Sun Of all of the astronomical objects, the Sun is the most important to human beings.

Since the dawn of civilization, knowing the daily and annual behavior of the Sun has meant the difference between life and death for people learning when to plant crops and when to harvest. Ancient mythologies preserved this knowledge in story form. These were often picturesque descriptions of the Sun's behaviorfor example, the Chinese interpretation of a solar eclipse as a dragon chasing and eating the Sun. Sometimes the stories included precise enough details for predicting solar behaviorfor instance, in the version from India, the dragon is sliced into two invisible halves. When the position in the sky of one of these halves is lined up with the Sun and the Moon, an eclipse occurs. Solar Eclipses Over centuries of observations and study, a scientific understanding of the Sun has grown out of these myths. The invisible dragon halves were a way of describing the serendipitous arrangement of the relative locations and sizes of Earth, the Moon, and the Sun. In order for a solar eclipse to happen, the Moon not only has to be in new phase (between the Sun and Earth) but also has to line up exactly with the disk of the Sun. Since the Moon's orbit around Earth is tilted with respect to Earth's orbit around the Sun, this happens about twice a year instead of once a month. Solar eclipses are not visible all over Earth, but only under the moving shadow of the Moon. In areas not completely covered by the Moon's shadow, observers see a "partial eclipse," which looks like a bite has been taken out of the Sun. Or, if the Moon is in the far reaches of its orbit it might not be quite big enough to cover the Sun's disk. Then observers would see the Sun shining in a thin, bright ring around the Moon in what is known as an "annular eclipse," even if they are perfectly lined up. Total eclipses of the Sun are rarely seen, because the timing and geometry have to be just right to position a large enough Moon-shadow right over a particular location. When this happens, observers in that location have an opportunity to observe parts of the Sun that are usually impossible to see. Solar Corona It is when the Sun is totally eclipsed that the solar corona is visible. "Corona" means "crown," and indeed the outer atmosphere of the Sun appears to encircle its blacked-out disk in an extended pearly crown. Ordinarily, the corona is so much dimmer than the bright disk of the Sun that it cannot be seeneven during a partial or annular eclipse. There is another way to see the corona, however, even without an eclipse. Although the part of the Sun seen with the naked eye normally outshines it, the corona is actually the brightest part of the Sun when observed with an X-ray telescope. The Sun emits light at a wide range of frequencies, or colors. Most of the light it emits is in the range visible to human eyesthe colors that make up a rainbow. Human eyes have actually adapted to be sensitive to the frequencies at which the majority of the sunlight shines. X rays are light emitted at much higher frequencies than humans can see, in the same way as a dog whistle blows at a frequency that is beyond the sensitivity of the human ear. An Xray telescope filters out all the light from the Sun except X rays, and what is left is mostly the solar corona. Because the corona shines in X rays we know it is very hot. This is strange. It means that although the temperature of the Sun decreases from its center out to its surface (from several million degrees Celsius down to several thousand), it increases again in the corona (up again to several million degrees). How and why the corona gets heated is one of the big mysteries of solar physics. It probably has to do with the energy that comes from magnetic fields generated inside the Sun, which is dumped into the corona, heating it up.

Sunspots and Magnetic Fields Besides the more obvious daily and annual variations of the Sun, an approximately eleven-year cycle was discovered once people started observing with telescopes. This was first seen by counting the number of sunspots on the Sun. Sunspots are dark regions on the solar surface that are fairly infrequent during the minimum phase of the eleven-year solar cycle, but that become more and more common during the maximum phase. They are dark because they are cooler than their surroundings, and they are cool because they are regions of very strong magnetic field where less heat escapes the solar surface. Sunspots are not the only solar features that are most abundant at solar cycle maximum. Explosive flashes known as "solar flares," and massive eruptions of material out from the Sun known as coronal mass ejections also become more and more frequent. The material that is hurled outward in a coronal mass ejection can affect us here on Earth, damaging satellites and even power stations, and potentially causing blackouts or disrupting satellite TV or cell phone transmissions. Like sunspots, flares and coronal mass ejections are related to solar magnetic fields. In general, magnetic activity increases at solar cycle maximum. Magnetic fields are an important part of almost everything that is observed about the Sun. So where do they come from? The motions of sunspots provide a clue. Like Earth, the Sun is spinning so it has its own north pole, south pole, and equator. As they move around as the Sun spins, sunspots near the solar equator return to their starting point in about twenty-five days. Sunspots near the north and south pole of the Sun, however, take about thirty-five days to spin all the way around. The reason for this difference is that the Sun is not solid like a baseball, but fluidmore like a water balloon. Just below the surface this fluid is vigorously boiling and churning around, and this motion causes different parts of the Sun to spin around at different speeds. Furthermore, all this churning and spinning creates a magnetic field that is pointing one way near the north pole of the Sun and the opposite way near the south pole, like a giant bar magnet. Every eleven years, this magnet flips upside down so that in twenty-two years it has flipped over twice and is back where it started. Solar minimum happens when the magnet is pointing either due north or due south, and solar maximum occurs while it is in the process of flipping over. Inside the Sun When we look at the Sun, we see only the outside; how do we know what is happening below the surface? It turns out we can use techniques that are similar to those used in studying earthquakes. The surface of the Sun is continuously vibrating like a neverending earthquake or a bell that is constantly being rung. By looking at the pattern of these vibrations and their frequency (like the tone of the bell), we can figure out what the inside of the Sun must be like. Thanks in part to these vibrations, we can confidently say that the churning motions below the surface not only create magnetic fields and make the Sun spin at different speeds, but they also move heat from the center of the Sun to the surface, where it is radiated away as light. Near the center of the Sun the churning motions stop and the fluid becomes very dense and hot. Hydrogen atoms fly around at incredible speeds and when they collide they can stick together, creating helium atoms. This process, which is called fusion, provides the energy that causes stars to shine. In some stars, fusion can convert hydrogen and helium into heavier elements, such as carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen, which can in turn be combined to make still heavier elements, such as iron, lead, and even gold! In fact,

everything on Earthair, water, dirt, rocks, buildings, cars, trees, dogs, and even people is made of elements that were created in stars by fusion. The Evolution of the Sun As exciting as it is, the Sun is often referred to as an "ordinary" star. This means that the information gained from the vast array of solar observations can be applied to understanding many of the stars in the sky. Furthermore by studying similar stars at various stages of their lifetimes, astronomers can tell how the Sun formed and how it will eventually die. The Sun and the solar system began as a huge clump of gas in space, mostly made of hydrogen with some helium and only a relatively small amount of everything else (carbon, oxygen, iron, etc.). This clump slowly condensed and heated up due to gravity, and eventually it became dense and hot enough that fusion began and it started to shine. Not all of the gas fell into the young Sun; some of it stayed behind and was flattened into a pancake-like disk because it was spinning (just as a skilled pizza cook can flatten a clump of dough by tossing and spinning it). This disk then broke up into smaller clumps, which eventually became Earth and the other planets. Meanwhile, the Sun settled down to a quieter life, slowly converting hydrogen into helium by fusion and shining the energy away into space. That was about 5 billion years ago and the Sun is still going strong. The Sun's Future But that is not the end of the story. Eventually, there will not be any hydrogen left in the center of the Sun to make helium. Gravity will then cause the center part of the Sun to collapse in on itself, and the energy given off by this implosion will cause the outer part to inflate. So, while the inner part of the Sun shrinks, the outer part will expand, and it will become so big that it will envelop Mercury, Venus, and even Earth. The Sun will then continue its life as a red giant star, but not for long. As its last hydrogen is used up, the center of the Sun will heat up and start to convert helium into other elements in a last-ditch effort to keep fusion going and to keep shining. The available helium will be used up relatively quickly, however, and before long all fusion in the center will stop. The outer part of the Sun will then slowly expand and dissipate into space while the inner part will become a white dwarf, a relatively small, inactive lump of matter, which will slowly cool down as it radiates all its remaining energy into space. Life on Earth would not survive these eventsbut as this terrible fate is not due to happen for another 5 billion years, we have plenty more time to study the Sun in all its splendor! Planet planet [Gr.,=wanderer], a large nonluminous ball of rock or gas that orbits a star. The term, once limited to any of the eight solid, nonluminous bodies (major planets) that revolve around the sun, has been extended to include similar bodies discovered revolving around other stars. The term is sometimes used to include dwarf planets and asteroids (or minor planets) but excludes the other members of the solar system: comets and meteoroids (see meteor; see also planetary science and planetary system, as well as the table entitled Major Planets of the Solar System). Classification of the Major Planets The major planets are classified either as inferior, with an orbit between the sun and the orbit of Earth (Mercury and Venus), or as superior, with an orbit beyond that of Earth

(Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, Neptune. Pluto, long regarded after its discovery in 1930 as the ninth planet, was gradually recognized as a Kuiper belt, or Trans Neptunian, object (see comet), and in 2006 was reclassified by astronomers as a dwarf planet. Any dwarf planet beyond the orbit of Neptune is now classified as a plutoid. Terrestrial planet is the earth or a planet that resembles the earth in its physical characteristics. The terrestrial planets in the solar system are the earth, Mercury, Venus, and Mars. These planets are approximately the same size, with the earth the largest. They are considerably denser than the Jovian planets, ranging from a specific gravity of 4 for Mars to 5.5 for the earth. Because they spin less rapidly than the Jovian planets, the terrestrial planets are less flattened at their poles. Star A star is a hot, roughly spherical ball of gas that shines as a result of nuclear fusion reactions in its core. Stars are one of the fundamental objects in the universe. Stars and indeed the entire universeare made mostly of hydrogen, the simplest and lightest element. By contrast, our bodies are composed of many complex elements, such as carbon, nitrogen, calcium, and iron. These elements are created in the cores of stars, and the final act in the lives of many stars is a massive explosion that distributes the elements it has created into the galaxy. Eventually these elements may form another star, or a planet, or life on that planet. Star birth Stars are born in the interstellar medium, the region of space between stars. Drifting through this region are vast, dark clouds of gas and dust. Certain celestial events, like the nearby explosion of a massive star at the end of its life (supernova), cause these clouds to begin to contract. After a supernova, a shock wave sweeps through the interstellar medium. When it slams into the cloud, the gas and dust is violently compressed by the shock. As the particles are squeezed together, their mutual gravitational attraction grows and a blob of gas forms, giving off energy. As the temperature in a contracting blob of gas becomes higher, the gas exerts a pressure that counteracts the inward force of gravity. At this point, perhaps millions of years after the shock wave slammed into the dark cloud, the contraction stops. If the blob of gas has become hot enough at its center to begin thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium, it has become a star. It will remain in this stable state for millions or billions of years. An interstellar cloud does not always have to be disturbed by a shock wave to form stars, however. Sometimes a cloud may be hot and dense enough to break up and contract spontaneously under its own gravity. Large clouds can break up into numerous cloudlets this way, and this process leads to the formation of star clustersgroups of stars close to each other in space. Often, two stars will form very close to one another, orbiting around a common center of gravity. This two-star system is called a binary star. Both star clusters and binary stars are more common than single stars. Until recently, astronomers thought the collision of two stars forming a new star occurred very rarely in the universe. By the beginning of the twenty-first century, however, they had gathered enough observational Words to Know

Binary star: Double-star system in which two stars orbit each other around a central point of gravity. Black hole: Remains of a massive star that has burned out its nuclear fuel and collapsed under tremendous gravitational force into a single point of infinite mass and gravity. Core: The central region of a star, where thermonuclear fusion reactions take place that produce the energy necessary for the star to support itself against its own gravity. Interstellar medium: Space between the stars, consisting mainly of empty space with a very small concentration of gas atoms and tiny solid particles. Nebula: Cloud of interstellar gas and dust. Neutron star: Extremely dense, compact, neutron-filled remains of a star following a supernova. Nuclear fusion: Merging of two or more hydrogen nuclei into one helium nucleus, accompanied by a tremendous release of energy. Pulsar: Rapidly spinning, blinking neutron star. Red giant: Stage in which an average-sized star spends the final 10 percent of its lifetime; its surface temperature drops and its diameter expands to 10 to 1,000 times that of the Sun. Star cluster: Groups of stars close to each other in space that appear to have roughly similar characteristics and, therefore, a common origin. Supernova: Explosion of a massive star at the end of is lifetime, causing it to shine more brightly than the rest of the stars in the galaxy put together. White dwarf: Cooling, shrunken core remaining after an average-sized star ceases to burn. information to know that such collisions are not uncommon within dense clusters of stars. These new stars, called "blue stars," contain more hydrogen than smaller stars, but burn hotter and burn out more quickly. They result from the collision of two (or even three) small, old stars in globular clusters (a tight cluster of tens of thousands to one million very old stars). Astronomers estimate that several hundred such collisions occur every hour. With 100 billion galaxies in the observable universe and each galaxy containing an average of 30 globular clusters, most of the collisions occur far away from the Earth. Over the lifetime (about 10 billion years) of our home galaxy, the Milky Way, astronomers believe there have been at least 1 million collisions within its globular clusters, or about 1 every 10,000 years. Internal structure of a star Stars generate energy in their cores, their central and hottest part. The Sun's core has a temperature of about 27,000,000F (15,000,000C), and this is hot enough for thermonuclear fusion reactions to take place. Accompanying the transformation of hydrogen to helium is an enormous release of energy, which streams out from the star's

core and supplies the energy needed to heat the star's gas. The Sun converts about 600 million tons of hydrogen into helium every second, yet it is so massive that it has been maintaining this rate of fuel consumption for five billion yearsand will continue to do so for another five billion years. In the majority of stars, the energy created at the core is carried close to the surface by slow-moving gas currents. As these currents or cells reach the surface atmosphere, they release this energy, which is radiated into space as visible light and other forms of radiation of the electromagnetic spectrum. Once cooled, the currents fall back toward the core where they become heated and rise once again. This organized churning is called convection. A star's mass (the total amount of matter in contains) directly influences its size, temperature, and luminosity, or rate of energy output (brightness). The more massive a star is, the stronger its gravity. Mass therefore determines how strong the gravitational force is at every point within the star. This in turn dictates how fast the star has to consume its fuel to keep its gas hot enough to maintain stability everywhere inside it. This controls the temperature structure of the star and the methods by which energy is transported from the core to the surface. It even controls the star's lifetime, since the rate of fuel consumption determines lifetime. The smallest stars are about 0.08 times the mass of the Sun. If a ball of gas is any smaller than that, its internal temperature will not be high enough to ignite the necessary fusion reactions in its core. It would instead be a brown dwarf, a small, dark, cool ball of dust and gas that never quite becomes a star. The largest stars are about 50 times more massive than the Sun. A star more massive than that would shine so intensely that its radiation would start to overcome gravity; the star would shed mass from its surface so quickly that it could never be stable. Star deaths All stars eventually exhaust their hydrogen fuel. At this point, the gas pressure within the star goes down and the star begins to contract under its own gravity. The fate awaiting a star at this point is determined by its mass. An average-sized star like the Sun will spend the final 10 percent of its life as a red giant. In this phase of a star's evolution, the star's surface temperature drops to between 3,140 and 6,741F (1,727 and 3,727C) and its diameter expands to 10 to 1,000 times that of the Sun. The star takes on a reddish color, which is what gives it its name. Buried deep inside the star is a hot, dense core, about the size of Earth. Helium left burning at the core eventually ejects the star's atmosphere, which floats off into space as a planetary nebula (a cloud of gas and dust). The remaining glowing core is called a white dwarf. Like a dying ember in a campfire, it will gradually cool off and fade into blackness. Space is littered with such dead suns. A star up to three times the mass of the Sun explodes in a supernova, shedding much of its mass. Any remaining matter of such a star ends up as a densely packed neutron star or pulsar, a rapidly rotating neutron star that emits varying radio waves at precise intervals.

