly isothermal heat sources. The vertical walls were made of plexiglass. The depth of the test cell was purposely made much smaller than the height or the width in order to minimize the non-uniformities in the melting front position perpendicular to the faces of the cell. When a liquid is cooled from bellow or a solid is heated from above, the fluid layer is stable, and the Neumann model for one-dimensional phase-change heat transfer should be appropriated. Figure 2.4 shows a comparison of the liquid-solid interface position predicted from the Neumann analysis with experimental data during solidification from below. Here s* is dimensionless melt or solid layer thickness, and is dimensionless time, =SteFo, where Ste
Fo

cPL T f
t l
2

Ti

Figure 2.4. Comparison of measured and

Figure 2.5. Comparison of measured and

predicted (Neumann model) solid-liquid interface position during solidification from below (Hale and Viskanta, 1979).

predicted (Neumann model) solid-liquid interface position during melting from above (Hale and Viskanta, 1979).

At early times the analysis predicts a faster rate of solidification than experimentally observed, but at later times there is good agreement between predictions and data.

The predicted and measured solid-liquid interface position for melting from above is compared in Fig. 2.5. The agreement between data and analysis is reasonably good for early times, but at later times the observed melt layer thickness was greater than that predicted. In the unstable situation of freezing from above (Fig 2.6) natural convection at the solidliquid interface may decrease the rate of solidification at the later times if the Rayleigh number is sufficiently large.

Figure 2.6. Comparison of measured and

Figure 2.7. Comparison of measured and

predicted (Neumann model) solid-liquid interface position during solidification from above (Hale and Viskanta, 1979).

predicted (Neumann model) solid-liquid interface position during melting from below (Hale and Viskanta, 1979).

In melting from below (Fig. 2.7) natural convection develops rapidly and greatly influences heat transfer and the motion of the phase-change boundary during the process. The findings of this study demonstrate the importance of natural convection in solidliquid phase-change heat transfer under unstable conditions. Ho and Viskanta (1984) reported basic heat transfer data during melting of n-octadecane from an isothermal vertical wall of a rectangular cavity which measures 130 mm high, 50 mm wide, and 50 mm deep. In order to accommodate the volume expansion associated with the phase change process from the solid to the liquid, a small air gap was maintained between the top of the material and the insulated top surface of the cavity. The right hand side vertical wall of the cavity was heated by circulating a working fluid from a constant temperature bath through the channels milled inside the heated vertical plate. The other walls were insulated.

The local heat transfer coefficients at the heated wall were measured using a shadowgraph method. Experimentally, the shadowgraphic technique for heat transfer measurements involves identification of the heat source surface as a reference position as well as the recording of the deflection of the light beam on the screen after its passage through the cell. To make the deflection of the light beam (which passes through the this region adjacent to the heat source surface) more visible against the dark background, a plate with a narrow aperture was placed between the collimating lens and the test cell. This aperture blocked off the light entering the test cell, except that which passed in the immediate vicinity of the heat source surface. A numerical simulation of the corresponding two-dimensional melting in the presence of natural convection was performed, and the numerical prediction was compared with experimental data. A comparison between the experimentally determined and predicted melting front profiles at different times is illustrated in Fig. 2.8. The solid and dashed lines depict the measured and predicted melting fronts, respectively. At early time, the agreement is excellent except at the very bottom and top regions of the cavity. The slightly greater measured melting rate at the bottom edge could be partly attributed to heat conduction along the bottom wall of the cavity due to the removal of initial singularity in the solution by a false start. As for the discrepancy at the top free surface, it is primarily attributed to the neglect in the mathematical model of the volume expansion due to the phase change from the solid to the liquid. As melting continues, the effect of this density-induced overflow motion appears to become more significant as indicated by the greater discrepancy between the measured and predicted melting front position, particularly in the vicinity of the free surface. Ho and Viskanta studied the evolution of the melt front and measured heat transfer coefficients on the heated wall. Figure 2.9 indicates the time-wise variation of the molten volume fraction, V/V0, evaluated by integrating the melting front contours. It appears that all the data may collapse quite well into a single curve as a function of the Stefan number Ste, the Fourier number Fo, and the Rayleigh number Ra: Ra g Tw Tm l 3 .

Figure 2.8. Comparison of the predicted melting front profiles with experimental results

(Ho and Viskanta, 1984).

Figure 2.9. Correlation of melt fraction from vertical wall of rectangular cavity

(Ho and Viskanta, 1984).

Gadgil and Gobin (1984) simulated numerically two-dimensional melting of a solid phase change material in a rectangular enclosure heated from one side. The simulations were carried out by dividing the process in a large number of quasi-static steps. In each quasi-static step, steady-state natural convection in the liquid phase is calculated by directly solving the

governing equations of motion with a finite difference technique. This is used to predict the shape and motion of the solid-liquid boundary at the beginning of the next step.

Figure 2.10. System geometry

(Gadgil and Gobin, 1984).

A two-dimensional rectangular enclosure that shown in figure 2.10, contains the PCM initially at its fusion temperature, Tf. The top and bottom surface of the enclosure are adiabatic, the bottom surface is no-slip, while the top is filled by air gap. One vertical wall is raised to a hot temperature, and the other wall is isothermal at fusion temperature of the PCM. The solid-liquid interface (henceforth called the melting front) has a shape similar to that shown in figure 2.10. The shape of the melting front is an extremely sensitive indicator of the variation of the local heat transfer rate to the solid and is used as a test for the numerical simulation procedure. An unevenly spaced 20 12 grid was selected for use after solving a test problem of high Ra convection in a rectangular enclosure (Ra=109) and comparing the solution with that

obtained with a specially constructed high resolution 31

25 grid. The predictions show

good agreement, particularly in the boundary layer regions, which are of main interest from the viewpoint of heat transfer at the vertical walls. Predictions from the numerical simulations for two different enclosure aspect ratios (A=2.44 and 5.25) are shown for two values of Ra (Ra=108 and 109) in figure 2.11. The position of the melting front at different dimensionless times was indicated.

Figure 2.11. Time evolution of the melting front position

(Gadgil and Gobin, 1984).

It is practical interest to investigate the influence of the aspect ratio, A, on the melting curve for such a case, since this has bearing on optimizing the dimensions of latent heat storage elements. Results from one such investigation of Gadgil and Gobin, (1984) are presented in figure 2.12, where the fraction of PCM in the liquid phase is plotted against dimensionless time for three different values of A and Ra (with Ra/A3 being the same in all three cases). The results show that A has a strong influence on the melting curve, an increase in A from 1.13 to 5.25 causing more than sixteen-fold decrease in the time required to melt 80% of the PCM.

Figure 2.12. Melting rates for enclosures of different aspect ratios having same T,

(Gadgil and Gobin, 1984). The effect of free convection on the shape and motion of the melting front of gallium from a vertical wall was investigated by Gau and Viskanta (1986). Melting and solidification experiments were performed in a rectangular test cell (Fig. 2.13), which had inside dimensions of .8.89 cm in height, 6.35 cm in width, and 81 cm in depth. The two end walls, which served as the heat source/sink, were made of multipass heat exchange machined from a copper plate. Their results reported clearly that for larger aspect ratio cavities (A), melting of the solid near the top may be greatly promoted, and melting near the bottom of the test cell may be completely terminated, due to free convection in the melt. The interface shape traced at preselected times is shown in figure 2.14 for different aspect ratios. At very early times, before the buoyancy-driven flow was initiated or when fluid motion was still very weak, the interface shape was flat and parallel to the heated wall of the test cell. Heat transfer was dominated by conduction. As the heating progressed the buoyancy-driven convection in the melt started to develop and continued to intensify. This is evidenced by the appearance of a nonuniform melt layer receding from the top to the bottom of the test cell.

Figure 2.13. Schematic diagram of the test cell, top view (a) and front view (b): (1) heat

source and/or sink, (2) Plexiglas wall, (3) air gap, (4) phase-change material, (5) thermocouple rack, (6) thermocouples along the walls, (7) small-diameter thermocouples, (8) hole for filling material, and (9) constant temperature baths (Gau and Viskanta, 1986).

Figure 2.14. Interface shape traced at preselected times during melting from a side

using pour-out method (Twh=38 C, A=0.714) (Gau and Viskanta, 1986).

The experimental data of heated-area-averaged heat transfer coefficients for melting of gallium from a vertical wall were favorably correlated and compared with numerical data. Since convection-dominated quasi-steady melting does not appear to have been fully reached in this experiments no attempt was made to correlate the data in a form of a standard natural convection. Even though the entire melting process is transient in nature, and one of the boundaries of the heat sink (solid-liquid interface) is not planar, an average melt layer thickness has been used as a characteristic length lC in correlating of heat transfer data. The list-squares fit of the data was found to yield the following empirical equation
Nu hlC kl RaC 0.0631 Stet
0.274

(2.2)

A comparison of the data with the equation is presented in figure 2.15. All the data points collapse nicely onto a single line. The correlation is valid in the conduction, transition, and natural convection regimes.

Figure 2.15. Correlation of the average Nusselt number in terms of the

characteristic Rayleigh number RaC (Gau and Viskanta, 1986). In spite of the large thermal conductivity, the experimental results have clearly established the important role played by natural convection during melting of a pure metal from a vertical wall. The phase-change boundary, the melting rate, and heat transfer were

greatly affected by buoyancy driven natural convection. Laminar flow persisted throughout the melting process, and nearly quasi-steady melting was attainted at later stages. During solidification of gallium from a sidewall, the interface shape was controlled not only by the natural convection circulation in the melt but also by the combined crystallographic effects and anisotropy of the gallium crystal. Zhang and Bejan (1989) are report their study of the time-dependent melting within a relatively tall enclosure (height/width = 5) filled with paraffin, due to a constant heat flux boundary condition. The first part describes experimental measurements with n-octadecane conducted in a 74 cm tall enclosure. The second part of the study describes the liquid superheated effect analytically, by means of matched boundary layers solution for the convection regime of the heat transfer and the melting process. The opposite enclosure wall was maintained at a uniform temperature. Experiments were performed to determine the heat transfer coefficients and melting rates for various power dissipations. Based on an analytical approach involving boundary layer theory, a steady state heat transfer correlation was developed. The vertical enclosure in which the experiments were performed is shown in figure 2.16.

Figure 2.16. Scale drawing showing the experimental apparatus and instrumentation

(Zhang and Bejan, 1989).

The enclosure is defined by two parallel vertical plates positioned 14.6 cm apart. The top, bottom and sidewalls are made out of acrylic plexiglas 2.5 cm thick. The height of the enclosure space is 73.7 cm. The length is 56 cm: this dimension is large enough to minimize the three-dimensional (end) effects on the flow and two-phase interface. The heat flux Rayleigh numbers of these experiments are of the order of 1013, and the liquid flow pattern is weakly turbulent. Zhang and Bejan (1989) presented in figure 2.17 that the boundary layer flow near the heated plate is turbulent.

Figure 2.17. View of the inside surface of the heated plate during a later convection stage

(Zhang and Bejan, 1989).

There are three important features to note in figure 2.18. First, there is a relatively short time interval, during which the temperature of the heated plate rises from the ambient level to the melting point of the phase change material. Immediately following the start-up time interval is a period when the temperature of the plate is uniform and rises linearly in time. Finally, figure 2.18 shows how the wall temperature reaches a plateau in the convection melting regime.

Figure 2.18. The history of the temperature distribution along the heated plate

(Zhang and Bejan, 1989). The analysis of these experiments suggests that the Nu data can be correlated by a unique relation between Nu/Ra1/5 and /Ra1/5 (Fig. 2.19).
Nu Ra1 / 5
0.491

(2.3)

Figure 2.19. Correlation of Nusselt number

(Zhang and Bejan, 1989).

Finally, the Nusselt number correlation for the convection regime is:
Nu 0.411 g l 3 Tavg Tm
1/ 4

(2.4)

Pal and Joshi (2000) studied computationally and experimentally melting of an organic phase change material (PCM) n-triacontane (C30H62) in a side heated tall enclosure of aspect ratio 10, by a uniformly dissipating heat source. An implicit enthalpy-porosity approach was utilized for computational modeling of the melting process. Experimental visualization of melt front locations was also performed. Correlations of heat transfer rate and melt fraction were obtained. The experimental cell of this study is shown in figure 2.19. One inner wall used as uniformly dissipating heat source. Other walls were insulated. A total of 17 copperconstantan thermocouples of 0.13 mm diameter were used in the experiments (Fig. 2.20).

Figure 2.20. Experiment cell (all dimensions are in mm)

(Pal and Joshi, 2000). Before the experiments, the enclosure was slowly filled with molten PCM at a temperature of 95 C. The PCM was poured in 1 cm layers at a time, allowing the earlier

layer to solidify, to ensure absence of any entrapped air bubble. Experiments were subsequently conducted with all the thermocouples initially uniform within ! 0.15 C. Power to the heater was set and controlled by a voltage controller. Experiments were continued until the maximum heater temperature rose to 105 C, the highest allowable operating temperature for the adhesives used in the setup. Tests were performed from 15 to 60 W at a step of 5 W. The fluid flow was assumed laminar due to the small velocities (~5 mm/s). Two-dimensional transport was considered, following experimental observations of the solid-liquid interface, which was uniform over a large region in the depth-wise (z) direction. For all solids, the thermophysical properties were assumed to be independent of temperature. The density of molten PCM was assumed to be constant, except for the buoyancy force term in the ymomentum equations, according to the Boussinesq approximation for natural convection flows. The computational results of evolution of melt front, and the velocity vectors are presented in figure 2.21a-d, for a power level of 15 W (heat flux =0.093 W/cm2). The corresponding experimental solid-liquid interface locations are visualized in figure2.21e-h. As melting continues, buoyancy driven convection in the molten PCM starts to develop (Fig. 2.21a, e). During this stage, the hot and light molten PCM moves upward along the heated wall, turns around and moves towards the solid-liquid interface. This flow impinges on the solid-liquid interface, and transfers heat to the solid, which enhances melting. Figure 2.22 presents the time-wise variation of local instantaneous Nusselt number following melting at various locations on the heated wall for a power level of 30 W (Ste = 0.81). Starting with an infinite value at the initiation of melting Nusselt numbers drop very rapidly during the initial conduction dominated stage (I). This was followed by a sudden change in slope, which marked the beginning of a transition regime (II). During this phase, heat transfer was due to combined conduction and convection effects. Almost a constant value of Nu at a given location followed the transition stage. During the convection dominated stage of melting (III), Nu increased from the bottom to the top. As melting approached completion (IV), Nu started to reduce with time.

Figure 2.21. Comparison between computed and experimental solid-liquid interfaces.