A star more than three times the mass of the Sun will also explode in a supernova. Its remaining mass becomes so concentrated that it shrinks to an indefinitely small size and its gravity becomes completely over-powering. This single point in space where pressure and density are infinite is called a black hole. Decorative Arts The distinction between the fine arts and the "decorative" is mostly arbitrary. It was not made until eighteenth-century Europeans decided to do so, allowing fine art to gain an aura of associated mystique. Today the distinction is a familiar one, if not a clear one. The decorative arts are viewed as more craft based, serving or alluding to a function. While the categories of decorative arts are vast, fine craftsmanship seems to be the single unifier. Craftsmanship is more than technical virtuosity. It demands a profound understanding of materials and of the tools with which those materials are fashioned. Probably the single most important factor in the creation of the decorative arts is the maker's genuine pride in the process of production, the need to make things as well as they can be made. At a purely utilitarian level, this drive to achieve perfection might seem excessive, but it is very human. However, it may well disappear in the face of consumer demand. Often, consumer goods are not made as well as they could be, nor do they last as long as they could be made to last, but these are careful adaptations to the economics of the market. Few if any machine-made products are designed to last forever, allowing for new and improved products to be designed and built with the same purpose but a different look. Early Colonial Style During the early colonial period, America imported its consumer products and craftsmen from Europe, resulting in the same pieces on both sides of the Atlantic. Any products made in the colonies had very similar designs to those found in the maker's originating culture. As local manufacturers became more prominent, slight modifications on the original designs began to appear. As the wealth of the colonies increased, initially in the South, so did the demand for quality furniture. A variety of indigenous soft and hardwoods, such as pine, birch, maple, oak, hickory, and later walnut, were readily available to colonial furniture craftsmen. With each ship new furniture forms arrived, including cane-back, slat-back, and leather-back chairs, as well as the upholstered chairs better known as easy chairs. Three styles came from England: William and Mary (c. 17001725) is an adaptation of the Baroque; Queen Anne (c. 17251760) is a refined Baroque with a greater awareness of technique; and Chippendale (c. 17601790) is a high English variant of French Rococo. Pottery With the arrival of the Europeans came the potter's wheel and many types of ceramic vessels. By 1635, Philip Drinker, an English potter, had started working in Charlestown, Massachusetts, and before 1655, Dirck Claesen, a Dutch "pottmaker," was working in Manhattan. By the very nature of local needs, most British colonial pottery production was utilitarian ware called redware, modeled on English and German storage jars, jugs, bowls, and plates. It was needed and produced in quantity, formed of the same red clay from which bricks were made. When fired, the clay remained porous. The glazing and ornamentation were basic. Redware (fired at 900 C1040 C) was usually given a clear lead glaze (using a highly toxic sulfide or oxide of lead), that emphasized the clay's red tones. Adding metal oxides such as copper, iron, or manganese produced

various bright colors that enhanced the surface of redware. Most potters were either immigrants or only a generation or two removed from European or English craftsman traditions. As the immigrants began to see themselves as Americans and heirs to a continent, they sought more intellectual diversity and distance from contemporary European sources, while continuing to buy European products. By 1800, the Adamesque Neo-Classicism of Britain had pervaded domestic manufacturing design, and those ancient Greek and Roman shapes took root to varying degrees in different art forms and regions of America. Across the newly expanding country the Federal Style (c. 17851815) was followed by the Empire Style (c. 18151830). Both styles were versions of the Robert Adaminspired Classical Revival in England and the variant Biedermeier style in Austria and Germany. Chairs, Ceramics, and Silver While the Shakers, a branch of the English Quakers, were rejecting the world about them, they made ladder-back chairs and sat as other Americans sat. While rockers were not a Shaker inventionthe earliest-known citation is from 17411742 by Solomon Fussell, a Philadelphia furniture makertheir popularity may owe much to the inventiveness of the Shaker chair makers and to their readiness to accommodate to new styles. In ceramics, the venerable English firm of Josiah Wedgwood was the leader in pottery. Wedgwood's invention of basalt ware in 1768, followed within a decade by his exquisitely modeled jasper ware, inspired ceramists everywhere. In the early nineteenth century the Wedgwood potteries did not produce porcelain, but the Worcester, Derby, and Coalport factories did, and those who sought fashionable dishes either got them from those factories or, starting about 1825, found suitable reproductions made by some twenty skilled craftsmen from England and France employed to make porcelain for the Jersey Porcelain and Earthenware Company in Jersey City, New Jersey. Other ventures followed in Philadelphia. At the same time, and serving many of the same customers, silversmiths were both manufacturers and retailers, their shops often doubling as a workroom and a showroom. This practice continued until about 1840, when the discovery of the technique of electroplating led to the rise of large companies that produced and sold silver plate in stores. While not eliminating individual silversmiths, it did reduce their importance. Ultimately large corporations such as the Gorham Manufacturing Company and International Silver Company largely depersonalized the industry. Those individual shops that survived specialized more in repair, chasing, and engraving than in creating products. Industrialization and Decorative Style The American ambivalence about industrialization helps explain the inherent ideological contradictions in the decorative arts between 1850 and 1900. Laminating rose-wood, for example, required a large number of technologically sophisticated pieces of shop equipment, and it is ironic that such technical and mechanized operations produced forms that were emotional cues to the antithesis of mechanization. Besides the various European-derived revival styles, the Rococo Revival became an important stylistic force among wealthy Americans by 1850. The most influential sources for designers were the natural world, the past, and the exotic. Immensely popular in America were china patterns produced in England such as the transfer image "Ontario Lake Scenery." Massproduced of cheap materials, the scene shows a castle, Niagara Falls, and tepees

against a mountainous background. The newly powerful merchants, industrialists, and their managers bought this ware and anything else they saw at a reasonable price. The mass market was born, as was the separation of design from material reality in popular decorative arts. Oriental Style While China and Japan had been very important design sources for the decorative arts of elite culture before 1800, the American middle class discovered the Orient at the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition. Everyday objects such as the inro, netsuke, and fans became decorative materials for homes or prized collections. "Oriental" was also a decorating, ceramics, and furniture style; at its extreme, oriental pieces were cast or carved to resemble bamboo, ebonized, or lacquered; paper parasols were popular, as were paper lanterns, fans, and kimonos. By the end of the century, artisans were manufacturing large numbers of items in the Oriental style expressly for use in America. By 1900 most "Made in Japan" furniture resembled forms from China. Design had succumbed to the marketplace. But the Oriental influence also took another direction in the ceramic glazes and shapes developed by such potters as William Henry Grueby, who set up the Grueby Faience Company of Boston in 1894. Working with George Prentiss Kendrick, an established designer in brass and silverware, the shop created outstanding European-Japanese inspired shapes and a range of delicious semi-matt glazes: blues, yellows, browns, grays, and an ivory-white crackle. His most sought-after and imitated glaze was a semi-matt green. Grueby green became an industry standard. Grueby was an instant success at the Society of Arts & Crafts Exhibit in Boston in 1897. While already represented by Siegfried Bing (18381905), founder of the Gallery of Art Nouveau and Tiffany's European outlet, in 1900, Grueby was awarded one silver and two gold medals in Paris. In 1900 the pottery won a gold medal at St. Petersburg and in 1901 the Highest Award at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, at which Grueby contributed to rooms designed by Gustav Stickley, a pioneer of Arts & Craftsstyle furniture in America. The Highest Award followed in Turin in 1902 and the Grand Prize in St. Louis in 1904. Art Deco Style While the Art Deco style actually budded between 1908 and 1912, it did not bloom until after World War I. The style draws on a host of diverse and often conflicting influences Cubism, Russian Constructivism, Italian Futurism, abstraction, distortion, and simplification. Art Deco's tenet that form must follow function remained unchallenged by all succeeding schools of design. However, its accompanying dictum that the piece should also be unique or, at most, a limited edition proved elitist in an age ruled by Modernism. The Modernists argued that the new age demanded excellent design for everyone and that quality and mass production were not mutually exclusive. The future of the decorative arts did not rest with the rich; rather, an object's greatest beauty lay in its perfect adaptation to its usage. For the first time, the straight line became a source of beauty. In the late 1920s a moderated Modernism was all the fashion. French Art Deco styling produced by Steuben (1903) and Libbey Glass Compay (1892) revived the American glass industry somewhat; it had suffered a decline after Art

Nouveau flourished under Louis Comfort Tiffany. Steuben produced expensive, limited editions of art glass designed by its founder, the Englishman Frederick Carder (1863 1963). The Libbey Glass Company was in the vanguard of 1930s American commercial glass design. The tradition-bound American home of the 1930s was jolted by the Consolidated Lamp and Glass Company of Coraopolis, Pennsylvania, when it designed a Cubist line of glassware called Ruba Rombic, which was offered in pale hues such as gray, topaz, and amber. The Great Depression struck a fatal blow to luxury items, and in America the Art Deco style was only reluctantly adapted to jewelry design. To accommodate the trend, Tiffany of New York created traditional objects in the new style, but without the crisp angularity found in Paris. C. D. Peacock and Spaulding-Gorham Inc. in Chicago produced jewelry in the new idiom, but again without the panache of their French counterparts. One genuinely new form appeared in American jewelry at the time: the stepped outline, which coincided with the emergence of the stepback skyscraper, the most beautiful examples of which are the Chrysler Building and the Empire State Building in New York City. Modernism When the American skyscraper boom of the mid-1920s started, America did not have its own Modernist style. The country was still decorating tall buildings in a Gothic style derived from the pens of Cass Gilbert or Hood and Howells' Chicago Tribune Tower. As in traditional buildings, Modernist decoration served as a transitional device to alert the viewer to a change in contour. It was often not designed by the architect but purchased directly from companies such as Northwestern Terra Cotta in Chicago. A sumptuous combination of stone, brick, terracotta, and metal often transformed an otherwise bland structure into a source of great civic pride. Since 1945 the decorative arts in America have served as a template for the culture of consumerism, with its attendant design functions. By the 1960s commercial television, various other advertising media, consumer magazines, and city sign systems both commercial and practical emerged as challenging and exciting new disciplines and venues in the ongoing interface between consumer and product: promising, seducing, fueling, and directing. The cultural role of the decorative arts and design was extended well beyond the need for harmony between form and function. The artisan and designer became a communicator, giving form to products not in the abstract but within a culture and for a marketplace. Never before had there been such an intensive dialogue between the "fine" and the "decorative" arts. By the 1970s Pop artists were devising their own set of rules, an antithesis to Modernism ideology yet not antagonistic. Pop was about being Modern in a different though not exclusive sense. It was the Modern of fashionable, highimpact design; a never-mind-about-tomorrow, brash, superficial Modern. All the while, decorative arts changed rapidly, embracing both functional and fully nonfunctional, both the beautiful and the ugly, limited only by the inventiveness of the craftsperson. Glass Glass is created by fusing silica (sand, quartz, or flints) with alkaline fluxes (soda ash or potash) in a crucible, a fireclay pot, within a furnace. Fuel for heating is usually based on local availability. Two basic techniques dominate glassmaking: molding and blowing. All glass must also be annealed, slowly cooled to become less brittle. Color has been an important component of the appeal of glass since the beginnings of glassmaking. Color demands a sophisticated and specialized knowledge. Some of the

most popular oxide additives to molten glass are cobalt, which produces a wide range of blues; gold, the most romanticized of the additives, which produces a range of reds; antimony, which produces an opaque yellow; iron, which produces a range of colors from yellow to green to blue; copper, which produces a wide range of blues, greens, and reds, and even a glittering metal in suspension; and manganese, which can produce an amethyst color. Surface color can be quickly achieved by exposing the glass to various chemicals or gasses, thus causing iridescence similar to that found in long-buried Roman glass. Louis Comfort Tiffany became the acknowledged master of manufactured iridescence. Early Glassmaking and Industrialization When Jamestown Virginia was founded in 1607, glass-blowers were among the settlers. Like the colony, their glassmaking venture, America's first industry, failed. Other glassmakers followed in New Amsterdam (later New York), Salem, Boston, and Philadelphia. All were short-lived ventures. But demand for glass was great in colonial America. In 1739, in the face of a British ban on manufacturing glass, a German glassmaker, Caspar Wistar, established a factory in southern New Jersey that successfully produced window glass, bottles, and tableware. Free-blown glass was also popular. Many glassmakers, mostly German, followed Wistar's example, but despite abundant fuel and sand, most failed. But failure did not deter the industry, and every decade of the eighteenth century saw production increase as the demand grew for bottles, windows, and free-blown vessels. While blowing glass into a mold was efficient, the development of mechanical glass-pressing machines in the 1820s actually industrialized the industry. American glass of seemingly ever-new colors could now be pressed into a myriad of shapes. This sudden speedup in production, the first in almost 2,000 years, was America's first great contribution to the glass industry. For the first time identical pairs or interchangeable sets were possible. Home decorating changed forever. The New England Glass Company in East Cambridge, Massachusetts (18181888), became one of the glassmaking giants of the century and produced an enormous variety of wares of international importance. The Boston and Sandwich Glass Company, in Sandwich, Massachusetts (18251889), was a significant competitor. Others followed. After about 1845, Bohemian-style glass, blown, cut, wheel-engraved, or machinepressed, became the rage. Soon fine line cutting and panel cuts, deep reds and blues, marble or agate glass, and cased, flashed, and stained ware were common sights in better American homes. In 1864, William Leighton of Hobbs, Brockunier, and Company in Wheeling, West Virginia, developed a soda lime glass that looked like expensive lead glass but was much cheaper to produce. It changed the industry, especially that of luxury glass. The Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition of 1876 led the campaign for glass that was deeply cut, more elaborate, and handmade. Instantly popular, it is now referred to as "brilliant," or Victorian, glass, and its production continued until about 1915. Libbey Glass Company in Toledo, Ohio, became a leader in this type of American glass. Art Glass and Modern Styles Paralleling brilliant glass was the very popular new taste for art glass, another continuation of Americans' desire for excess that spawned novel glass colors, finishes, and shapes, mostly for the production of decorative objects. Louis Comfort Tiffany was the uncontested master. His development of Favril glass in the late 1870s, based on

existing German technologies and ideas developed by John La Farge, ushered in a new style of glass, which in 1895 was called "art nouveau." Exhibited at the 1893 Chicago World's Columbian Exhibition, Tiffany glass was immediately purchased by several European museums, internationally acclaimed, and copied. Endlessly adapting Roman, medieval, and Muslim shapes and surfaces, Tiffany's genius sprang forth in colors, patterns, and marketing. Along with "brilliant" cut glass, Tiffany glass dominated until about 1915. Brilliant cut slipped into stuffy obscurity, and Tiffany's glass was maligned, neglected, and forgotten until the early 1970s, but since then Tiffany glass has become once again the most sought-after of all glass. The 1920s ushered in severe changes in style. Out went ornamental, in came functional. This change proved difficult for the glass industry and its designers. The great designer Frederick Carder employed elegantly simplified forms that helped make the work of Steuben Glass Works in Corning, New York, broadly popular. In 19391940 Libbey Glass Company turned new streamlined designs by Edwin W. Fuerst into a line called "Modern American." American glass of the 1950s, made by such firms as Blenko Glass Company in West Virginia, was broadly popular, and by the early 1990s American glass of the 1950s had become much sought-after by collectors. Art galleries specializing in modern and 1950s glass sprang up to meet the demand. Studio Glass Arguably the most influential change in modern glass-making occurred in 1962, when the Toledo Museum of Art organized a hands-on glass working seminar. Led by the glass technician Dominick Labino and the ceramist and glass designer Harvey K. Littleton, both of the University of Wisconsin, the seminar's emphasis on uniting the traditional functions of craftsman and designer (separated since the early eighteenth century) led directly to a renaissance in contemporary hand-worked glass seen as a sculptural medium. The studio-glass phenomenon attracted new glass artists who migrated from other materials and who used not only traditional hot glass methods such as blowing and casting but also warm techniques such as fusing, slumping, and enameling, as well as cold techniques such as cutting, polishing, etching, sandblasting, painting, and joining with new acrylic adhesives to achieve their designs. Glass, like other materials, became the embodiment of an "artistic gesture." Starting in the late 1960s, Dale Chihuly, Richard Marquis, James Carpenter, Michael Nourot, William Prindle, and others (Robert Willson had been there first, in 1958) had all spent time in Murano, Italy, studying ancient glassblowing traditions with master craftsmen. In 1971, Chihuly founded Pilchuck Glass Center outside Seattle, Washington, and began to work in his signature technique based on centuries-old Venetian glass traditions, without the constraint of fifteenth-and sixteenth-century technology. The same decade saw the founding of the Penland School in North Carolina and the Haystack Mountain School in Maine. Publications such as Craft Horizons and New Glass Review, and regular exhibitions, became significant supports. The American Crafts Council has had its own museum in New York since 1987, the same year the Corning Museum in upstate New York placed part of its modern glass collection on permanent display. Since these ambitious moves, the creativity and diversity of glass artists has found appeal among countless collectors, making glass the most collected of all contemporary art media.