The molten PCM appears to be dark and the solid PCM is seen as the white region (Pal and Joshi, 2000).

Figure 2.22. Time-wise variation of local Nusselt number on the heated wall (computed) for

a power level of 30 W (Pal and Joshi, 2000).

This reduction was caused by sensible heating of the PCM, and lack of heat transfer from the system since all the boundaries were insulated. The difference in Nu along the heater began to reduce, as melting approached completion, indicating uniformity in temperature and a decreased strength of natural convection at this stage. The heat transfer data were scaled with Ra1/5. This scaling reduced the normalized heat transfer and molten volume fraction data very well, except at the post-melt stage (Figs. 2.23 and 2.24).

Nu

Ra 5 0.01559 Ste Fo

0.4

Figure 2.23. Time-wise variation of average Nusselt number

(Pal and Joshi, 2000).

4865 Ste Fo

" 1.43 0.957 e

Ra

Figure2.24. Time-wise variation of melting rates

(Pal and Joshi, 2000).

2.4 Periodic melting and solidification in an enclosure

A numerical study of periodic melting in a rectangular enclosure with an oscillatory heated-wall temperature was reported by Ho and Chu (1993, 1994), who adopted the enthalpy method to model the latent heat absorption at the melting front. The mathematical model of two-dimensional melting of solid PCM (Ho and Chu, 1993) is presented in figure 2.25. The solid PCM is assumed to be initially subcooled at a uniform temperature Tc. At time t=0, the left-hand vertical wall is isothermally heated with a sinusoidal perturbation of enthalpy A, and frequency, f, were
1 A sin 2# t f . The time-dependent hot wall temperature

about a mean hot wall temperature Th, with amplitude,

remains above the fusion temperature of the PCM at all times. The right-hand vertical wall is kept isothermal at Tc, and the horizontal walls of the enclosure are assumed adiabatic.

Figure 2.25. Schematic diagram of the physical configuration and coordinate system

(Ho and Chu, 1993).

The set of governing differential equations was solved numerically by means of a finite difference method. The differential equations were discretized by using second-order central differencing for the spatial derivatives except the convective terms, for which the second

upwind scheme was adopted. The time derivatives were approximated by a forward difference. The authors used a 41 41 uniform mesh system for the simulations as a result of a series of tests calculations for the grid dependency. Ho and Chu (1993) studied influence of the temporal variations of the imposed enthalpy oscillations (Fig. 2.26), influence of the time period (Fig. 2.27), effect of the Rayleigh number (Fig. 2.28) on the heat transfer rates and the melting rate, and dependence of temporal variations of the heat transfer rates and the melting rate on the subcooling factor (Fig. 2.29).

Figure 2.26. Temporal variations of the

Figure 2.27. Influence of the time period

imposed enthalpy oscillations at the hot wall (a), the heat transfer rates (b) and the melting rate (c) (Ho and Chu, 1993).

on the heat transfer rates and the melting rate (Ho and Chu, 1993).

Figure 2.28. Effect of the Rayleigh number Figure

2.29.

Dependence

of

temporal

on the heat transfer rates and the melting rate variations of the heat transfer rates and the (Ho and Chu, 1993). melting rate on the subcooling factor (Ho and Chu, 1993).

The periodic mean values of the heat transfer rates as well as the melting rate are strongly affected by the Rayleigh number and the subcooling factor, but are rather insensitive to the oscillation amplitude or the time period of the imposed wall temperature perturbation. Moreover, the oscillation components of the heat transfer rates as well as the melting rate respond differently to the variation of amplitude and period of imposed wall temperature perturbation, the Rayleigh number, the subcooling factor, and the Stefan number. Ho and Chu (1993) found that a steady periodic melting regime arises following a period of transient oscillatory melting, and that the heat transfer rates at the vertical heated and cooled walls as well as the melting rate exhibit a regular temporal oscillation at a frequency equal to the imposed wall temperature perturbation but with phase difference.

Ho and Chu (1994) also reported that there might coexist three solid-liquid interfaces during the sustained periodic solid-liquid phase change process inside the enclosure depending on the time-periodic amplitude oscillatory wall temperature. In this work they presented a numerical simulations of multiple moving boundaries arising in the natural convection-dominated melting process of a pure phase-change material from a vertical wall of a square enclosure, as illustrated in figure 2.30. The hot wall was subjected to oscillatory large-amplitude temperature perturbation
Th Th A sin 2# t f (2.4)

Other walls were in a low temperature. Top and bottom were adiabatic.

Figure 2.30. Schematic diagram of the physical configuration and coordinate system

(Ho and Chu, 1994). In figure 2.31 the influence of varying time period of the imposed large-amplitude (A=1.5) wall-temperature oscillation on the temporal variation of the melting rate, V*, and the average heat transfer rates, Qh and Qc, at the vertical walls is conveyed. A marked amplification of the induced steady oscillation amplitudes of both the melting rate and heat transfer rate at the cold wall arises, as can be seen in figure 2.31; while an adverse effect occurs for the heat transfer rate at the hot wall. This implies that the effect of varying time

period on the melting rate and the heat transfer rate has little or no bearing on whether the imposed wall-temperature oscillation amplitude is greater or not.

Figure 2.31. Histories of melting rate and heat transfer rates under a fixed large-

amplitude wall-temperature oscillation with different time period (Ho and Chu, 1994).

Casano and Piva (2002) presented a numerical and experimental investigation of a periodic phase-change process dominated by heat conduction. In the experimental arrangement a plane slab of PCM (n-octadecane) is periodically heated from above. A schematic diagram of the experimental equipment is shown in figure 2.32. The test cell consists of a polycarbonate round duct (outer diameter 150 mm, inner diameter 140 mm and height 210 mm) filled with the phase-change medium. The bottom is kept at a temperature lower than the melting point of the test material by means of a refrigeration system.

Joule effect heater Peltier cells refrigerator Figure 2.32. Schematic diagram of the experimental equipment: ET, external trigger;

PS, power supply; IPR, ice point reference; SU, switch control unit;DV, digital voltmeter (Casano and Piva, 2002).

To remove easily the heat flow during the experiment, the refrigeration system uses thermoelectric coolers. A uniform distribution of temperature over the whole surface of the bottom wall is obtained by means of nine thermoelectric modules (dimension 40 $ 40 $ 4 mm3) connected in series. In order to reduce the heat transfer to the environment, the wall of the cylinder is insulated with a 20 mm thick layer of foam rubber surrounded by a 100 mm thick layer of expanded polystyrene. The test volume (height 51.1 mm) is closed on the top by the heater. The heat flow is obtained by dissipating via the Joule effect an assigned power in a resistor (450 W of nominal power at 220 V). Such a resistor is placed inside a copper disk soldered at the end of a cylindrical copper container. The experimental tests were carried out so as to obtain cyclic processes of melting and freezing in a sample of n-octadecane. The experiments always included a preliminary settling period when the sample, previously frozen in a refrigerator, was kept solid. When the measured temperature of the sample became practically uniform, enabling the reaching of steady-state conditions to be assured, the heating system was activated and the periodic heating process started. Having demonstrated the numerical validity of the code by comparison with results for an analytical solution, the physical validity of the mathematical model may be studied by

comparison of predictions with experimental data. The results of the comparison are reported for three experimental tests. The runs differ according to the period of the sinusoidal power dissipated in the heater (4, 8 and 16 h for Test a, b and c respectively). The temperature was sampled every 4 min, the experiments lasting for 24 h in the case of Test a, and 48 h for Tests b and c. For these trials numerical simulation was carried out by using the measured top and bottom temperature as the boundary conditions. A linear interpolation of the sampled data was used to calculate the boundary values needed in the computation but not available experimentally. A uniform grid of 257 control volumes ( x= 0.2 mm) was used, together with a time step equal to t= 0.2 s, necessary to satisfy the stability condition. In figure 2.33, for the selected runs, the measured and computed temperature distributions are compared. Results for the three tests show that only Test b reaches steady periodic conditions; Tests a and c are too short for this steadiness to be achieved. For all the tests reported in figure 2.33, the presence of an interface separating an upper zone, where the material is liquid, from a lower zone at the solid state, is clearly evidenced. The liquid zone is characterized by wide oscillations of temperature, reaching the maximum amplitude at the heated surface (equal to 5, 8 and 15 C for Tests a, b and c respectively). The solid region is characterized by moderate oscillations of temperature, practically negligible in a test and increasing with the period. This is because the greater part of the heat flux introduced in the sample via the heater is used for the advancement of the interface and only a limited part of this flux is still available for the heating of the remaining solid. From a qualitative point of view the numerical model gives trends of temperature totally similar to those experimental, both in the solid and in the liquid phase. The start of the melting process, and of the following freezing and melting cycles, appears clearly and the wide oscillations of temperature in the liquid are also well evident. The analysis of the energy behavior of the system gives interesting results. The energy stored in the system oscillates in time with the energy introduced. A regular behavior is shown by dimensionless mean value of the energy stored, decreasing for increasing Fourier numbers and also for increasing Stefan numbers. For small values of the Fourier number the dimensionless amplitude of the oscillations of the energy stored in the system is constant, independent of the values of the Stefan number. In this case the system is able to act as a damper of entering energy oscillations and the heat flux emerging from the output surface is

almost constant. Conversely, for increasing Fourier numbers the amplitude strongly depends on the Stefan number. Furthermore, the amplitude shows a maximum, which is more marked for large values of the Stefan number. It means that for large period of oscillation there are situations where the system does not exert any damping effect.

Figure 2.33. Comparison between computed (lines) and measured (symbols)

temperature distributions for tests of different periods (a: 4 h; b: 8 h; c: 16 h) (Casano and Piva, 2002).

2.5 Phase change with internal fins

Eftekhar et al. (1984) reported about the heat transfer enhancement in a thermal storage system consisting of vertically arranged fins between a heated and cooled horizontal finnedtube arrangement. The high thermal expansion coefficient and low viscosity of paraffin wax, at temperature about 50C, are utilized to induce natural convection in the liquid phase even at small thickness. In this study, the heat source and heat sink are two parallel plates separated by vertical fins. The heated plate was located below the cooled plate so that the liquid layer eventually becomes unstable. This instability is expected to cause natural convection along the fins and at the solid-liquid interface, which, in turn, will influence the rate of production of liquid. The thermal storage device, figure 2.34, is 53.5 mm high, 61.5 mm long and 56 mm wide. The device is divided by partitions into three equal sections along its length. The middle cell is used for the experimental study. The side compartments serve as insulation along both sides of the middle cell.

Figure 2.34. Schematic of the test cell

(Eftekhar et al., 1984).

Diffused back lighting and a camera with a long focal lens are used to photographically record the liquid-solid interface. The enlarged photographs of the liquid-solid-interface were digitized and scaled down to their proper coordinates. The photographs and digitized location of the interface for Tu=35.7C and Tb=53C are presented in figures. 2.35 and 2.36.

Figure 2.35. Photographs of the liquid-solid interface

(Eftekhar et al., 1984).

Figure 2.36. Digitized location of the interface

(Eftekhar et al., 1984).

Eftekhar et al. calculate the heat transfer coefficient at the interface from experimentally determined instantaneous position of the moving boundary. They obtained a correlation of experimental data by including the contribution of the surface area of the interface, fs, and the influence of conduction on the solid phase, fc. The value of fc2/3 fs Nue is plotted as a function of Ra/Ste in figure 2.37 and can be expressed as
Nu 0.027 f S 1 Ra / Ste
1 3

(2.5)

Figure 2.37. Variation of fsNu as a function of Ra/Ste

(Eftekhar et al., 1984).

Inaba et al. (2003) presents a numerical study that dealt with the enhancement of latent heat release by using plate type fins mounted on the vertical cooling surface in the rectangular vessel packed with molten salt as a latent heat storage material. The nitric type molten salt having high melting point of over 140 C was selected as a latent heat storage material for drying as well as hot water supply. The nitric molten salt has many advantages such as greater latent heat, higher thermal conductivity and lower viscosity than the paraffin

wax. Inaba et al. (2003) found that the fin thickness and pitch exerted an influence on solidification heat transfer in a liquid layer of a nitric molten salt. The numerical results elucidated the flow pattern, velocity profile and heat transfer rate in the melted liquid layer. Figure 2.38 shows the schematic of the latent storage vessel used by Inaba et al. (2003). Rectangular tubes were arranged vertically in the heat storage vessel and the plate fins were installed horizontally between those tubes. The rectangular cavity, that was surrounded by the heating surface of the tubes and the plate fins, was filled with nitric molten salt as a latent heat storage material.

Figure 2.38. Latent heat storage vessel schematic

(Inaba et al., 2003).

The effect of the fin thickness FT on the heat transfer characteristics under the heat release process was examined for some fin thickness under the condition of fin pitch FP=0.25 and Ste=0.462. The relationship between Q/Qt and dimensionless time period is shown in figure 2.39a. The value of Q/Qt means the ratio of accumulated heat Q at a given time to total amount of theoretical heat Qt of the heat storage vessel. The value of Q/Qt decreases with an increase in FT. Inaba et al. (2003) explains this behavior by the fact that the heat transportation ability of the attached fins increases by increasing FT. Effect of the fin pitch and effect of cooling wall temperature on heat transfer characteristics were also presented (Fig. 2.39b, c).

The results obtained by Inaba et al. revealed that the amount of transported heat through the fins increased with an increase in fin-thickness, and the heat release completion time period is shortened. Inaba et al. also found that the effect of increasing the cooling area per unit latent heat storage material on the heat flux at the cooling wall with a decrease in fin pitch excelled that of the convection heat transfer. As a result, the completion time of heat release process decreased with a decrease in the fin-pitch.

Figure 2.39. Time history of Q/Qt: a) effect of fin thickness,

b) effect of fin pitch, and c) effect of cooling wall temperature (Inaba et al., 2003).

Lamberg and Siren (2003) studied the melting process in a semi-infinite PCM storage with a thin fin (see Fig. 2.40). The storage is 2-dimensional and it is semi-infinite both in the x-direction (0 x %&) and y-direction (0 y %&) and the length of the fin approaches infinity.

The end-wall with a constant temperature and the fin act as heat sources in the melting process. Lamberg and Siren present a simplified analytical model based on a quasi-linear, transient, thin-fin equation which predicts the solidliquid interface location and temperature distribution of the fin in the melting process with a constant imposed end-wall temperature. The analytical results were compared to the numerical results and they show good agreement.

Figure 2.40. Semi-infinite phase change material storage with a fin

(Lamberg and Siren, 2003).