shock has many meanings in common usage. Most often it refers to a sudden mental or emotional experience ranging from a trivial unpleasant surprise to the deep disturbance of personal disaster or bereavement; shell-shock refers to distress and disturbed behavior in the aftermath of battle. When the media report someone as suffering from shock this may vaguely imply only shock, without physical injury, whereas a clinician will use the term for a potentially dangerous condition with quite specific physical features. This last will be the main topic under this heading. In medical terms, shock occurs when the blood supply to the tissues is inadequate to meet the requirements of the body. It is a sudden, or acute, failure of the circulation. Topographic anatomy In this, the body is studied by regions rather than by organs. This is of importance to the surgeon who exposes different planes after the skin incision and who, of course, must be perfectly familiar with structures as he explores the limbs and body cavities. Once the sole preserve of the surgeon, this field has acquired immense significance today for the radiologist (see below). In this respect cross-sectional topographic anatomy has come into its own. Endoscopic anatomy With the development of fibreoptic instruments, the body's tubes and cavities are now being explored in life. The detailed anatomy, for example, of the bronchial tree as seen through the bronchoscope is now of great importance. The introduction of laparoscopic and thoracoscopic instruments to explore and operate in the abdomen and thorax respectively has also opened new vistas as surgeons require to learn their anatomical landmarks through these approaches. Surface (living) anatomy From the practical point of view, every medical practitioner needs to know the detailed structure of the tissues beneath the skin of his patient. This forms an important part of the teaching of medical students, who can practise on themselves the identification of bones, landmarks, muscles, and arterial pulses; the palpation of normal structures through the intact skin; and the range of movement of the joints. Radiological and imaging anatomy The discovery by Rntgen of X-rays a century ago opened new vistas of anatomical study. This was enhanced by the development of radiological techniques to outline viscera, for example by injecting radio-opaque solutions into blood vessels (angiography) or by swallowing barium paste in order to demonstrate the oesophagus and stomach. More recently, other imaging techniques, which include ultrasonography, computerized tomography, and, in particular, magnetic resonance imaging, have provided unrivalled information of three-dimensional anatomy in the living body. Indeed, today, the radiologist must possess a detailed knowledge of anatomy that certainly rivals that of his surgical colleagues. Embryological anatomy

The complex changes in the growing fetus are studied because much of adult anatomy can only be understood by appreciating its prenatal development. More and more has been learned about the underlying causes of the numerous congenital abnormalities that may arise as aberrations of normal development. Microscopic anatomy is of fundamental importance in the understanding of pathological changes, and has advanced with the introduction of electron microscopy, which enables the finest details of the cells to be studied at an ultramicroscopic magnification of several thousands. Kinesiology, the study of joint and limb movement, has developed into a subject of immense importance, together with biomechanics and orthotics (the study and use of artificial limbs). Here, research has an immediate application in orthopaedic practice, for the study of joint prostheses, the measurement of forces acting on the skeleton, and choosing the strength of materials utilized in reconstructive surgery; also for the analysis of the causes of failures of artificial joint implants, or of the materials used in internal fixation of fractures. Neuroanatomy, the study of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, forms an important part of the battery of approaches needed for neurobiological exploration, which today is complemented by physiology, pharmacology, molecular biology, and dynamic whole brain imaging. All these topics are of obvious importance in the various expanding fields of medicine, but anatomy also impinges on other sciences. Examples are comparative anatomy the comparison of structures in different animals and species; palaeoanatomy the study of ancient remains mainly, of course, of bones; and physical anthropology the study of the different human races. A recent development has been the appearance of a complete, sectioned human body appearing on the World Wide Web. The Visible Human Project presents transverse CT, MRI and cryosection images of two complete human cadavers, one male and one female, at an average of 1 mm intervals. These allow three-dimensional constructions to be visualized from any angle on the computer screen. Anatomy is thus a subject which encompasses a great variety of endeavors characterized by the study of the organization of the human body, and which impinges on many other sciences. In teaching anatomy to medical students, dissection of the cadaver remains fundamental, but the student also studies living, imaging, microscopic, and embryological anatomy. Anatomy forms an essential part of the scientific basis of medicine. All those concerned with disorders of the human body must start from a background of knowledge of its normal macroscopic and microscopic structure. Birds Birds are warm-blooded vertebrate (having a backbone) animals whose bodies are covered with feathers and whose forelimbs are modified into wings. Most can fly. Birds are in the class Aves, which contains over 9,500 species divided among 31 living orders. One order, the Passeriformes or perching birds, accounts for more than one-half of all living species of birds. Most scientists believe that birds evolved from saurischian dinosaurs about 145 million years ago. The first truly birdlike animal, they point out, was Archaeopteryx lithographica, which lived during the Jurassic period. Fossils from this animal were found

in Germany in the nineteenth century. This 3-foot (1-meter) long animal is considered to be an evolutionary link between the birds and the dinosaurs. It had teeth and other dinosaurian characteristics, but it also had a feathered body and could fly. A fossil discovery by scientists in 2000, however, threw into doubt the theory of birds' evolution. The fossils in question were excavated in 1969 in Kyrgyzstan, a former Soviet republic, but were not correctly identified until some thirty years later. The animal, Longisquama insignis, lived in Central Asia 220 million years ago, not long after the time of the first dinosaurs. From impressions left in stone, it had four legs and what appeared to be feathers on its body. Scientists who analyzed the fossils said the animal had a wishbone virtually identical to Archaeopteryx and similar to modern birds. It was a small reptile that probably glided among the trees 75 million years before the earliest known bird. Some scientists believe this challenges the widely held theory that birds evolved from dinosaurs. Modern characteristics The bodies of birds are covered with specialized structures known as feathers that grow out of the skin. No other animal has them. Feathers act as a barrier against water and heat loss, are light but very strong, and provide a smooth, flat surface for pushing against the air during flight. The feathers of most species have color, often bright and beautifully patterned, that serves as camouflage and is used in courtship displays by males. The modified forelimbs, or wings, of birds are used for flying or gliding. The hind limbs are used for walking, perching, or swimming. Swimming birds typically have webbed feet that aid them in moving through water. The bones of the flying birds are structured for flight. They are very light and have many hollow regions. The wing bones are connected by strong muscles to the keeled, or ridged, breastbone, and the pelvic bones are fused so that they are rigid in flight. The jaws of birds are modified into a horny beak, or bill, that has no teeth and that is shaped according to the eating habits of each species. Like mammals, birds have a fourchambered heart that pumps blood to the lungs to receive oxygen and then to the body tissues to distribute that oxygen. Fertilization occurs internally, and the female lays hard-shelled eggsusually in some type of nestthat have a distinct yolk. One or sometimes both parents sit on the eggs until they hatch, and the young of almost all species are cared for by both parents. Words to Know Barb: The branches of a feather that grow out of the quill and are held together by barbules in flying birds. Barbules: Hooks that hold the barbs of a feather together in flying birds. Bill: The jaws of a bird and their horny covering. Feathers: Light outgrowths of the skin of birds that cover and protect the body, provide coloration, and aid in flight. Keel: The ridge on the breastbone of a flying bird to which the flying muscles are attached.