According to Lamberg and Siren (2003), melting occurs in two different regions, shown in figure 2.40. In region 1, the only heat source is the constant temperature end-wall. Here the fin does not influence the melting process. Heat transferred from the wall is first melting the phase change material by conduction and later by natural convection. In region 2, both the wall and the fin are transferring heat to the phase change material. There are three stages in the melting process: pure conduction from the constant temperature end-wall and the fin, conduction from the fin with some natural convection from the end-wall and finally, only natural convection from the fin. Lamberg and Siren assumed that for Ra ' 1708, natural convection dominates the heat transfer from the horizontal fin to the solid liquid interface. The fin tends to decrease natural convection from the end-wall due to the decreasing temperature gradient in the liquid. After a short period the fin plays the most important role in the heat transfer in region 2.

Lamberg and Siren compared the predictions of their analytical model with numerical results in three different cases to predict the influence of the basic heat transfer modes on the results. The first case was conduction plus natural convection from the fin, case 2 was pure conduction from the fin, and case 3 was for solid material with a fin without phase change. They also compared their model with exact Neumann solution. The results are presented in figure 2.41.

Figure 2.41. The results of case studies 13 and the analytical solution when t=3600 s

in a semi-infinite n-octadecane storage, TwTm=20C (Lamberg and Siren, 2003).

In case 1, where heat transfers from the fin to the solidliquid interface by conduction when Ra 1708 and with natural convection when Ra>1708, the solidliquid interface Sy is

slightly ahead of the interface of the analytical solution. At small Sy values the heat transfer coefficient is relatively large. That is the reason for the solidliquid interface location being slightly ahead of the analytical solution. In case 2, where heat transfers from the fin to the solidliquid interface by pure conduction, the interface location Sy is much behind the analytical solution. Natural convection enhances heat transfer and accelerates melting. Therefore, it should be taken into consideration. Otherwise the model considerably underestimates the solidliquid interface location. In case 3, the heat from the fin and the constant temperature end-wall is conducted inside the material without phase change. It is obvious that the initial temperature interface in which the materials temperature differs from its initial temperature is situated substantially ahead of the solidliquid interface of the analytical solution because there is no effect of latent heat of fusion.

Author N. W. Hale, Jr., R. Viskanta 1980

Title Solid-liquid phase change heat transfer and interface motion in materials cooled or heated from above or below Heat transfer during melting from an isothermal vertical wall Analysis of twodimensional melting in rectangular enclosures in presence of convection

Table 2.2. Summary of reviewed literature. Model Study Boundary conditions rectangular analytical and Melting/solid enclosure experimental fraction from a horizontal plate (heat source/sink)

Material n-octadecane steoric aced sodium phosphate dodecahidrate sodium sulfat decahidrate n-octadecane

Solution 1-dimentional analytical solution of Neumann

C. J. Ho, R. Viskanta 1984 A. Gadgil, D. Gobin 1984

rectangular cavity

numerical and experimental

rectangular enclosures

numerical

isothermal vertical wall other sidewalls insulated top and bottom adiabatic, top with the air gap, one wall in high temperature, other wall in temperature of fusion two walls heat source or sink, other walls insulated one wall in high temperature, other walls insulated

n-octadecane

2-dimentional Landau coordinate transformation quasi-static steps

C. Gau, R. Viskanta 1986

Melting and solidification of a pure metal on a vertical wall Melting in an enclosure heated at constant rate

rectangular test cell

experimental

Gallium

Z. Zhang, A. Bejan 1989

rectangular enclosures

analytical and experimental

n-octadecane

matched boundary layer solution

Author tin

Title

Material

Solution enthalpy method

C.J. Ho, C.H. Chu 1993

Table 2.2. Summary of reviewed literature (continue). Model Study Boundary conditions Periodic melting square numerical oscillatory hot within a square enclosure wall, other wall in enclosure with an low temperature, oscillatory top and bottom temperature adiabatic

C.J. Ho, C.H. Chu 1994 vertical square enclosure numerical Oscillatory large amplitude temperature hot wall, other wall in low temperature, top and bottom adiabatic Base is kept in lower temperature, Periodic heater in the top, Walls insulated

A simulation for multiple moving boundaries during melting inside an enclosure imposed with cyclic wall temperature

n-octadecane

enthalpy method

G. Casano, S. Piva 2002

Experimental and polycarbonate computational numerical round duct and experimental investigation of the steady periodic solid-liquid phasechange heat transfer rectangular enclosure separated by vertical fins experimental

n-octadecane

1-dimentional heat conduction

J. Eftekhar, A. Haji-Sheikh, D. Y. S. Lou 1984

Heat transfer enhancement in a paraffin wax thermal storage system

The heated plate in the bottom, cooled plate in the top. Walls are insulated.

paraffin wax (SUNTECH P116)

Author H. Inaba, K. Matsuo, A. Horibe 2003

Table 2.2. Summary of reviewed literature (continue). Model Study Boundary conditions Numerical Rectangular numerical Cooling wall kept simulation for fin vertical tubes at the constant effect of a and the plate temperature. rectangular latent fins were Other walls were heat storage vessel installed insulated packed with molten horizontally salt under heat between those release process tubes.

Title

Material nitric molten salt

Solution 2-dimensional numerical solution

P. Lamberg, K. Siren 2003

Analytical model for melting in a semi-infinite PCM storage with an internal fin

semi-infinite PCM storage with a thin fin

analytical and numerical

The end-wall with a constant temperature and the fin act as heat sources

n-octadecane

2-dimensional analytical solution

3. Numerical study
The present study explores numerically the processes of melting and solidification of phase-change material (PCM) in a heat storage unit with internal partitions or fins. The physical model is presented in detail below.

3.1 Physical model

A schematic view of the physical model is shown in Fig. 3.1. The conducting partitions or plate-type fins are attached to the horizontal bottom that acts as a heat source or sink, which temperature, Tw, is uniform. The PCM fills the space above the bottom between the partitions. From above, the PCM is exposed to the ambient air. Thus, it is assumed that heat is transferred between the PCM and the bottom, the partitions, and the ambient air. Heat transfer between the fin tips and the ambient is neglected.

fin Air

lt

lb

PCM

Tw
Figure 3.1. Physical model.

lf

The height of the partitions is larger than the height of the solid PCM, which fills 85% of the space. This is done in order to allow the PCM to expand during the solidliquid phase transition, reflecting the large difference in solid and liquid density which exists in reality. The geometrical dimensions explored in the present study are summarized in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1. Geometry parameters.

Case 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

lf, mm 200 10 10 10 10 5 10

lt, mm 2 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.6 0.6

lb, mm 10 4 2 1 0.5 2 2

The partitions are made of aluminum, in order to ensure their high thermal conductivity. The properties of aluminum and of the air are summarized in Table 3.2. Note that the density-temperature relation is used for air.

Table 3.2. Properties of aluminum and air used for computation.

Materials Aluminum Air

Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 202.4 0.0242

Density (kg/m3) 2719

Specific heat (J/kg K) 871

1.2 10 5 T 2 0.01134T

3.498

1006.43

In all the cases explored in this study, the model PCM was based on the properties of commercially available paraffin wax (Rubitherm RT 25), as discussed below.

Preliminary simulations. The first simulations of phase-change processes were performed for the unit with partitions 200 mm high and 2 mm thick (case 1, table 3.1). The space between two adjacent fins was 10 mm. PCM melting has been studied under the following conditions: The initial temperature of the whole system was 20C, i.e. the PCM was slightly subcooled. At t=0, the temperature of the bottom was changed to 42C, while the ambient air above the unit was 27C. PCM solidification has been studied under the following conditions: The initial temperature of the whole system was 27C, i.e. the PCM was slightly overheated. At t=0, the temperature of the bottom was changed to 6C, while the ambient air above the unit was 27C. The properties of the PCM were assumed temperature-independent. Thus, the only change in its density was between the solid and liquid states. The properties of the PCM for this case are provided in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3. Properties of the PCM used for computation.

Material RT 25

Melting point (C) 23-25

Latent heat (kJ/kg) 206

Thermal conductivity (W/m K) Solid Liquid 800 750 0.15

Density (kg/m3)

Specific heat (J/kg K) 2500

Dynamic viscosity (kg m/s) 0.0072

PCM melting has been studied under the following conditions: The initial temperature of the whole system was 20C, i.e. the PCM was slightly subcooled. At t=0, the temperature of the bottom was changed to 42C, while the ambient air above the unit was 27C. PCM solidification has been studied under the following conditions: The initial temperature of the whole system was 27C, i.e. the PCM was slightly overheated. At t=0, the temperature of the bottom was changed to 6C, while the ambient air above the unit was 27C. The results of the preliminary simulations are presented in Section 4.

Detailed study. For a detailed study of phase-change with internal fins, we have decided to choose a relatively small system, with the maximum fin length of 10mm. Such system could serve, for example, as a PCM-based heat sink for electronic equipment. The following parameter variations were chosen, as reflected in Table 3.1 (cases 2-6): 1). The fin thickness, which varied from 0.15 mm to 1.2 mm; 2). The PCM layer thickness between the fins, which varied from 0.5mm to 4mm. The thickness ratio of the fin to the PCM layer was kept constant, so that the amount of the PCM and aluminum in the sink were constant for a constant fin length; 3). In addition to the basic fin length of 10mm, shorter fins of 5mm have been explored. The amount (height) of the PCM was reduced accordingly. However, it is assumed that a heat sink can be built of two stories, making the amount of the PCM and aluminum the same as for the basic fin length; 4). For each of cases 2-6 of Table 3.1, calculations were performed for four differences between the temperature of the bottom and mean melting temperature of the PCM, namely 6C, 12C, 18C and 24C. In the simulations, this difference was set at t=0 and kept constant through the entire process. For the melting simulations, the initial temperature of the whole system was 20 C, i.e. the PCM was slightly subcooled. The ambient air above the unit was kept at 27 C. In the detailed study, density and dynamic viscosity of the PCM at liquid state depend on temperature changes. The density is expressed as
f

Tf

(3.1), is the melting

were

is the density of PCM at temperature of the melting, Tf

temperature, and

is the thermal expansion coefficient. The value of =0.001 has been

chosen based on the analysis of the detailed data presented by Humphries and Griggs (1977). Following Reid et al. (1987), the dynamic viscosity of the liquid PCM has been expressed as

exp A

B T

(3.2),

were A= - 4.25 and B = 1790 are coefficients. The properties of the PCM are summarized in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4. Properties of PCM used in the detailed study, cases 26.

Melting Latent heat Material point (C) (kJ/kg) RT 25 23-25 206

Density (liquid state) (kg/m3)

750 0.001 T 296 1

Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 0.15

Specific heat (J/kg K) 2500

exp

Dynamic viscosity (g m/s)

4.25 1790 T

Periodic phase-change process. Finally, periodic phase-change processes were simulated. Here, each fin was 0.6 mm wide and 10 mm long (case 7, Table 3.1) and the space between the fins was 2 mm, i.e. the geometry was identical to that of case 3. The material properties are presented in Tables 3.2 and 3.3. The bottom of the unit was subjected to oscillatory temperature, Tw, according to the following equation:
Tw Tm a sin
2#

(3.3)

where a is the amplitude, i.e. the difference between the maximum wall temperature and the mean melting temperature, Tm, of the PCM, the beginning of the process, and is the period, t is the time elapsed from

is the phase shift. The phase shift is used to account

for the fact that the initial temperature of the whole system was 20 C, i.e. below the melting temperature, and thus the periodic process starts with the wall temperature Tw=20C, as well. The simulations were performed for two different temperature amplitudes, a=12C and 18C. For the first amplitude, the periods used were =150s and 180s, while for

second amplitude, the periods were 120s and 150s. This change reflected the more rapid processes encountered with the larger amplitude.

3.2 Computational procedure

Based on the symmetry of the system, the computational domain was defined by the physical boundaries of the unit in the vertical y-direction, and by the symmetry planes of the partition/fin and the PCM-filled channel in the horizontal x-direction, as shown in figure 3.2. The origin of the coordinate system was taken at the intersection of the plane of symmetry of the partition/fin and the lower boundary of the partitions and PCM. It was assumed that the unit is both sufficiently long and its boundaries are well insulated in the z-direction, so that a two-dimensional formulation has been used at this stage.

y Air

PCM

x Tw

Figure 3.2. Computational model.

For the large system, case 1 of Table 3.1, a computational grid of 24 100=2400 cells was used in the simulations. It included 4 100=400 cells in the 1mm thick and 200mm long half-partition (0<x<1mm, 0<y<200mm), 20 95=1900 cells in the 5mm thick and 190mm long half channel filled by the PCM (1<x<6mm, 0<y<190mm), and 20 5=100

cells in the air above it (1<x<6mm, 190<y<200mm). For the small system, cases 2-7 of Table 3.1, the computational grid was built of 13 100=1300 cells. This number was kept constant, while the size of the system itself varied. The numerical calculations were performed for the transient temperature and velocity fields inside the unit, including both the PCM and the fins. The equations for the air were solved only in the small domain bounded by the fin from the left, symmetry plane from the right, PCM from below and the plane connecting the fin tips from above. The basic conservation equations of continuity, momentum, and energy were solved numerically, using the FLUENT 6.0 software. Laminar flow inside air and liquid PCM was assumed. In order to describe the behavior of the PCM, a so-called volume-offluid model has been activated. The model made it possible to calculate the processes that occur inside the partitions (solid), PCM (solid/liquid), and air (fluid) simultaneously. In addition, density changes in the PCM and the effect of gravity were taken into account. The model makes it possible to account for the moving boundary due to the variation of the PCM volume. As a result, the numerical model was rather close to reality. For the mushy region, FLUENT applies the enthalpy-porosity approach, by which the porosity in each cell is set equal to the liquid fraction in that cell. Accordingly, the porosity is zero inside fully solid regions. The governing equations for the solidification/melting problem are: The continuity equation:
) )xi ui
0

(3.4)

The momentum equations:

) )t ui ) )x j u j ui

) 2 ui )x j )x j

)p )xi

Si

(3.5)

The energy equation:

) )t ) )xi ui ) )T k )xi )xi Sh

(3.6)

where

is the density, k is the thermal conductivity, ( is the dynamic viscosity, Si and Sh

are the source terms, ui is the velocity component in the i - direction, xi is a Cartesian coordinate, and is the specific enthalpy. The enthalpy is defined as a sum of the sensible enthalpy, change due to the phase change
s

s,

and the enthalpy

The sensible enthalpy is defined as

T s ref

where heat.

ref

is the reference enthalpy at the reference temperature Tref, and cp is the specific

The enthalpy change due to the phase change is defined as

*L

where L is the latent heat of the material, or specific enthalpy of fusion, and * is the liquid fraction during the phase change which occurs over a range of temperatures, defined by the following relations:

* = 0 if T < Ts * = 1 if T > Tl
*
T Ts if Ts < T < Tl Tl Ts

Accordingly, the enthalpy change due to the phase change varies from zero for a solid to
L for a liquid.

The source term for energy equation is:

Sh L )* )t

The liquid fraction is also used to drive the velocity components to zero in the solid phase of the PCM via the source terms Sx and Sy in the momentum equation (3.5) for the x- and
y-direction, respectively: Sx
Sy

B * ux
B * uy g* T Tm

(3.7)

c p dT
Tref

(3.8)

(3.9)

(3.10)

(3.11)

(3.12) (3.13)

The function B becomes very large when * is zero and goes to zero as * tends to one. It is defined based on the Carman-Kozeny relation for a porous medium as:
B* C1 *
2

*3 "

(3.14)

with C = 1.6106 and " = 10-3. This numerical artifact can be viewed as a way of modeling the transition zone between the solid and liquid phases. FLUENT solves for the temperature by iterations involving the energy equation (3.6), and the liquid fraction relation, equation (3.10), using the approach of Voller and Swaminathan (1991), who propose methods in which the phase change rate is linearized as a truncated Taylor series, and old iteration values are then used to estimate the linear term. The common continuity, momentum, and energy equations were solved for the air in the small domain above the PCM. Heat conduction equation was solved for the fin.

4. Results
The results presented here include the preliminary study of a partitioned storage unit, and the detailed parametric study of a heat sink with internal fins. The results for periodic phase change are presented in Appendix A1. The preliminary study served as a basis for the detailed study performed later. For this reason, its results are discussed here. The results of the detailed parametric study will be analyzed in Section 5.

4.1 Preliminary results

As listed in Section 3.1, in the preliminary study the simulations of phase-change processes were performed for the unit with conducting partitions 200 mm high and 2 mm thick. The space between two adjacent partitions, filled with PCM, was 10 mm.
Melting. Initially, the whole system was at 20C. At t=0, the temperature of the

bottom was changed to 42C, while the ambient air above the unit was kept at 27C. The results of simulations of the melting are shown in figures 4.1-4.4. Figure 4.1 shows the results of melting simulations in the form of phase distributions. The left picture represents the initial phase distribution, in which the PCM was entirely solid (blue). The only fluid here is the air above the PCM (red). Since the software can represent a solid-fluid distribution, it was impossible to show the liquid PCM and the air by different colors, and they both are red in all other parts of figure 4.1. Fortunately, air is above the PCM, while melting occurs mostly from below, therefore such blue-red scale is quite understandable. One can see from figure 4.1 that melting is initiated not only at the hot bottom of the unit, but also at the partitions, due to their high thermal conductivity. As a result, the solid PCM attains the shape of a downward-directed wedge. It can also be seen from figure 4.1 that the upper boundary of the PCM is moving upward with time, reflecting the increasing volume of liquid PCM in the course of

melting. While the PCM expands between the partitions, the air above it is pushed outside.

y 0

0s

300s

600s 900s 1200s 1500s 1800s

Figure 4.1. Phase distribution of PCM during melting as a function of time.

Figure 4.2 shows the calculated heat transfer rates from the base to the PCM, from the base to the partition, and from the partition to the PCM and air. The rates given are

for the computational domain introduced above. One can see from the figure that at each time instant, the heat transfer rate from the base to the partition is much higher than that going directly to the PCM.

250 base to PCM partition to PCM and air base to partition

200 Heat transfer rate, W

150

100

50

0 0 500 1000 Time, s 1500 2000

Figure 4.2. Heat transfer rate vs. time for PCM and partition during melting.

Results presented in figure 4.2 show that since the major part of the heat transferred to the partition eventually reaches the PCM, the latter is heated mostly from the sides and not from below. Moreover, the more time elapses, the thicker is the layer of liquid PCM between the base and the wedge, as seen also in figure 4.1. Since this layer is a thermal resistance for the melting process, the direct heat transfer from the base to the PCM eventually becomes negligible. Figure 4.2 also shows that the heat transfer rate from the base to the partition also decreases with time, because of the decreasing temperature gradient. As the partition is heated and the solid PCM retreats, the resistance to heat transfer increases. The difference between the heat that enters the partition and the heat that leaves it is due to the transient heating of the partition (increase in its internal energy). This difference obviously decreases with time.

Further details of the melting are presented in figures 4.3 and 4.4. Figure 4.3 shows the temperature inside the partition (at x=0) at various distances from the base (0<y<200mm), for the same time instants, which have been represented by their heat transfer rates in figure 4.2. One can clearly see that the temperature at any point inside the partition increases with time. The distribution tends asymptotically to a steady state in which heat input from the base would be balanced by heat output to the air, while the PCM is completely liquid. One can see from the figure that under given conditions this would take a significant amount of time. Figure 4.4 shows the temperature at the plane of symmetry of the PCM (at x=6mm) at various distances from the base (0<y<200mm), for the same time instants that have been represented by their heat transfer rates in figure 4.2. Close to the upper boundary, the temperature is that of air above the PCM. One can clearly see that the temperature at any point inside the liquid PCM grows with time, while the liquid region itself grows. These results correspond well to the phase distributions in figure 4.1 and heat transfer rates in figure 4.2.
320 t=135 315 t=235 t=300 Temperature, K 310 t=600 t=900 305 t=1200 t=1500 t=1800 300 t=2100

295

290 0 0.05 0.1 Distance from the base, m 0.15 0.2

Figure 4.3. Temperature evolution in the partition during melting

(time is given in seconds).

320

315

t=135 t=235 t=300 t=600 t=900

Temperature, K

310

305

t=1200 t=1500 t=1800

300

295

290 0 0.05 0.1 Distance from the base , m 0.15 0.2

Figure 4.4. Temperature evolution in the PCM during melting

(time is given in seconds).

One can see from the figure that the temperature inside the PCM is growing with time. The temperature patterns, however, are very different from those obtained for the solid partition. From the beginning, PCM starts to melt close to the base, but only after it has been heated from the subcooled state to the melting point temperature. This heating is represented at various time instants by the curves found below the melting temperature of 23C (296K). While the heating of the solid PCM relatively far from the base continues, melting takes place near the base, followed by heating of the liquid PCM. This process is represented by a family of similar curves. Above the PCM there is air heated from above by the ambient and cooled from below by the PCM. The air is also heated by the partition, which protrudes above the PCM. In figure 4.4, the region occupied by air can be clearly seen. This region shrinks with time due to the PCM expansion as could be seen in figure 4.1.

Solidification. Initially, the whole system was at 27C. At t=0, the temperature of the

bottom was changed to 6C, while the ambient air above the unit was 27C. The results of solidification simulations are shown in figures 4.5-4.8. Figure 4.5 shows the results of solidification simulations in the form of phase distributions. Once again, it was impossible to show the liquid PCM and the air by different colors, and they both are red in the figure. Fortunately, solidification occurs mostly from below, making the blue-red scale quite understandable. It can be seen from Figure 4.5 that solidification is initiated not only at the cold bottom of the unit, but also at the partitions, due to their high thermal conductivity.

y 0

100s - 600s

900s 1200s 1500s 1800s 2100s

Figure 4.5. Phase distribution of PCM during solidification as a function of time.

Figure 4.6 shows the calculated heat transfer rates from the PCM to the base, from the partition to the base, and from the PCM and air to the partition. The rates given are for the computational domain introduced above. Figure 4.6 shows that the heat transfer rate from the partition to the base also decreases with time, because of the decreasing temperature gradient. It can be seen from figure 4.6 that at each time instant, the heat transfer rate from the partition to the base is much higher than that coming directly from the PCM. Thus, the latter is cooled mostly from the sides and not from below. Moreover, the more time elapses, the thicker is the layer of solid PCM between the base and the wedge, see also figure 4.5. Since this layer is a thermal resistance for the solidification process, the direct heat transfer from the PCM to the base eventually becomes negligible.
0 0 -20 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Heat transfer rate, W

-40

-60 partition to base -80 PCM to base PCM and air to partition -100

-120 Time, s

Figure 4.6. Heat transfer rate vs. time for PCM and partition during solidification.

Further details of the solidification process are presented in figures 4.7 and 4.8. Figure 4.7 shows the temperature inside the partition (at x=0) at various distances from the base (0<y<200mm), for the same time instants, which have been represented by their heat transfer rates in Figure 4.6. One can clearly see that the temperature at any point inside the partition decreases with time. The distribution tends asymptotically to a steady state in which heat output to the base would be balanced by heat input from the air, while

the PCM is completely solid. Like in melting, under given conditions it would take a significant amount of time to reach that state.
305

300

295 Temperature, K t=100 t=200 t=300 285 t=600 t=900 280 t=1200

290

275 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 Distance from the base, m 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

Figure 4.7. Temperature evolution in the partition during solidification (time is given in seconds).
305

300

Temperature, K

295

t=100 t=200 t=300 t=600 t=900 t=1200 t=1500 t=1800 t=2100

290

285

280

275 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 Distance from the base, m

Figure 4.8. Temperature evolution in the PCM during solidification (time is given in seconds).

Figure 4.8 shows the temperature at the plane of symmetry of the PCM (at x=6mm) at various distances from the base (0<y<200mm), for the same time instants that have been represented by their phase distributions in figure 4.5 and heat transfer rates in figure 4.6. From the beginning, PCM starts to solidify close to the base, after it has been cooled to the temperature of solidification. This process is represented by a family of similar curves, which correspond to different time instants. One can clearly see that the temperature at any point inside the solid PCM decreases with time, while the solid region itself grows. These results correspond well to the phase distributions in figure 4.5 and heat transfer rates in figure 4.6. The preliminary study presented above provides important information on the evolution of phase-change processes in an energy storage system with internal partitions. In particular, we obtained phase distributions and heat transfer rates for various time instants, and the instantaneous temperature distributions inside the partition and the PCM. It has been shown that the heat is transferred to the PCM mostly through the conducting partitions, while the heat transfer between the heated bottom and the PCM was relatively small and decreases with time. This influenced the appearance of the solid phase in melting, giving it a wedge-like shape. It turned out that under given conditions it would take a large amount of computational time to obtain completely melted or solidified PCM even in one case. As we planned a parametric study where various geometrical and thermal parameters of the system had to be changed, it has been decided to switch to a similar but smaller system. Its geometrical parameters were chosen based on a possible application of the system as a heat sink for electronics cooling. The results of a detailed study for that small system are presented in Section 4.2 and analyzed in Section 5.

4.2 Detailed study

As discussed in Section 3.1, an extensive parametric investigation of the effect of internal fins on PCM melting was carried out for five different geometries, listed as cases 2-6 in Table 3.1. Recall that the parameters varied in the study included the fin thickness,
lt, PCM thickness, lb, and fin length, lf :

- case 2: - case 3: - case 4: - case 5: - case 6:

lt = 1.2mm, lt = 0.6mm, lt = 0.3mm, lt = 0.6mm,

lb = 4mm, lb = 2mm, lb = 1mm, lb = 2mm,

lf = 10mm; lf = 10mm; lf = 10mm; lf = 10mm; lf = 5mm.

lt = 0.15mm, lb = 0.5mm,

For all five cases, four different base temperatures were explored, yielding differences of T = 6C, 12C, 18C, and 24C between the base temperature and the PCM melting temperature.
Heat fluxes. Figure 4.9 represents the calculated heat flux, q, as a function of time,

for case 2. Four curves in the figure correspond to four temperature differences explored. Figures 4.10-4.13 do the same for cases 3-6, respectively. Figure 4.14 represents the calculated heat flux, q, as a function of time, for the temperature difference of 6C. Five curves in the figure correspond to the five geometrical variants explored, i.e. cases 2-6. Figures 4.15-4.17 do the same for the

T =12C, 18C, and 24C, respectively.

200 150 100 50 0 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140

q", kW/m2

T = 6C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

Figure 4.9. Total heat flux from the base, case 2.

350 300 250

q", kW/m2

100 50 0 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140

Figure 4.10. Total heat flux from the base, case 3.

350 300 250

q", kW/m2

100 50 0 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140

Figure 4.11. Total heat flux from the base, case 4.

150

200

150

200

T = 6C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

T = 6C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

350 300 250

q", kW/m2

100 50 0 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140

Figure 4.12. Total heat flux from the base, case 5.

350 300 250

q", kW/m2

100 50 0 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140

Figure 4.13. Total heat flux from the base, case 6.

150

200

150

200

T = 6C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

T = 6 C T= 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

350 300 250

q", kW/m2

case 2 200 150 100 50 0 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140 case 3 case 4 case 5 case 6

Figure 4.14. Heat fluxes in different geometries, T = 6 C.

350 300 250

q", kW/m2

200 150 100 50 0 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120

Figure 4.15. Heat fluxes in different geometries, T = 12 C.

case 2 case 3 case 4 case 5 case 6

140

350 300 250

q", kW/m2

case 2 200 150 100 50 0 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140 case 3 case 4 case 5 case 6

Figure 4.16. Heat fluxes in different geometries, T = 18 C.

350 300 250 case 2

q", kW/m2

200 150 100 50 0 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120

Figure 4.17. Heat fluxes in different geometries, T = 24 C.

case 3 case 4 case 5 case 6

140

It is important to note that all the figures of this section have exactly the same time scales, namely, from 0 to 140 seconds, making it possible to see the differences between various cases even before a detailed analysis is done.
Melt fractions. Figure 4.18 represents the calculated melt fraction, V/V0, as a function

of time, for case 2. Four curves in the figure correspond to four temperature differences explored. Figures 4.19-4.22 do the same for cases 3-6, respectively. Figure 4.23 represents the calculated melt fraction, V/V0, as a function of time, for the temperature difference of 6C. Five curves in the figure correspond to the five geometrical variants explored, i.e. cases 2-6. Figures 4.24-4.26 do the same for the
T =12C, 18C, and 24C, respectively.

1 0.8 Melt fraction 0.6

0.4 0.2 0 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100

120

Figure 4.18. Melt fraction, case 2.

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

140

1 0.8 Melt fraction 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 20 40 60 time, s Figure 4.19. Melt fraction, case 3. 80 100 120 140

T = 6 C

T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

1 0.8

Melt fraction

0.4 0.2 0 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140

Figure 4.20. Melt fraction, case 4.

0.6

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

1 0.8 Melt fraction 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140

T = 6 C

T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

Figure 4.21. Melt fraction, case 5.

1 0.8
Melt fraction

0.4 0.2 0 0 20 40 60 time, s Figure 4.22. Melt fraction, case 6. 80 100 120 140

0.6

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

1.2

0.8 M e lt fra c tio n

case 3 case 4 case 5 case 6 case 7

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0 20 40 60 t [sec] 80 100 120 140

Figure 4.23. Melt fraction, T = 6 C.