Quill: The hollow central shaft of a feather from which the barbs grow. The keen eyesight and sensitive hearing of birds aid them in locating food. This is important because their high level of activity requires that they eat often. Birds are also very vocal, using various calls to warn of danger, defend their territory, and communicate with others of their species. Songbirds are any birds that sing musically. Usually, only the male of the species sings. The frequency and intensity of their song is greatest during the breeding season, when the male is establishing a territory and trying to attract a mate. Birds are found the world over in many different habitats. They range in size from the smallest hummingbird, at less than 2 inches (6 centimeters), to the largest ostrich, which may reach a height of 8 feet (2.4 meters) and weigh as much as 400 pounds (182 kilograms). Many species of birds migrate hundreds or even thousands of miles south every autumn to feed in warmer climates, returning north in the spring. Flightless birds Flightless birds lack the keel (high ridge) on the breastbone to which the flight muscles of flying birds are attached. Instead, the breastbone is shaped like a turtle's shell. It has also been described as a raft, giving this group of birds its name, Ratitae (from the Latin ratis, meaning "raft"). Ratites have heavy, solid bones and include the largest living birds, such as the ostriches of Africa and the emus of Australia. Kiwis, another type of flightless bird, live in New Zealand and are about the size of chickens. The penguins of Antarctica are also flightless but are not regarded as ratites. Their powerful flight muscles are used for swimming instead of flying. Ratites are the oldest living birds and are descended from flying birds who lost the ability to fly. The feathers of ratites differ in structure from those of flying birds. They lack barbuleshooked structures that fasten the barbs of the quill together, providing an air-resistant surface during flight. Instead, the strands that grow from the quill separate softly, allowing air through. This softness makes the feathers of many ratites particularly desirable. Ostrich plumes, for example, have long been used as decoration on helmets and hats. Human impact on birds Humans have destroyed birds, both intentionally and unintentionally. Two hundred years ago, birds were considered such an inexhaustible resource that wholesale slaughter of then hardly raised a concern. The greatest impact humans have had on birds has been brought about through human expansion (farms, cities, roads, buildings) into their natural habitats. A by-product of industrial development has been widespread environmental pollution. Pesticides, used on farms to rid fields of insects, have accumulated in many places frequented by birds and have been subsequently ingested by them. Oil spills have also taken their toll on bird populations. It is not surprising, then, that many species have disappeared as a result of human activities and encroachment on the natural environment. According to one scientific estimate, 85 species of birds, representing 27 families, have become extinct since 1600. Dinosaur Dinosaurs are a group of now-extinct, terrestrial reptiles in the order Dinosauria. They lived during the Mesozoic Era, from about 225 million years ago to 66 million years ago.

Species of dinosaurs ranged from chicken-sized creatures such as the 2-pound (1kilogram) predator Compsognathus to colossal, herbivorous animals known as sauropods weighing more than 80 tons (72 metric tons). The sauropods were larger than any terrestrial animals that lived before or since. Some dinosaurs were enormous, awesomely fierce predators, while others were mildmannered plant eaters. The word dinosaur is derived from two Greek words meaning "terrible lizard." The name comes from the fact that the remains of the earliest dinosaurs discovered were very large and showed they had a lizardlike appearance. Biology of the dinosaurs The dinosaurs shared some common physical characteristics, such as the presence of two openings on opposite sides of their skulls and 25 vertebrae. However, the dinosaurs also differed from each other in many important ways. They displayed an enormous range of forms and functions, and they filled a wide array of ecological niches. Some of the dinosaurs were, in fact, quite bizarre in their shape and, undoubtedly, their behavior. Most species of dinosaurs had a long tail and long neck, but this was not the case for all species. Most of the dinosaurs walked on their four legs, although some species were bipedal, using only their rear legs for locomotion. Their forelegs were greatly reduced in size and probably used only for grasping. The species that walked on four legs were all peaceful herbivores. In contrast, many of the bipedal dinosaurs were fast-running predators. The teeth of dinosaur species were highly diverse. Many species were exclusively herbivorous, and their teeth were correspondingly adapted for cutting and grinding vegetation. Other dinosaurs were fierce predators, and their teeth were shaped like serrated (notched) knives. These teeth were undoubtedly used to seize and stab their prey, cutting it into smaller pieces that could be swallowed whole. Until recently, it was widely believed that dinosaurs were rather stupid, slow-moving, cold-blooded creatures. However, some scientists now believe that dinosaurs were intelligent, social, quick-moving, and probably warm-blooded animals. This question is still rather controversial. Scientists have not yet reached agreement as to whether at least some of the dinosaurs were able to regulate their body temperature by producing heat through metabolic reactions. Bipedal: Walking on two feet. Carnivore (carnivorous): Meat-eating. Embryo: The earliest stage of animal development in the uterus before the animal is considered a fetus. Extinct: No longer alive on Earth. Fossil: Evidence of plant or animal life preserved in earth, usually in rocks. Herbivore (herbivorous): Plant-eating. Ornithischian dinosaurs: Dinosaurs with birdlike characteristics. Predator: An animal that eats other animals. Saurischian dinosaurs: Dinosaurs with reptilelike characteristics. Sauropods: A group of large saurischian herbivores. Terrestrial: Relating to the land. Thecodonts: Early reptiles regarded as ancestors of the dinosaurs.

Nuclear physics Branch of physics concerned with the structure and properties of the atomic nucleus. The principal means of investigating the nucleus is the scattering experiment, carried out in particle accelerators, in which a nucleus is bombarded with a beam of high-energy elementary particles, and the resultant particles analyzed. Study of the nucleus has led to an understanding of the processes occurring inside stars and has enabled the building of nuclear reactors. MARKETING Marketing pertains to the interactive process that requires developing, pricing, placing, and promoting goods, ideas, or services in order to facilitate exchanges between customers and sellers to satisfy the needs and wants of consumers. Thus, at the very center of the marketing process is satisfying the needs and wants of customers. NEEDS AND WANTS Needs are the basic items required for human survival. Human needs are an essential concept underlying the marketing process because needs are translated into consumer wants. Human needs are often described as a state of real or perceived deprivation. Basic human needs take one of three forms: physical, social, and individual. Physical needs are basic to survival and include food, clothing, warmth, and safety. Social needs revolve around the desire for belonging and affection. Individual needs include longings for knowledge and self-expression, through items such as clothing choices. Wants are needs that are shaped by both cultural influences and individual preferences. Wants are often described as goods, ideas, and services that fulfill the needs of an individual consumer. The wants of individuals change as both society and technology change. For example, when a computer is released, a consumer may want it simply because it is a new and improved technology. Therefore, the purpose of marketing is to convert these generic needs into wants for specific goods, ideas, or services. Demand is created when wants are supported by an individual consumer's ability to purchase the goods, ideas, or services in question. Consumers buy products that will best meet their needs, as well as provide the most fulfillment resulting from the exchange process. The first step in the exchange process is to provide a product. Products can take a number of forms such as goods, ideas, and services. All products are produced to satisfy the needs, wants, and demands of individual buyers. The second step in the satisfaction process is exchange. Exchange occurs when an individual receives a product from a seller in return for something called consideration. Consideration usually takes the form of currency. For an exchange to take place, it must meet a number of conditions: 1. There must be at least two participants in the process. 2. Each party must offer something of value to the other. 3. Both parties must want to deal with each other. 4. Both participants have the right to accept or to reject the offer. 5. Both parties must have the ability to communicate and deliver on the mutual agreement. Thus, the transaction process is a core component of marketing. Whenever there is a trade of values between two parties, a transaction has occurred. A transaction is often considered a unit of measurement in marketing. The earliest form of exchange was known as barter. HISTORICAL ERAS OF MARKETING

Modern marketing began in the early 1900s. The marketing process progressed through four distinct eras: production, sales, marketing, and relationship. In the 1920s, firms operated under the premise that production was a seller's market. Product choices were nearly nonexistent because firm managers believed that a superior product would sell itself. This philosophy was possible because the demand for products outlasted supply. During this era, firm success was measured totally in terms of production. The second era of marketing, ushered in during 1950s, is known as the sales era. During this era, product supply exceeded demand. Thus, firms assumed that consumers would resist buying goods and services deemed nonessential. To overcome this consumer resistance, sellers had to employ creative advertising and skillful personal selling in order to get consumers to buy. The marketing era emerged after firm managers realized that a better strategy was needed to attract and keep customers because allowing products to sell themselves was not effective. Rather, the marketing concept philosophy was adopted by many firms in an attempt to meet the specific needs of customers. Proponents of the marketing concept argued that in order for firms to achieve their goals, they had to satisfy the needs and wants of consumers. The relationship era began in the 1990s and continues today. The thrust of the relationship era is to establish and foster long-term relationships with both customers and suppliers. These long-term relationships with both customers and suppliers add value to the marketing process that benefits all affiliated parties. MARKETING IN THE OVERALL BUSINESS There are four areas of operation within all firms: accounting, finance, management, and marketing. Each of these four areas performs specific functions. The accounting department is responsible for keeping track of income and expenditures. The primary responsibility of the finance department is maintaining and tracking assets. The management department is responsible for creating and implementing procedural policies of the firm. The marketing department is responsible for generating revenue through the exchange process. As a means of generating revenue, marketing objectives are established in alignment with the overall objectives of the firm. Aligning the marketing activities with the objectives of the firm is completed through the process of marketing management. The marketing management process involves developing objectives that promote the long-term competitive advantage of a firm. The first step in the marketing management process is to develop the firm's overall strategic plan. The second step is to establish marketing strategies that support the firm's overall strategic objectives. Lastly, a marketing plan is developed for each product. Each product plan contains an executive summary, an explanation of the current marketing situation, a list of threats and opportunities, proposed sales objectives, possible marketing strategies, action programs, and budget proposals. The marketing management process includes analyzing marketing opportunities, selecting target markets, developing the marketing mix, and managing the marketing effort. In order to analyze marketing opportunities, firms scan current environmental conditions in order to determine potential opportunities. The aim of the marketing effort is to satisfy the needs and wants of consumers. Thus, it is necessary for marketing managers to determine the particular needs and wants of potential customers. Various quantitative and qualitative techniques of marketing research are used to collect data about potential customers, who are then segmented into markets. MARKET SEGMENTATION