1 0.8 Melt fraction 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140
case 2 case 3 case 4 case 5 case 6

Figure 4.24. Melt fraction, T = 12 C.

1.2

0.8 M e lt fra c tio n

case 3 case 4 case 5 case 6 case 7

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0 20 40 60 t [sec] 80 100 120 140

Figure 4.25. Melt fraction, T = 18 C.

1 0.8 Melt fraction 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140
case 2 case 3 case 4 case 5 case 6

Figure 4.26. Melt fraction, T = 24 C.

Temperatures. Figure 4.27 represents the calculated averaged mean temperature in

the plane of symmetry of the PCM, as a function of time, for case 2. Four curves in the figure correspond to four temperature differences explored. Figures 4.28-4.31 do the same for cases 3-6, respectively. Figure 4.32 represents the calculated averaged mean temperature in the plane of symmetry of the fin as a function of time, for the temperature difference of 6C. Five curves in the figure correspond to the five geometrical variants explored, i.e. cases 2-6. Figures 4.33-4.35 do the same for the T =12C, 18C, and 24C, respectively.

325 320 315 310 T, K 305 300 295 290 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140

T = 6C T = 12C T = 18C T = 24C

Figure 4.27. Temperature distribution on the symmetry line of PCM, case 2.

325 320 315 310 T, K 305 300 295 290 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140

T = 6C T = 12C T = 18C T = 24C

Figure 4.28. Temperature distribution on the symmetry line of PCM, case 3.

325 320 315 310 T, K 305 300 295 290 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140

T = 6C T = 12C T = 18C T = 24C

Figure 4.29. Temperature distribution on the symmetry line of PCM, case 4.

325 320 315 310 T, K 305 300 295 290 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140

T = 6C T = 12C T = 18C T = 24C

Figure 4.30. Temperature distribution on the symmetry line of PCM, case 5.

325 320 315 310

300 295 290 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 time, s

Figure 4.31. Temperature distribution on the symmetry line of PCM, case 6.

305

T = 6C 12 T = 18C T = 24C

T, K

325 320 315 310 T, K 305 300 295 290 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140 case 2 case 3 case 4 case 5 case 6

Figure 4.32. Temperature evolution of the fin, T= 6 C.

325 320 315 310 T, K 305 300 295 290 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140 case 2 case 3 case 4 case 5 case 6

Figure 4.33. Temperature evolution of the fin, T = 12 C.

325 320 315 310 T, K 305 300 295 290 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140 case 2 case 3 case 4 case 5 case 6

Figure 4.34. Temperature evolution of the fin, T = 18 C.

325 320 315 310 T, K 305 300 295 290 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 140 case 2 case 3 case 4 case 5 case 6

Figure 4.35. Temperature evolution of the fin, T = 24 C.

5. Analysis of results
In this section, the results of the parametric study are discussed and analyzed. The discussion concerns the calculated heat fluxes and heat transfer rates, melt fractions of the PCM, and temperature evolution in the PCM and the fins. The analysis is performed in terms of dimensionless groups.

5.1 Heat-transfer rates

Dependence of the heat fluxes on the geometrical and thermal parameters of the system can be seen in figures 4.9-4.17. Recall that figure 4.9 represents the calculated heat flux, q, as a function of time, for case 2 of Table 3.1. As expected, the heat flux transferred to the PCM is maximal at the beginning and diminishes to zero when the melting is complete. One can see that the higher the difference between the temperature of the bottom and the melting point of the PCM, the shorter the melting time. As for the heat flux, it is initially higher for the larger temperature differences T. However, for the larger T the heat flux decreases steeper with time, because it corresponds to a more rapid melting process. Similar results appear also in figures 4.10-4.13 for cases 3-6. Figure 4.14 represents the calculated heat flux, q, as a function of time, for cases 2-6 of Table 3.1 at T = 6C. One can see from the figure that as the width of the system decreases while its height is preserved, cases 2-5, the heat flux from the base increases. For the low system, case 6, the heat flux is lower. However, as mentioned in Section 3.1, the low system may be built in two levels, thus occupying the same volume as the high one. A comparison of the results for cases 3 and 6, which have the same fin and PCM thickness, show that the melting time will be much shorter in the two-level low system than in the high one, for the same mass and volume of the heat sink. Similar results appear also in figures 4.15-4.17 for T = 12C, 18C, and 24C. As shown in the preliminary study, see Section 4.1, in the large system heat was transferred to the PCM mostly through the conducting partitions, while the heat transfer directly from the heated bottom was less significant. For the small system, this problem is analyzed in figures 5.1-5.5 below. Since weve decided to show the heat-transfer rates rather than the heat fluxes, each figure here stands for a specific case (2, 3, 4, 5, or 6) alone.

300 300 q fin q base 200 q, W 150 100 50 0 40 time, s 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 time, s 80 100 120 250 q fin

250

q base

200

q, W

150

100

50

20

140

a.
300 q fin q base 200 q, W 150 100 50 0 40 time, s 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 250

b.

300

q fin q base

250

200

q, W

150

100

50

20

60 time, s

80

100

120

140

c. Figure 5.1. Heat transfer rates from base, case 2:

d.

a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C.

250 q fin q base q, W 150 100 50 0 20 time, s 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 time, s 40 50 60 200

250 q fin q base

200

q, W

150

100

50

10

70

a.
250 q fin 200 150 100 50 0 20 time, s 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 q base q, W

b.

250

q fin q base

200

q, W

150

100

50

10

30 time, s

40

50

60

70

c. Figure 5.2. Heat transfer rates from base, case 3:

d.

a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C.

200 q fin q base q, W 100 50 0 20 time, s 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 time, s 40 50 60 150

200 q fin q base

150

q, W

100

50

10

70

a.
200 q fin q base q, W 100 150

b.

200

q fin q base

150

q, W

100 50

50

0 20 time, s 30 40 50 60 70

0 0 10 20 30 time, s 40 50 60 70

10

c. Figure 5.3. Heat transfer rates from base, case 4:

d.

a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C.

120 q fin q base 80 q, W 60 40 20 0 20 time, s 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 time, s 40 50 60 100

120 q fin q base

100

80

q, W

60

40

20

10

70

a.
120 100 80 q, W 60 40 20 0 20 time, s 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20

b.

120 q fin q base

100

q fin q base

80

q, W

60

40

20

10

30 time, s

40

50

60

70

c. Figure 5.4. Heat transfer rates from base, case 5:

d.

a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C.

100 q fin q base q, W 60 40 20 0 20 time, s 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 time, s 40 50 60 80 q fin

100 q base

80

q, W

60

40

20

10

70

a.
100 q fin q base
q, W

b.

100 80 60 40 20 0 20 time, s 30 40 50 60 70 0 10

q fin q base

80

q, W

60

40

20

10

20

30 time, s

40

50

60

70

c. Figure 5.5. Heat transfer rates from base, case 6:

d.

a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C.

One can see from figures 5.1-5.5 that, like in the large system, the heat transfer rates from the heated base reaches the PCM mostly through the fins. The results, however, are not identical for the systems having different thickness. When the PCM layer between the fins is thicker, the part of the total heat, which is transferred from the base directly to the PCM increases, e.g. compare figure 5.1 for case 2 and figure 5.4 for case 5. This effect would have been even more pronounced if we had considered two cases with different PCM thickness for the same fin thickness. As in the preliminary study, as the layer of liquid PCM grows, the direct heat transfer from the base to PCM becomes negligible. For the same geometrical case, the difference between the base temperature and the melting temperature of the PCM also affects the ratio of the heat transfer through the fins to the heat transfer directly from the bottom. For example, figure 5.1a-d shows for case 2 that the higher this temperature difference, the larger the part of heat transferred directly to the PCM. One can see from figures 5.1, 5.2, and 5.5 that the heat transfer rate from the bottom directly to the PCM does not always decrease with time, while the total heat transfer and the heat transfer through the fins do decrease monotonically. If the layer of liquid PCM had grown with time, the resistance to this transfer would have increased. We assume that this does not happen due to the sinking of the denser solid PCM in the melt. This assumption is verified below, where the melt fractions are analyzed.

5.2 Melt fractions

Dependence of the melt fractions on the geometrical and thermal parameters of the system can be seen in figures 4.18-4.26. Figure 4.18 represents the calculated melt fraction, V/V0, as a function of time, for case 2 of Table 3.1. One can see that the higher the difference between the temperature of the bottom and the melting point of the PCM, the more rapid is the melt fraction growth. Similar results appear also in figures 4.19-4.22 for cases 3-6. Figure 4.23 represents the calculated melt fraction, V/V0, as a function of time, for cases 26 of Table 3.1 at
T = 6C. One can see from the figure that as the width of the system

decreases while its height is preserved, cases 2-5, the melt fraction grows more rapidly. For the low system, case 6, the melt fraction grows more rapidly that for the high system with the same width, case 3, but more slowly than the high system with the same mass, case 4. Similar results appear also in figures 4.24-4.26 for T = 12C, 18C, and 24C.

In order to illustrate the differences in the melting process for different geometries and base temperatures, solid-liquid phase distributions are shown for cases 2-6 in figures 5.65.10, respectively. Each figure shows the phase distributions at the instances when the melt fraction equals 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9, for the temperature differences of (a) 6C, (b) 12C, (c) 18C, (d) 24C. In addition, figures 5.6-5.10 include temperature distributions inside the fins for the same time instances. Accordingly, each figure includes two color scales: one for the melt fraction of PCM, 0 to 1, and one for the fin temperature, in degrees Kelvin. One can see from figures 5.6, 5.7, and 5.10 that for the wide cases the melting front moves generally parallel to the vertical fin. Simultaneously, the denser solid PCM sinks in the melt and is partially melted by heat transferred from the bottom. This result corresponds to the behavior of the heat transfer rate from the bottom in wide systems, as discussed above. As the width decreases, see figures 5.8-5.9, the phase distribution becomes similar to that observed in the preliminary study, where the wedge-like solid phase is at the top and the liquid at the bottom. Figures 5.6-5.10 also show that the temperature distribution in the fins depends on the width. The fins are almost isothermal when the width is large, see figures 5.6, 5.7, and 5.10. When the width is small, the temperature difference between the fin base and tip becomes significant, as shown in figures 5.8, 5.9. This behavior affects the melting process. Further results on fin temperature are discussed below.

5.3 Temperatures
Dependence of the temperature of the PCM on the geometrical and thermal parameters of the system can be seen in figures 4.27-4.31. Figure 4.27 represents the calculated averaged mean temperature in the plane of symmetry of the PCM, as a function of time, for case 2 of Table 3.1. A typical temperature curve in the figure reflects the process in the following manner: at the beginning, the temperature increases rather quickly, corresponding to sensible heating of the subcooled solid PCM. Then, there is a stage at which the curve is almost horizontal, corresponding to the phase change. Afterwards, a steep increase in the temperature is observed once again, corresponding to sensible heating of liquid PCM. Finally, a slowing increase is observed in the PCM temperature as it approached the temperature of the heated bottom.

fin

Melt fraction V/V0=0.3

PCM

V/V0=0.6 a.

V/V0=0.9 Temperature

Melt fraction V/V0=0.3

V/V0=0.6

V/V0=0.9 Temperature b.

Melt fraction V/V0=0.3

V/V0=0.6 V/V0=0.9 Temperature Melt fraction V/V0=0.3 V/V0=0.6 V/V0=0.9 Temperature c. d. Figure 5.6. Evolution of the melting process of the PCM and temperature distribution in the fin for case 2:

a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C.

Melt fraction V/V0=0.3 V/V0=0.6 V/V0=0.9 Temperature a.

Melt fraction V/V0=0.3 V/V0=0.6 V/V0=0.9 Temperature b.

Melt fraction V/V0=0.3 V/V0=0.6 V/V0=0.9 Temperature Melt fraction V/V0=0.3 V/V0=0.6 V/V0=0.9 Temperature c. d. Figure 5.7. Evolution of the melting process of the PCM and temperature distribution in the fin for case 3: a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C.

Melt fraction V/V0=0.3

V/V0=0.6 a.

V/V0=0.9 Temperature Melt fraction V/V0=0.3

V/V0=0.6 b.

V/V0=0.9 Temperature

Melt fraction V/V0=0.3

V/V0=0.6 V/V0=0.9 Temperature Melt fraction V/V0=0.3 V/V0=0.6 V/V0=0.9 Temperature c. d. Figure 5.8. Evolution of the melting process of the PCM and temperature distribution in the fin for case 4:

a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C.

Melt fraction V/V0=0.3

V/V0=0.6 a.

V/V0=0.9 Temperature Melt fraction V/V0=0.3

V/V0=0.6 b.

V/V0=0.9 Temperature

Melt fraction V/V0=0.3

V/V0=0.6 V/V0=0.9 Temperature Melt fraction V/V0=0.3 V/V0=0.6 V/V0=0.9 Temperature c. d. Figure5.9. Evolution of the melting process of the PCM and temperature distribution in the fin for case 5:

a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C.

Melt fraction V/V0=0.3

V/V0=0.6 a.

V/V0=0.9 Temperature Melt fraction V/V0=0.3

V/V0=0.6 b.

V/V0=0.9 Temperature

Melt fraction V/V0=0.3

V/V0=0.6 V/V0=0.9 Temperature Melt fraction V/V0=0.3 V/V0=0.6 V/V0=0.9 Temperature c. d. Figure 5.10. Evolution of the melting process of the PCM and temperature distribution in the fin for case 6:

a. T = 6 C; b. T = 12 C; c. T = 18 C; d. T = 24 C.

One can see that the higher the difference between the temperature of the bottom and the melting point of the PCM, the shorter the time when the PCM is at an almost constant temperature. It also can be seen that finally, the temperature of the PCM almost reaches the base temperature in all cases. Similar in general results appear also in figures 4.28-4.31 for cases 3-6. However, one can see that when the system is thin, the almost horizontal part of the curve can disappear, see figure 4.30. This is because in such system there is no vertical melting front characteristic for thick systems, and melting does not occur simultaneously at different distances from the bottom, leading to a very non-uniform temperature distribution in the PCM. Dependence of the mean temperature of the fin on the geometrical and thermal parameters of the system can be seen in figures 4.32-4.35. Figure 4.32 represents the calculated averaged mean temperature in the plane of symmetry of the fin as a function of time, for cases 2-6 of Table 3.1 at T = 6C. One can see from the figure that as the width of the system increases while its height is preserved, cases 2-5, the shorter is the time required for the mean temperature of the fin to reach the base temperature. For the low system, case 6, the fin almost at once reached the temperature of the base. Similar results appear also in figures 4.33-4.35 for T = 12C, 18C, and 24C. As mentioned above, figures 5.6-5.10 include temperature distributions inside the fins at certain time instances corresponding to the melt fractions of 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9, showing the different behavior of thin and thick fins. This point is further illustrated in figures 5.11 and 5.12 for the melt fraction of 0.5 and 0.9, respectively, and the difference of
T = 24 C between the base temperature and the melting temperature. In these

figures, the temperature inside the fin is presented as the difference between the actual temperature and the temperature of the ambient air. One can see that as the thickness of the system increases while its height is preserved, cases 2-5, the difference between the temperature of the bottom and the tip of the fin decreases. A comparison of the results for cases 3 and 6, which have the same fin and PCM thickness, show that the low system, case 6, has a smaller temperature variation along its length.

25

20

T-Tamb, K

15

case 2 case 3 case 4 case 5 case 6

10

0 0 -5 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

l f, m

Figure 5.11. Temperature distribution along the fin at base temperature T = 24 C,

for the melt fraction equal 0.5.

20

T-Tamb, K

15

case 2 case 3 case 4

10

case 5 case 6

0 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

l f, m

Figure 5.12. Temperature distribution along the fin at base temperature T = 24 C,

for the melt fraction equal 0.9.

5.4 Dimensional analysis

The results discussed in Sections 5.1-5-3 show that melting process depends on the studied geometrical and thermal parameters. Dimensional analysis is applied now in attempt to obtain generalized results. Following a common approach to the heat conduction problems, we define the dimensionless Fourier number as Fo= t/l2. Based on the analysis presented above, we choose a half-thickness of the PCM layer, lb/2, as the characteristic length l. Variation of the melt fraction as a function of the Fourier number is shown in figures 5.135.17 for cases 26, respectively. For the sake of comparison, all the figures are drawn with the same dimensionless time scale, 0<Fo<50. One can see that for the thick fin and PCM layer, complete melting is achieved at lower Fourier numbers than those characteristic of the thin fin and PCM. Within the same geometrical case, the higher the temperature difference, the smaller the Fourier number that corresponds to complete melting.

0.8 Melt fraction

0.4

0.2

0 0 10 20 Fo 30 40 50

Figure 5.13. Melt fraction of the PCM at different base temperatures, case 2.

0.6

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

0.8 Melt fraction

0.4

0.2

0 0 10 20 Fo 30 40 50

Figure 5.14. Melt fraction of the PCM at different base temperatures, case 3.

0.8 Melt fraction

0.4

0.2

0 0 10 20 Fo 30 40 50

Figure 5.15. Melt fraction of the PCM at different base temperatures, case 4.

0.6

0.6

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

0.8 Melt fraction

0.4

0.2

0 0 10 20 Fo 30 40 50

Figure 5.16. Melt fraction of the PCM at different base temperatures, case 5.

0.8 Melt fraction

0.4

0.2

0 0 10 20 Fo 30 40 50

Figure 5.17. Melt fraction of the PCM at different base temperatures, case 6.

0.6

0.6

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

One can conclude from figures 5.13-5.17 that the Fourier number is not sufficient for generalization even within the same geometrical case. This is because it cannot take into account the phase change processes. For this reason, the Stefan number should be added to the analysis. It is defined in our case as Ste = cp T/L, where cp is the specific sensible heat of the PCM, T is the difference between the heated base temperature and the PCM melting temperature, and L is the specific heat of fusion. In the present study Stefan number varies from about 0.07 to 0.29. Following Ho and Viskanta (1984), we combine the Fourier and Stefan numbers as (SteFo)0.68. Figures 5.185.22 presents melt faction of the PCM vs. (FoSte)0.68. For the sake of comparison, all the figures are drawn once again with the same dimensionless time scale, 0<(FoSte)0.68<3. One can see from the figures that within each separate case, the curves for different T almost coincide. Note that the power of 0.68 has been proposed by Ho and Viskanta (1984) for melting from a vertical plate. It works here because, as discussed above, we observed melting mostly from the fins which leads to a vertical melting front. Comparison of figures 5.185.22 shows that for the thinnest system, figure 5.21, the coincidence of different curves is less good, reflecting the fact that in this case the melting front is different.

0.8 Melt fraction

0.4

0.2

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 (FoSte)

0.68

2.5

Figure 5.18. Correlation for melt fraction of case 2.

0.6

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

0.8
Melt fraction

0.4

0.2

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 (FoSte)

0.68

2.5

Figure 5.19. Correlation for melt fraction of case 3.

0.8 Melt fraction

0.4

0.2

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 (FoSte)0.68 2 2.5 3

Figure 5.20. Correlation for melt fraction of case 4.

0.6

0.6

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

0.8 Melt fraction

0.4

0.2

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 (FoSte)0.68 2 2.5 3

Figure 5.21. Correlation for melt fraction of case 5.

0.8 Melt fraction

0.4

0.2

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 (FoSte)0.68 2 2.5 3

Figure 5.22. Correlation for melt fraction of case 6.

0.6

0.6

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

The same way was used to correlate the heat flux and the temperature of PCM, as shown in figures 5.235.27 and 5.285.32, respectively. Figures 5.235.27 present a dimensionless heat flux as a function of (SteFo)0.68. The ~ dimensionless heat flux, q ' ' , was defined as the ratio of the instant heat flux transferred from the base, q, to the mean heat flux of the melting process:
~ q' ' q' ' Q0 / At mc p Tw Ti

(5.2) is the total heat transferred to the PCM during the melting

where Q0

time t, and A is the total area of the base. Figures 5.285.32 present dimensionless temperature of PCM, , defined as

T Tm Tw Tm

(5.3)

where T is the average temperature of the PCM, Tm is the melting temperature, and Tw is the base temperature.

100

dimensionless heat flux

60

40

20

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 (FoSte)

0.68

2.5

Figure 5.23. Dimensionless heat flux from the base, case 2.

80

T = 6C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

100

dimensionless heat flux

60

40

20

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 (FoSte)0.68 2 2.5 3

Figure 5.24. Dimensionless heat flux from the base, case 3.

100

dimensionless heat flux

60

40

20

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 (FoSte)

0.68

2.5

Figure 5.25. Dimensionless heat flux from the base, case 4.

80

80

T = 6C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

T = 6C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

100

dimensionless heat flux

60

40

20

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 (FoSte)

0.68

2.5

Figure 5.26. Dimensionless heat flux from the base, case 5.

100

dimensionless heat flux

60

40

20

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 (FoSte)

0.68

2.5

Figure 5.27. Dimensionless heat flux from the base, case 6.

80

80

T = 6C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

T = 6 C T= 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

0.8

0.6 0.4 0.2

0 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 (FoSte)0.68 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Figure 5.28. Dimensionless temperature of the PCM, case 2.

0.8

0.6 0.4 0.2

0 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 (FoSte)0.68 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Figure 5.29. Dimensionless temperature of the PCM, case 3.

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

0.8

0.6 0.4 0.2

0 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 (FoSte)0.68 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Figure 5.30. Dimensionless temperature of the PCM, case 4.

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

0 0 -0.2 -0.4

0.5

1.5

2.5 T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

-0.6 -0.8 (FoSte)0.68

Figure 5.31. Dimensionless temperature of the PCM, case 5.

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 (FoSte)0.68 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Figure 5.32. Dimensionless temperature of the PCM, case 6.

One can see from figures 5.23-5.27 that the behavior of the dimensionless heat fluxes for each separate case is similar to the behavior of the melt fractions. Figures 5.28-5.32 show that the mean temperatures cannot be correlated this way. As mentioned above, the mean temperature includes both molten and solid regions, and does not reflect the details of the melting process. Note also that by equation (5.3) the initial values of the dimensionless temperature are different for different levels of the base temperature. Figure 5.33 presents the melt fraction of the PCM for all cases explored in this study. One can see from the figure that obtained curves are similar for different base temperatures at each case. However, the curves for different geometry cases do not coincide. One can note that the results for the thick cases 2, 3 and 6 are rather close, while a thinner case 4 detaches noticeably, and the thinnest case 5 is rather far from the other cases. It thus appears that although the PCM layer thickness is accounted for in the Fourier number, there are additional factors which cause the differences between the cases.

T = 6 C T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

0.8

0.6

Melt fraction

0.4

0.2

0 0.5 1 1.5 (FoSte)

0.68

2.5

Figure 5.33. Melt fraction evolution in all cases considered in this work.

T = 6 C case 2 T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C T = 6 C case 3 T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C T = 6 C case 4 T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C T = 6 C case 5 T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C T = 6 C case 6 T = 12 C T = 18 C T = 24 C

One can see from figures 5.6-5.10 and 5.11-5.12 that the temperature distribution along the fin axis depends on the fin thickness. This result corresponds to the general theory of the cooling fins, which establishes the relations between the temperature distribution in the fin and the parameters like the fin cross-section area A, perimeter of this area P, fin length lf, thermal conductivity of the fin material kf, and the heat transfer coefficient h from the fin to the surroundings. Recall that fin efficiency, ,, is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transfer to the maximum possible heat transfer. The latter takes place when the whole fin is at the temperature of the base. The lower the fin efficiency, the closer the local temperature inside the fin to the temperature of the surroundings, which results in a decrease in the heat transfer from the fin to the surroundings. We can conclude, therefore, that for the thin cases, fin efficiency is lower than for the thick ones. Fin efficiency depends on the parameter
hP / k f A l f , which includes all

geometrical and thermal factors listed above. In particular, for a fin with an insulated tip, the efficiency is given by
tanh hP / k f A l f hP / k f A l f

(5.4)

Some parameters included in equation (5.4) are easy to define. For example, in our study, the fin material is the same in all cases, thus kf remains constant. For the adopted fin shape, we have P/A=2/lt where lt is the fin thickness. We also know the fin length. The heat transfer coefficient h, however, represents a major problem. For heating from a side, which is typical for the thick cases considered in this work, there is no critical Rayleigh number, and flow exists for any finite Ra (analysis of Lamberg and Siren (2003) for a horizontal fin is based on the critical Rayleigh number of 1708, as for heating from below no convection exists below this value). As discussed by Raithby and Hollands (1985), for the small Rayleigh numbers the velocities are small and essentially parallel to the vertical boundaries, so that they contribute little to the heat transfer. The maximum Rayleigh number in our study would correspond to case 2, where the total thickness of the PCM layer is lb = 4mm, accompanied by the temperature difference of T=24C. For an idealization, let us find the (unattainable) upper limit of Ra assuming that the fin is the hot wall and the PCM is the cold one at lb/2 = 2mm from the fin. Based

on the PCM properties listed in Section 3.1, this limit will be Ramax 2700. For cases 3-6, the corresponding values of Ramax would be 338, 42, 5.3, and 338, respectively. As discussed in Raithby and Hollands (1985), the Nusselt number can be estimated based on the following expression:
3 0 1.0 0.036 l /2 0.36 Pr 0.051 b Ra 0.25 / 2 lf 0.1 0.051 lb / 2 Ra 0.3 -0.084 Pr lf 1 . max

Nu

h lb / 2 k PCM

(5.5)

For Ramax 2700, the second and third terms in figure brackets yield 1.8 and 0.96. Since even this value of Ra is unattainably high, we can conclude that in all the cases considered, the Nusselt number will be about unity, corresponding to the conductiondominated regime at all times. The minimum value of the effective heat transfer coefficient could be estimated for the final stages of melting based on lb/2, because as the thickness of the molten layer increases in the process from zero to lb/2, h decreases. Since
h is time-dependent, it will cause the fin efficiency of equation (5.4) to increase with time

rather than have a constant value for a given case. For this reason, application of fin efficiency in our analysis is problematic and remains out of the scope of the present work. It is possible, however, to assess the influence of the fin thickness, lt, on the melt fraction. From the analysis above, it could be expected that the thicker the fin, the more effective the heat transfer through it to the PCM. By equation (5.4), the fin efficiency depends on the square root of its thickness. Figure 5.34 presents melt fraction as function of lt0.5(FoSte)0.68 . One can see from the figure that the curves for different cases become even closer to each other and even intersect. The only exclusion now is the result for the thinnest fin, case 5, for which the melting process is rather different, as discussed above. The agreement is especially good when the maximum temperature difference is applied, as shown in figure 5.35. It is hard to expect better agreement between the different cases because of the complexity of the problem, including its two-dimensionality, transient character, irregular melting patterns, and heat transfer to the surroundings.

T = 6 C case 2 T = 12 C

T = 18 C T = 24 C

0.8

T = 6 C case 3 T = 12 C

T = 18 C T = 24 C

0.6

T = 6 C case 4 T = 12 C

Melt fraction

T = 18 C T = 24 C

0.4

T = 6 C case 5 T = 12 C

T = 18 C T = 24 C

0.2

T = 6 C case 6 T = 12 C

T = 18 C T = 24 C
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 lt
0.5

0 0.05 (FoSte)
0.68

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.1

Figure 5.34. Correlation for melt fraction taking into account the fin thickness.

case 2 T = 24 C case 3 T = 24 C case 4 T = 24 C case 5 T = 24 C case 6 T = 24 C

0.8

Melt fraction

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 lt

0.5

0.05 (FoSte)
0.68

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.1

Figure 5.35. Correlation for melt fraction taking into account the fin thickness, for maximum T.

6. Summary
In the present work, the processes of melting and solidification of phase-change material (PCM) with conducting partitions or fins have been studied numerically. Transient two-dimensional simulations were performed using the Fluent 6.0 software. In the simulations, a most complete formulation has been attempted, which takes into account conduction inside the fins, conduction and convection in the PCM, volume change of the PCM associated with phase transition, motion of solid phase in the liquid, density variation in liquid PCM with temperature, heat transfer to the surrounding air and convection in it. The study included simulations of phase-change processes in a relatively large partitioned storage unit, simulations of periodic phase-change process, and an extensive parametric study of melting in a latent heat system with internal fins. The detailed parametric investigation was performed for melting in a relatively small heat sink, 5mm to 10mm high, where the fin thickness varies from 0.15mm to 1.2mm, and the thickness of the PCM layers between the fins varies from 0.5mm to 4mm, while the base temperature varies from 6C to 24C above the mean melting temperature of the PCM. The material used in the simulations was a commercially available paraffin wax, and the fins were made of aluminum. The melting temperature of the wax, 2325C, was incorporated in the simulations along with its other properties, including the latent and sensible specific heat, thermal conductivity and density in solid and liquid states. Detailed temperature and phase fields have been obtained as function of time, showing evolution of the heat transfer in the system. The computational results have clearly established how the melting rate, the melting front profiles, and the heat transfer are affected by the geometry of the system and by the boundary conditions. A dimensional analysis was performed on such parameters as the melting rate, heat transfer rate and temperature of the PCM. The analysis was based on the use of Fourier and Stefan numbers, which represent transient heat conduction and phase change, respectively. The effect of fin thickness has been also explored.