In order to better manage the marketing effort and to satisfy the needs and wants of customers, many firms place consumers into groups, a process called market segmentation. In this process, potential customers are categorized based on different needs, characteristics, or behaviors. Market segments are evaluated as to their attractiveness or potential for generating revenue for the firm. Four factors are generally reviewed to determine the potential of a particular market segment. Effective segments are measurable, accessible, substantial, and actionable. Measurability is the degree to which a market segment's size and purchasing power can be measured. Accessibility refers to the degree to which a market segment can be reached and served. Substantiality refers to the size of the segment in terms of profitability for the firm. Action ability refers to the degree to which a firm can design or develop a product to serve a particular market segment. Consumer characteristics are used to segment markets into workable groups. Common characteristics used for consumer categorizations include demographic, geographic, psychographic, and behavioral segmentation. Demographic segmentation categorizes consumers based on such characteristics as age, ethnicity, gender, income level, and occupation. It is one of the most popular methods of segmenting potential customers because it makes it relatively easy to identify potential customers. Categorizing consumers according to their locations is called geographic segmentation. Consumers can be segmented geographically according to the nations, states, regions, cities, or neighborhoods in which they live, shop, and/or work. Psychographic segmentation uses consumers' activities, interests, and opinions to sort them into groups. Social class, lifestyle, or personality characteristics are psychographic variables used to categorize consumers into different groups. In behavioral segmentation, marketers divide consumers into groups based on their knowledge, attitudes, uses, or responses to a product. Once the potential market has been segmented, firms need to station their products relative to similar products of other producers, a process called product positioning. Market positioning is the process of arranging a product so as to engage the minds of target consumers. Firm managers position their products in such a way as to distinguish them from those of competitors in order to gain a competitive advantage in the marketplace. The position of a product in the marketplace must be clear, distinctive, and desirable relative to those of its competitors in order for it to be effective. COVERAGE STRATEGIES Marketing managers use three basic market-coverage strategies: undifferentiated, differentiated, and concentrated. An undifferentiated marketing strategy occurs when a firm focuses on the common needs of consumers rather than their different needs. When using this strategy, producers design products to appeal to the largest number of potential buyers. The benefit of an undifferentiated strategy is that it is cost-effective because a narrow product focus results in lower production, inventory, and transportation costs. A firm using a differentiated strategy makes a conscious decision to divide and target several different market segments, with a different product geared to each segment. Thus, a different marketing plan is needed for each segment in order to maximize sales and, as a result, increase firm profits. With a differentiated marketing strategy, firms create more total sales because of broader appeal across market segments and stronger position within each segment.

The last market coverage strategy is known as the concentrated marketing strategy. The concentrated strategy, which aims to serve a large share of one or a very few markets, is best suited for firms with limited resources. This approach allows firms to obtain a much stronger position in the segments it targets because of the greater emphasis on these targeted segments. This greater emphasis ultimately leads to a better understanding of the needs of the targeted segments. MARKETING MIX Once a positioning strategy has been determined, marketing managers seek to control the four basic elements of the marketing mix: product, price, place, and promotion, known as the four Ps of marketing. Since these four variables are controllable, the best mix of these elements is determined to reach the selected target market. Product The first element in the marketing mix is the product. Products can be either tangible or intangible. Tangible products are products that can be touched; intangible products are those that cannot be touched, such as services. There are three basic levels of a product: core, actual, and augmented. The core product is the most basic level, what consumers really buy in terms of benefits. For example, consumers do not buy food processors, per se; rather, they buy the benefit of being able to process food quickly and efficiently. The next level of the product is the actual productin the case of the previous example, food processors. Products are typically sorted according to the following five characteristics: quality, features, styling, brand name, and packaging. Finally, the augmented level of a product consists of all the elements that surround both the core and the actual product. The augmented level provides purchasers with additional services and benefits. For example, follow-up technical assistance and warranties and guaranties are augmented product components. When planning new products, firm managers consider a number of issues including product quality, features, options, styles, brand name, packaging, size, service, warranties, and return policies, all in an attempt to meet the needs and wants of consumers. Price Price is the cost of the product paid by consumers. This is the only element in the marketing mix that generates revenue for firms. In order to generate revenue, managers must consider factors both internal and external to the organization. Internal factors take the form of marketing objectives, the marketing-mix strategy, and production costs. External factors to consider are the target market, product demand, competition, economic conditions, and government regulations. A number of pricing strategies are available to marketing managers: skimming, penetration, quantity, and psychological. With a price-skimming strategy, the price is initially set high, allowing firms to generate maximum profits from customers willing to pay the high price. Prices are then gradually lowered until maximum profit is received from each level of consumer. Penetration pricing is used when firms set low prices in order to capture a large share of a market quickly. A quantity-pricing strategy provides lower prices to consumers who purchase larger quantities of a product. Psychological pricing tends to focus on consumer perceptions. For example, odd pricing is a common psychological pricing strategy. With odd pricing, the cost of the product may be a few cents lower than a fulldollar value. Consumers tend to focus on the lower-value full-dollar cost even though it is really priced closer to the next higher full-dollar amount. For example, if a good is priced at $19.95, consumers will focus on $19 rather than $20.

Place Place refers to where and how the products will be distributed to consumers. There are two basic issues involved in getting the products to consumers: channel management and logistics management. Channel management involves the process of selecting and motivating wholesalers and retailers, sometimes called middlemen, through the use of incentives. Several factors are reviewed by firm management when determining where to sell their products: distribution channels, market-coverage strategy, geographic locations, inventory, and transportation methods. The process of moving products from a manufacturer to the final consumer is often called the channel of distribution. Promotion The last variable in the marketing mix is promotion. Various promotional tools are used to communicate messages about products, ideas, or services from firms to their customers. The promotional tools available to managers are advertising, personal selling, sales promotion, and public relations. For the promotional program to be effective, managers use a blend of the four promotional tools that best reaches potential customers. This blending of promotional tools is sometimes referred to as the promotional mix. The goal of this promotional mix is to communicate to potential customers the features and benefits of goods, ideas, or services. INTERNATIONAL MARKETING International business has been practiced for thousands of years. In modern times, advances in technology have improved transportation and communication methods; as a result, more and more firms have set up shop at various locations around the globe. A natural component of international business is international marketing. International marketing occurs when firms plan and conduct transactions across international borders in order to satisfy the objectives of both consumers and the firm. International marketing is simply a strategy used by firms to improve both market share and profits. While firm managers may try to employ the same basic marketing strategies used in the domestic market when promoting products in international locations, those strategies may not be appropriate or effective. Firm managers must adapt their strategies to fit the unique characteristics of each international market. Unique environmental factors that need to be explored by firm managers before going global include trade systems, economic conditions, political-legal systems, and cultural conditions. The first factor to consider in the international marketplace is each country's trading system. All countries have their own trade system regulations and restrictions. Common trade system regulations and restrictions include tariffs, quotas, embargoes, exchange controls, and nontariff trade barriers. The second factor to review is the economic environment. Two economic factors reflect how attractive a particular market is in a selected country: industrial structure and income distribution. Industrial structure refers to how well developed a country's infrastructure is, while income distribution refers to how income is distributed among its citizens. Political-legal environment is the third factor to investigate. For example, the individual and cultural attitudes regarding purchasing products from foreign countries, political stability, monetary regulations, and government bureaucracy all influence marketing practices and opportunities. Finally, the last factor to be considered before entering a global market is the cultural environment. Since cultural values regarding particular products will vary considerably from one country to another around the world, managers must take into account these differences in the planning process.