In addition to their theoretical importance, the results of the present study will be useful for development and design of PCM-based transient cooling systems for various applications, including electronics cooling.

7. References
H. S. Carslaw, J. C. Jaeger, Conduction of Heat in Solids, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press: London, (1959). G. Casano, S. Piva, Experimental and numerical investigation of the steady periodic solid-liquid phase-change heat transfer, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 45 (2002), pp. 41814190 J. Eftekhar, A. Haji-Sheikh, D. Y. S. Lou, Heat transfer enhancement in a paraffin wax thermal storage system, Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 106 (1984), pp. 299306. A. Gadgil, D. Gobin, Analysis of two-dimensional melting in rectangular enclosures in presence of convection, ASME J. Heat Transf. 106 (1984), pp. 2026. C. Gau, R. Viskanta, Melting and solidification of a pure metal on vertical wall, ASME J. Heat Transf. 108 (1986), pp. 174181. D. Gobin and P. Le Qur, Melting driven by natural convection. A comparison exercise: first results, Int. J. Therm. Sci. 38 (1999), pp. 5-26. N.W. Hale Jr., R. Viskanta, Solid-liquid phase-change heat transfer and interface motion in materials cooled or heated from above or below, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer 23 (1980), pp. 283292. C.J. Ho, C.H. Chu, Periodic melting within a square enclosure with an oscillatory temperature, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 36 (1993), pp. 725733. C.J. Ho, C.H. Chu, A simulation for multiple moving boundaries during melting inside an enclosure imposed with cyclic wall temperature, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 37 (1994), pp. 25052516. C.J. Ho, R. Viskanta, Heat transfer during melting from an isothermal vertical wall, ASME J. Heat Transf. 106 (1984), pp. 1219. J.P. Holman, Heat Transfer, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, (1981). W. R. Humphries, E. I. Griggs, A design handbook for phase change thermal control and energy storage devices, NASA Technical Paper, (1977), pp. 6-37.

H. Inaba, K. Matsuo, A. Horibe, Numerical simulation for fin effect of a rectangular latent heat storage vessel packed with molten salt under heat release process, Heat and Mass Transfer 39 (2003), pp. 231237. P. Lamberg, K. Siren, Analytical model for melting in a semi-infinite PCM storage with an internal fin, Heat and Mass Transfer 39 (2003), pp. 167176. D. Pal, Y. K.Joshi, Melting in a side heated tall enclosure by a uniformly dissipating heat source, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 44 (2001), pp. 375387. G. D. Raithby, K. G. Hollands, Natural Convection, in Handbook of Heat Transfer Fundamentals, 2nd ed., Editors W. M. Rohsenow, J. P. Hartnett, E. N. Gani , (1985), chap. 6. R. C. Reid, J. M. Prausnitz, B. E. Poling, The properties of gases and liquids, (1987), pp. 439-456. V. Shatikian, V. Dubovsky, G. Ziskind, R. Letan, Simulations of PCM melting and solidification in a partitioned storage unit, ASME Summer Heat Transfer Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA (2003). R. Velraj, R.V. Seeniraj, B. Hafner, C. Faber, K.Schwarzer, Heat transfer enhancement in a latent heat storage system, Solar Energy, 65 (1999), pp. 171180. R. Viskanta, Phase-Change Heat Transfer, in Solar Heat Storage: Latent Heat Materials, Volume I: Background and Scientific Principles, Editor George A. Lane, Ph.D. (1983), chap. 5. V. R. Voller, C. R. Swaminathan, General Source-Based Method for Solidification Phase Change, Numerical Heat Transfer B19, (1991), pp. 175. B. Zalba, J. M. Marin, L. F. Cabeza, H. Mehling, Review on thermal energy storage with phase change: materials, heat transfer analysis and applications, Applied Thermal Engineering 23 (2003), pp. 251283. Z. Zhang, A. Bejan, Melting in an enclosure heated at constant rate, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 32 (1989), pp. 10631076.

Appendices
A1. Periodic melting process
This Appendix presents the results which are preliminary for the study of periodic phase change, which is planned for the future. The computational results of evolution of melt front and temperature distribution in the fin and in the PCM are presented in figures A1.1-A1.4 for different temperature variations. One can see that for the same amplitude, the period of variation has a significant influence on the physical picture of melting or solidification. For a small period of variation, not the whole PCM succeeds to solidify, figures A1.1 and A1.3, and the capacity of the energy storage unit is not used completely.

30 s 90 s 110 s 140 s 160 s 30 s 90 s 140 s 160 s a. b. Figure A1.1. a) evolution of melt front, and b) temperature distribution in the unit. a =12 C, = 150 sec.

40 s 110 s 140 s 200s 40 s 110 s 140 s 200 s a. b. Figure A1.2. a) evolution of melt front, and b) temperature distribution in the unit. a = 12 C, =180 sec.

30 s 70 s 90 s 120 s 130 s 150 s

a.

30 s

90 s
b.

120 s

150s

Figure A1.3. a) evolution of melt front, and b) temperature distribution in the unit.

a = 18 C, = 120 sec.

30 s 90 s 110 s 140s
a.

30 s

90 s

110 s
b.

140 s

Figure A1.4. a) evolution of melt front, and b) temperature distribution in the unit.

a =18 C, =150 sec.

Figures A1/5 A1.8 shows the temperature evolution in the PCM for ten points inside the PCM. The effect of period of oscillation can be observed in the figures. It can be seen, that not all curves cross over to the region of melting temperature (296-298 K), denoted by to horizontal lines.

315

310 p1 305 p2 p3 p4 300 T, K p5 p6 295 p7 p8 290 p9 p10 sinus 285

280 0 50 100 150 t, sec 200 250 300 350

Figure A1.5. Temperature distribution of the PCM,

(a=12 C, =150 sec).

315

310 p1 305 p2 p3 p4 300 T, K p5 p6 295 p7 p8 290 p9 p10 sinus 285

280 0 50 100 150 t, sec 200 250 300 350

Figure A1.6. Temperature distribution of the PCM,

(a=12 C, =180 sec).

320 315 310 305 300 295 290 285 280 275 0 50 100 150 200 t, sec 250 300 350 400 450 p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 T, K p6 p7 p8 p9 p10 sinus

Figure A1.7. Temperature distribution of the PCM,

(a=18 C, =120 sec).

320 315 p1 310 305 T, K 300 295 290 285 280 275 0 50 100 150 t, sec 200 250 300 350 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 p7 p8 p9 p10 sinus

Figure A1.8. Temperature distribution of the PCM,

(a=18 C, =150 sec).

A2. Velocity fields

Our numerical results indicate that convection in the liquid PCM depends not only on the given geometrical parameters, but also on the melt fraction at certain time instant. This point is illustrated in Figure A2, where the vector flow field inside the PCM is shown for the following physical situations: case 2 at melt fractions of 0.3 (A2a) and 0.6 (A2b), corresponding to Figure 5.6c ( T =18 C), and case 4 at melt fraction of 0.6 (A2c), corresponding to Figure 5.8c ( T =18 C). For the same temperature difference, one can see from Fig. A2a-b that in the wide case 2, the flow is weak at V/V0 =0.3 but rather strong at
V/V0 =0.6, while for the narrow case 4 (Fig. A2c) the flow is insignificant even at V/V0 =0.6.

That has been seen also in Figures 5.18 5.22, where the curves for various T coincided at low melt fractions for both wide and narrow cases. At higher melt fractions the curves diverged in the wide cases (2,3,6) but continued to stick together in the narrow ones (4,5). Comparing the results of Figures 5.18 5.22 and A2, one can conclude that convection in the liquid phase is an additional physical phenomenon that should be accounted for in the analysis for relatively wide systems at high melt fractions. m/s

a.

b.

c.

Figure A2. Velocity fields for case 2 (a) V/V0=0.3, (b) V/V0=0.6, and case 4 (c) V/V0=0.6).

A3. Different time step calculations

140 120 100
q", kW/m2 step=0.005 sec step=0.01 sec step=0.02 sec

80 60 40 20 0 0 10 20 30
time, s

40

50

60

70

Figure A3. Heat .transfer rate at different time step calculations for case 3 with T = 18 C.

Figure A3 represents the heat flux, q, as a function of time, for case 3 at T = 18C. For this case, the calculations were performed with three different time steps: 0.005, 0.01 and 0.02 seconds. One can see from the figure that there is practically no difference between the results for 0.005s and 0.01s. On this basis, the calculations in the present work were performed with the time step of 0.01s.

A4. V. Shatikian, V. Dubovsky, G. Ziskind, R. Letan, Simulation of PCM Melting and

Solidification in a Partitioned Storage Unit, Proceedings of 2003 ASME Summer Heat Transfer Conference, Las Vegas, USA, July 2003.

Proceedings of 2003 ASME Summer Heat Transfer Conference July 2123, 2003, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA

HT2003-47167
SIMULATION OF PCM MELTING AND SOLIDIFICATION IN A PARTITIONED STORAGE UNIT
V. Shatikian, V. Dubovsky, G. Ziskind and R. Letan Heat Transfer Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O.B. 653, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel

ABSTRACT The present study explores numerically the processes of melting and solidification of a phase change material (PCM). The material used was a commercially available paraffin wax, which is non-toxic, recyclable, chemically inert, non-corrosive and can withstand an unlimited number of cycles. The phase-change material was stored in a rectangular box, open at the top. The bottom of the box could be heated or cooled. The inner space of the box was partitioned by vertical conducting plates attached to the bottom. Thus, heat was transferred to and from the PCM both through its melted/solidified layer and by conduction through the vertical plates. Transient two-dimensional numerical simulations were performed using the Fluent 6.0 software. The melting temperature of the wax, 23-25C, was incorporated in the simulations along with its other properties, including the latent and sensible specific heat, thermal conductivity and density in solid and liquid states. The simulations provided detailed temperature and phase fields inside the system as functions of time, showing evolution of the heat transfer in the system as the phase change material melts/solidifies. The dependence of the heat transfer rate on the properties of the system and on the PCM phase composition at various time instants is presented and discussed. INTRODUCTION Thermal storage units that utilize latent heat of phase change materials (PCM) have received significant attention in the recent years, because of their large heat storage capacity. Due to their isothermal behavior during the melting and solidification processes, those materials can be used in such diversified applications as latent heat storage in buildings or thermal control of electronic modules.

The application of PCM to heat storage in buildings has been investigated by many researchers. An extensive review of available thermal energy storage technologies is presented by Hasnain [1]. Application of PCM to the solar energy storage is reviewed by Fath [2]. The work by Kurklu [3] discusses the three most-used phase change material groups based on salt hydrates, paraffins and polyethylene glycol. Kang et al. [4] describe and classify latent heat thermal energy storage systems according to their structural characteristics. With regard to the heat transfer mechanisms, a review of heat transfer enhancement methods is presented by Velraj et al. [5]. Recently, a number of studies have been published in the literature on PCM application in transient thermal control of electronic equipment. As noted by Pal and Joshi [6], most electronic systems are subjected to a complex combination of internal and external transient thermal loads [7], and the use of PCM would make it possible to maintain a nearly uniform temperature of the components. Among possible applications, one can mention portable systems, outdoor telecommunications enclosures, and processor chips [6]. The choice of the phase change material and the mechanisms of heat transfer are the most important factors in the development of a latent heat thermal energy storage system. In addition to such properties as the thermal conductivity of the material, its melting temperature and latent heat of fusion, stability of properties through the cycling process with a large number of cycles is essential. Pal and Joshi [8] studied numerically application of phase change materials for the passive thermal control of avionics modules with transient thermal loads occurring during normal operation or due to the loss of primary cooling system. Different system configurations were suggested for two different PCM types, of which one was an organic paraffin and the second an eutectic alloy. It has been concluded that, while the organic

Copyright 2003 by ASME

PCM has higher latent heat and hence a lesser mass of it is needed, its poor thermal conductivity (0.39W/m K in solid state) demands special arrangements when the incorporation in electronic systems is considered. One of the most common methods used to improve thermal performance of PCM-based cooling systems is the use of extended surfaces, like partitions, cooling fins [9], or inclusions made of good heat conductors, usually metals. In our previous study [10], extended surface heat transfer area was achieved experimentally, using an aluminum shell which consisted of 82 staggered separate channels filled with PCM. Each of the channels had a cross-section of 5.5mm 4mm and a length of 267mm. The PCM used was a paraffin wax, which is non-toxic, recyclable, chemically inert, non-corrosive and can withstand an unlimited number of cycles. In the present study, the same PCM is involved, and the storage unit has partitions made of aluminum. Only the bottom of the unit is heated/cooled directly, while heat is transferred to the PCM mostly through the partitions. The problem of transient heat conduction through the partitions and PCM, accompanied by melting/solidification of the latter, is solved numerically. We present first a physical model of the problem, including the details of the system and the properties of the PCM used. Then, the numerical procedure is described. The results for both melting and solidification are presented in terms of the phase distributions, heat transfer rates, and temperature distributions inside the partitions and the PCM for various time instants. NOMENCLATURE cp specific heat at constant pressure (J/kg C) h sensible enthalpy (J/kg) H total enthalpy (J/kg) k thermal conductivity (W/m C) L latent heat (J/kg) S source term (W/m3) t time (s) T temperature (C) u velocity components (m/s) x Cartesian coordinate (m) Greek letters liquid fraction density (kg/m3) Subscripts i component ref reference value w wall

Between the partitions, there is a phase-change material. The PCM used was paraffin wax (Rubitherm RT25) with the following properties: density in liquid state 750kg/m3, dynamic viscosity 0.0072kg/ms, density in solid state 800kg/m3, enthalpy of melting 206kJ/kg, thermal conductivity 0.15W/m K, specific heat 2.5kJ/kg K, and melting temperature of 23-25C.

Partition Air

10 mm

190 mm 190 mm x

Tw a. y Air

200 mm

Tw

1 mm PHYSICAL MODEL The storage unit is shown in Fig. 1. It is a rectangular box which bottom is the hot wall. Parallel partitions are attached to this wall. Each partition is 2mm thick and 200mm long. The space between two adjacent partitions is 10mm. The partitions are made of aluminum (k=202 W/m C).

5 mm b.

Figure 1. Partitioned storage unit: a). overall schematic view; b). computational domain.

PCM

PCM

Copyright 2003 by ASME

2 mm

The PCM layers are 190mm high, which means that they are 10mm shorter than the partitions. This is done in order to compensate for the density changes during the phase-change processes. From above, the PCM is exposed to the ambient air. At this stage, model problems of melting and solidification were considered: in both cases the initial temperature of the system, including the PCM, was uniform. It was slightly lower than the temperature of phase change for melting and slightly higher than the temperature of phase change for solidification. PCM melting has been studied under the following conditions: The initial temperature of the whole system was 20C, i.e. the PCM was slightly subcooled. At t=0, the temperature of the bottom was changed to 42C, while the ambient air above the unit was 27C. PCM solidification has been studied under the following conditions: The initial temperature of the whole system was 27C, i.e. the PCM was slightly overheated. At t=0, the temperature of the bottom was changed to 6C, while the ambient air above the unit was 27C. NUMERICAL PROCEDURE The numerical calculations were performed for the transient temperature and velocity fields inside the unit, including both the PCM and the partitions. The basic conservation equations of continuity, momentum, and energy were solved numerically, using the FLUENT 6.0 software. Laminar flow inside air and liquid PCM was assumed. In order to describe the behavior of the PCM, a so-called volume-of-fluid model has been activated. The model made it possible to calculate the processes that occur inside the partitions (solid), PCM (solid/liquid), and air (fluid) simultaneously. In addition, density changes in the PCM and the effect of gravity were taken into account. The model makes it possible to account for the moving boundary due to the variation of the PCM volume. As a result, the numerical model was rather close to reality. Based on the symmetry of the system, the computational domain was defined by the physical boundaries of the unit in the vertical y-direction, and by the symmetry planes of the partition and the PCM-filled channel in the horizontal x-direction, as shown in Fig. 1b. The origin of the coordinate system was taken at the intersection of the plane of symmetry of the partition and the lower boundary of the partitions and PCM. It was assumed that the unit is both sufficiently long and its boundaries are well insulated in the z-direction, so that a two-dimensional formulation has been used at this stage. The computational grid of 24 100=2400 cells was used in the simulations, including 4 100=400 cells in the 1mm thick and 200mm long half-partition (0<x<1mm, 0<y<200mm), 20 95=1900 cells in the 5mm thick and 190mm long half channel filled by the PCM (1<x<6mm, 0<y<190mm), and 20 5=100 cells in the air above it (1<x<6mm, 190<y<200mm). The partitions were taken as insulated from above, while the PCM was exposed to the air above it. The equations for the air were solved only in the small domain bounded by the

partition from the left, symmetry from the right, PCM from below and the plane connecting the partition tips from above. At that plane, a boundary condition corresponding to pressure inlet/outlet has been used, and the air above it was at atmospheric pressure and had a constant temperature of 27C. For air, the Boussinesq approximation was not used, and the density-temperature relation was provided as an input. Since the temperature differences were relatively small, the single-phase density variations were neglected compared to the density change due to the phase change, and the constant but different PCM densities were assumed in the solid and liquid states, respectively. For the mushy region, FLUENT applies the enthalpy-porosity approach, by which the porosity in each cell is set equal to the liquid fraction in that cell. Accordingly, the porosity is zero inside fully solid regions. The energy equation for the solidification/melting problem is:

) )t

) )x i

ui H

) )T k )x i )x i

(1)

where is the density, S is the source term, , ui is the velocity component in the i - direction, xi is a Cartesian coordinate, and H is the enthalpy. The enthalpy is defined as a sum of the sensible enthalpy, h, and the enthalpy change due to the phase change H. The sensible enthalpy is defined as
T

href
Tref

c p dT

(2)

where href is the reference enthalpy at the reference temperature Tref, and cp is the specific heat. The enthalpy change due to the phase change is defined as
H L

(3) is the liquid

where L is the latent heat of the material, and fraction defined by the following relations: = 0 if T < Tsolidus = 1 if T > Tliquidus T Tsolidus if Tsolidus < T < Tliquidus Tliquidus T solidus

(4)

Accordingly, the enthalpy change due to the phase change vary from zero for a solid to L for a liquid. FLUENT solves for the temperature by iterations involving the energy equation, Eq. (1), and the liquid fraction relation, Eq. (4), using the approach of Voller and Swaminathan [11], who propose methods in which the phase change rate is linearized as a truncated Taylor series, and old iteration values are then used to estimate the linear term.

Copyright 2003 by ASME

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results are shown in Figs. 2-5 for melting and in Figs. 6-9 for solidification. Melting. Figure 2 shows the results of melting simulations in the form of phase distributions. The left picture represents the initial phase distribution, in which the PCM was entirely solid (blue). The only fluid here is the air above the PCM (red). Since the software can represent a solid-fluid distribution, it was impossible to show the liquid PCM and the air by different colors, and they both are red in all other parts of Fig. 2. Fortunately, air is above the PCM, while melting occurs mostly from below, therefore such blue-red scale is quite understandable.

One can see from Fig. 2 that melting is initiated not only at the hot bottom of the unit, but also at the partitions, due to their high thermal conductivity. As a result, the solid PCM attains the shape of a downward-directed wedge. It can also be seen from Fig. 2 that the upper boundary of the PCM is moving upward with time, reflecting the increasing volume of liquid PCM in the course of melting. Figure 3 shows the calculated heat transfer rates from the base to the PCM, from the base to the partition, and from the partition to the PCM and air. The rates given are for the computational domain introduced above. One can see from the figure that at each time instant, the heat transfer rate from the base to the partition is much higher than that going directly to the PCM. Since the major part of the heat transferred to the partition eventually reaches the PCM, the latter is heated mostly from the sides and not from below. Moreover, the more time elapses, the thicker is the layer of liquid PCM between the base and the wedge, as seen also in Fig. 2. Since this layer is a thermal resistance for the melting process, the direct heat transfer from the base to the PCM eventually becomes negligible. Figure 3 also shows that the heat transfer rate from the base to the partition also decreases with time, because of the decreasing temperature gradient. As the partition is heated and the solid PCM retreats, the resistance to heat transfer increases. The difference between the heat that enters the partition and the heat that leaves it is due to the transient heating of the partition (increase in its internal energy). This difference obviously decreases with time.
250 base to PCM partition to PCM and air base to partition

200 Heat transfer rate, W

150

100

50

0 0 500 1000 Time, s 1500 2000

Figure 3. Heat transfer rate vs. time for PCM and partition during melting. Further details of the melting are presented in Figs. 4 and 5. Figure 4 shows the temperature inside the partition (at x=0) at various distances from the base (0<y<200mm), for the same time instants which have been represented by their heat transfer rates in Fig. 3. One can clearly see that the temperature at any point inside the partition grows with time. The distribution tends asymptotically to a steady state in which heat input from the

0s

300s

600s

900s

1200s

1500s

1800s

Figure 2. Phase distribution of PCM during melting as a function of time.

Copyright 2003 by ASME

base would be balanced by heat output to the air, while the PCM is completely liquid. One can see from the figure that under given conditions this would take a significant amount of time.
320 t=135 t=235 t=300 Temperature, K 310 t=600 t=900 305 t=1200 t=1500 t=1800 300 t=2100

315

with time, while the liquid region itself grows. These results correspond well to the phase distributions in Fig. 2 and heat transfer rates in Fig. 3. Above the PCM there is air heated from above by the ambient and cooled from below by the PCM. The air is also heated by the partition which protrudes above the PCM. In Fig. 5, the region occupied by air can be clearly seen. This region shrinks with time due to the PCM expansion. Solidification. Figure 6 shows the results of solidification simulations in the form of phase distributions. Once again, it was impossible to show the liquid PCM and the air by different colors, and they both are red in the figure. Fortunately, solidification occurs mostly from below, making the blue-red scale quite understandable.

295

290 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 Distance from the base, m

Figure 4. Temperature evolution in the partition during melting.

320

315

t=135 t=235 t=300 t=600 t=900 t=1200 t=1500 t=1800

Temperature, K

310

305

300

295

290 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 Distance from the base, m

Figure 5. Temperature evolution in the PCM during melting.

Figure 5 shows the temperature at the plane of symmetry of the PCM (at x=6mm) at various distances from the base (0<y<200mm), for the same time instants that have been represented by their heat transfer rates in Fig. 3. Close to the upper boundary, the temperature is that of air above the PCM. One can see from the figure that the temperature inside the PCM is growing with time. The temperature patterns, however, are very different from those obtained for the solid partition. From the beginning, PCM starts to melt close to the base, but only after it has been heated from the subcooled state to the melting point temperature. This heating is represented at various time instants by the curves found below the melting temperature of 23C (296K). While the heating of the solid PCM relatively far from the base continues, melting takes place near the base, followed by heating of the liquid PCM. This process is represented by a family of similar curves. One can clearly see that the temperature at any point inside the liquid PCM grows

100s - 600s

900s 1200s 1500s 1800s 2100s

Figure 6. Phase distribution of PCM during solidification as a function of time.

Copyright 2003 by ASME

The results of Fig. 6 correspond to the simulation in which the solidus and liquidus temperatures were taken as 23C and 25C, respectively. One can see from Fig. 6 that solidification is initiated not only at the hot bottom of the unit, but also at the partitions, due to their high thermal conductivity. As a result, the solid PCM attains a U-shape pattern. Figure 7 shows the calculated heat transfer rates from the PCM to the base, from the partition to the base, and from the PCM and air to the partition. The rates given are for the computational domain introduced above. One can see from the figure that at each time instant, the heat transfer rate from the partition to the base is much higher than that coming directly from the PCM. Thus, the latter is cooled mostly from the sides and not from below. Moreover, the more time elapses, the thicker is the layer of solid PCM between the base and the wedge, see also Fig. 6. Since this layer is a thermal resistance for the solidification process, the direct heat transfer from the PCM to the base eventually becomes negligible. Figure 7 also shows that the heat transfer rate from the partition to the base also decreases with time, because of the decreasing temperature gradient. Further details of the solidification process are presented in Figs. 8 and 9. Figure 8 shows the temperature inside the partition (at x=0) at various distances from the base (0<y<200mm), for the same time instants which have been represented by their heat transfer rates in Fig. 7. One can clearly see that the temperature at any point inside the partition decreases with time. The distribution tends asymptotically to a steady state in which heat output to the base would be balanced by heat input from the air, while the PCM is completely solid. Like in melting, under given conditions it would take a significant amount of time to reach that state. Figure 9 shows the temperature at the plane of symmetry of the PCM (at x=6mm) at various distances from the base (0<y<200mm), for the same time instants that have been represented by their phase distributions in Fig. 6 and heat transfer rates in Fig. 7. From the beginning, PCM starts to solidify close to the base, after it has been cooled to the temperature of solidification. This process is represented by a family of similar curves which correspond to different time instants. One can clearly see that the temperature at any point inside the solid PCM decreases with time, while the solid region itself grows. These results correspond well to the phase distributions in Fig. 6 and heat transfer rates in Fig. 7. CLOSURE In the present work, the processes of melting and solidification of a phase change material (PCM) have been studied numerically. Transient two-dimensional simulations were performed using the Fluent 6.0 software. The material used as a model was a commercially available paraffin wax, stored in a rectangular box. The inner space of the box was partitioned by vertical conducting plates attached to the bottom, which could be

heated or cooled. As a result, heat was transferred to and from the PCM mostly by conduction through the vertical plates.
0 0 -20 Heat transfer rate, W 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

-40

-60 partition to base PCM to base PCM and air to partition

-80

-100

-120 Time, s

Figure 7. Heat transfer rate vs. time for PCM and partition during solidification.

305

300

Temperature, K

295 t=100 t=200 t=300 285 t=600 t=900 280 t=1200

290

275 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 Distance from the base, m 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

Figure 8. Temperature evolution in the partition during solidification.

305

300

Temperature, K

295

290

t=100 t=200 t=300 t=600 t=900 t=1200 t=1500 t=1800 t=2100

285

280

275 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 Distance from the base, m

Figure 9. Temperature evolution in the PCM during solidification.

Copyright 2003 by ASME

Detailed temperature and phase fields have been obtained as functions of time, showing evolution of the heat transfer in the system as the phase change material melts/solidifies. The change in the heat transfer rate with time, and the instantaneous temperature distributions inside the partitions and the PCM have been presented and discussed. REFERENCES [1] Hasnain, S.M., 1998, Review on Sustainable Energy Storage Technologies, Part I: Heat Storage Materials and Techniques, Energy Conversion and Management 39, pp. 11271138. [2] Fath, H.E.S., 1998, Assessment of Solar Thermal Energy Storage Technologies, Renewable Energy 14, pp. 35-40. [3] Kurklu, A., 1998, Energy Storage Applications in Greenhouses by Means of Phase Change Materials (PCMs): a Review, Renewable Energy 13, pp. 89-103. [4] Kang, Y.B., Zhang, Y.P., Jiang, Y., and Zhu, Y.X., 1999, A General Model for Analyzing the Thermal Characteristics of a Class of Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage System, Journal of Solar Energy EngineeringTransactions of the ASME 121, pp. 185-193. [5] Velraj, R., Seeniraj, R.V., Hafner, B., Faber, C., and Schwarzer, K., 1999, Heat Transfer Enhancement in a Latent Heat Storage System, Solar Energy 65, pp. 171-180.

[6] Pal, D., and Joshi, Y.K., 2001, Melting in a Side Heated Tall Enclosure by a Uniformly Dissipating Heat Source, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 45, pp. 375-387. [7] Evans, A.G., He, M.Y., Hutchinson, J.W., and Shaw, M., 2001, Temperature Distribution in Advanced Power Electronics Systems and the Effect of Phase Change Materials on Temperature Suppression During Power Pulses, Journal of Electronic PackagingTransactions of the ASME 123, pp. 211217. [8] Pal, D., and Joshi, Y.K., 1997, Application of Phase-Change Materials to Thermal Control of Electronic Modules, Journal of Electronic PackagingTransactions of the ASME 119, pp. 40-50. [9] Ismail, K.A.R., Alves C.L.F., and Modesto M.S., 2001, Numerical and Experimental Study on the Solidification of PCM around a Vertical Axially Finned Isothermal Cylinder, Applied Thermal Engineering 21, pp. 53-77. [10] Goldenberg, A., Abramzon, B., Dubovsky, V., Ziskind, G., and Letan, R., 2002, Temperature Moderation in an Enclosed Space by a Portable PCM Heat Storage Unit, Proc. 12th International Heat Transfer Conference, J. Taine et al., eds., Elsevier SAS, pp. 717-722. [11] Voller, V. R., and Swaminathan, C. R., 1991, General Source-Based Method for Solidification Phase Change, Numerical Heat Transfer B19, pp. 175.

Copyright 2003 by ASME

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