Just as with domestic markets, managers must establish their international marketing objectives and policies before going overseas. For example, target countries will need to be identified and evaluated in terms of their potential sales and profits. After selecting a market and establishing marketing objectives, the mode of entry into the market must be determined. There are three major modes of entry into international markets: exporting, joint venture, and direct investment. Exporting Exporting is the simplest way to enter an international market. With exporting, firms enter international markets by selling products internationally through the use of middlemen. This use of these middlemen is sometimes called indirect exporting. Joint Venture The second way to enter an international market is by using the joint-venture approach. A joint venture takes place when firms join forces with companies from the international market to produce or market a product. Joint ventures differ from direct investment in that an association is formed between firms and businesses in the international market. The four types of joint venture are licensing, contract manufacturing, management contracting, and joint ownership. Under licensing, firms allow other businesses in the international market to produce products under an agreement called a license. The licensee has the right to use the manufacturing process, trademark, patent, trade secret, or other items of value for a fee or royalty. Firms also use contract manufacturing, which arranges for the manufacture of products to enter international markets. In the third type of joint venture, management contracting, the firms supply the capital to the local international firm in exchange for the management know-how. The last category of joint venture is joint ownership. Firms join with local international investors to establish a local business. Both groups share joint ownership and control of the newly established business. Direct Investment Direct investment is the last mode used by firms to enter international markets. With direct investment, a firm enters the market by establishing its own base in international locations. Direct investment is advantageous because labor and raw materials may be cheaper in some countries. Firms can also improve their images in international markets because of the employment opportunities they create. MARKETING VIA THE INTERNET Advances in digital technology have revolutionized the way companies satisfy the needs and wants of customers through marketing. The term e-commerce is used to describe the broad range of activities associated conducting business via telecommunication networks. E-marketing is the term used to describe the activities associated with the four Ps of marketing for goods and services sold via the Internet. E-marketing offers a number of advantages to consumers such as convenience, comparison pricing, and personalization. Buyers have the convenience of shopping at businesses located around the world at anytime. For instance, via the General Motors Web site (http://www.gm.com), potential buyers can build custom vehicles, print window stickers, determine monthly payments, and search dealer inventories. Through emarketing, shoppers can look for the lowest price for products they want to purchase. At certain Web sites, such as Price-Grabber.com (http://www.pricegrabber.com), buyers can compare prices for the same product from many different sellers at the same time and in one location. Personalization is another important advantage of e-marketing. For

example, American Airlines provides customers with personalized frequent-flier account summaries, as well as special airfare promotions via electronic mail. E-marketing offers a number of advantages to sellers, including enhanced speed and efficiency, flexibility, and worldwide reach. Enhanced speed and efficiency is achieved for sellers through the virtual link created with customers via the Internet. This virtual link with buyers results in lower operating cost that can be passed along to customers. E-marketing's flexibility allows changes to be made to product offerings or promotional activities on short notice. Lastly, the worldwide reach of the Internet makes anyone in the world with Internet access a potential customer. This access to a worldwide customer base levels the playing field for small businesses. For example, the Vermont Country Store, with two physical locations, in Rockingham and Weston, Vermont, is able to sell its products to customers worldwide via e-marketing. Market Share Firms are always concerned with the size of the potential market for their products or services and the proportion of that market they actually reachoften referred to as a company's market share. Market share is the percentage of the total market (or industry) sales made by one firm. As a formula, Market Share = Firm's Sales Total Market Sales. Share can be reflected as either percentage of sales dollars, percentage of units sold, or percentage of customers. Percentage of sales dollars is the most common reference. Market share is one of the most commonly quoted measures of success in any industry. To correctly determine market share, one must clearly define the market. Having a small share of a large market can be as profitable as a large share of a small market. A producer of leather horse saddles must determine if his market is made up of saddle sales, equestrian sales, or all leather goods sales. Obviously, his market share in the saddle industry is much larger than his share in the leather goods market. There are two sources for measuring market share: competitors and consumers. Surveying competitors gives a more accurate and reliable picture of market share. It is possible to interview 100 percent of competitors, but not all consumers. To get a reliable figure from consumers, a large number of people would have to be interviewed. For many industries, sales and market share figures may already be compiled by government agencies, trade associations, or private research firms. MARKET PLAYERS Market share defines the roles played by various firms in an industry. The firm with the largest market share is the market leader. The market leader usually has the highest marketing expenditures, distribution, price changes, and new product innovations. Market challengers are the firms working to increase their market share. Firms in an industry that are content with their share of the market or doing little to increase sales are considered the market followers. The market niche brand is the player that targets its business toward serving smaller, overlooked segments that are often ignored by the larger players. The niche marketer can be very profitable, opting for high margins over higher volume. MARKET STRATEGIES The leader must constantly monitor the market because the challenger is constantly trying to take away market share. The market leader has three options to keep its market position: expand the total market, protect market share, or expand market share. Markets can be expanded by creating more usage, new uses, or new users.

Leaders can protect market share by monitoring their position and rushing to remedy any weaknesses. Continuous innovation is the best way to protect market share. Another way to protect market share is to remove competitors through acquisition or merger. This strategy has become more and more popular among large firms, resulting in an increasing level of corporate consolidation since the mid-1990s. Maintaining market share often requires constant innovation and change. When leaders become complacent with their products or services, it becomes easier for the challenger to make progress. A 2007 report indicated that both Coke and Pepsi were seeing their dominant market shares slip as health-conscious consumers switched to vitamin-infused energy drinks and bottled water. In response, both companies announced new products to chase that new trend. In large markets such as this, small increases or decreases in market share can translate into very large changes in sales; one point of market share can be worth hundreds of millions of dollars. The market challenger must attempt to gain market share from the leader. The challenger must have some sustainable competitive advantage to attack the leader's market share. The challenger can attack other competitors through a direct attack by altering price, promotion, or distribution, or indirectly by diversifying or catering to underserved segments. Followers must keep quality high and prices low to maintain their positions. As Armstrong and Kolter point out in Principles of Marketing, the market follower must find the right balance between following closely enough to win customers from the market leader but at enough of a distance to avoid retaliation. Niche marketers have many options available to them. The company must find a niche that is safe and profitable. It must be large enough to sustain growth but small enough that it does not look attractive to the market's larger players. Targeting multiple niches is an option that offers the niche marketer a higher chance of survival because the firm is not dependent on one segment. Across segments, attempts to affect market share take place across the four P's of the marketing mix: product, price, place, and promotion. However, there are instances in which increasing market share is not necessarily desirable. The costs to increase production or improve the product may not be covered by the incremental profits. Market share is easily understood by most managers, employees, and shareholders; therefore, it is often used as a primary measure of success. It is critical to understand market share, how it is used to identify market participants, and how the different participants use it to determine their market strategy.

CLOCK AND WATCH INDUSTRY. The history of American clock-and watchmaking is a microcosm of the early history of American manufacturing. It includes the story of a tremendously talented line of artisans and of the training that passed from one to the other. Their ingenuity led to the spread of the "American system" of productiona forerunner of mass production. Finally, large-scale production of clocks and watches depended on the development of an elaborate system of distribution, through which the clocks and watches produced in such large quantities were distributed to urban and rural Americans.

The first clockmaker of record in America was Thomas Nash, an early settler of New Haven in 1638. Throughout the seventeenth century, eight-day striking clocks with brass movements, similar to those made in England, were produced by craft methods in several towns and villages in Connecticut. The wooden clock was not made in America until the eighteenth century, although it was known to exist in Europe in the seventeenth century, probably originating in Germany or Holland. By 1745 Benjamin Cheney of East Hartford was producing wooden clocks, and there is some evidence that these clocks were being made as early as 1715 near New Haven. Cheney was not the only maker of wooden clocks during the second half of the eighteenth century, but he was the most successful. Benjamin Willard, founder of the Willard Clock dynasty of Massachusetts, was apprenticed to Cheney.

The main line of descent of the American clock industry derives from Thomas Hatland, who emigrated from England in 1773 and opened a shop in Norwich, Connecticut. A clock-and watchmaker employing traditional craft methods, he was the first prominent European in that trade to settle in Connecticut. Hatland trained a substantial number of talented clockmakers, the most famous of whom was Daniel Burnap, who established his own business in East Windsor about 1780. Together Hat-land and Burnap were the forerunners of the modern, industrial era of clockmaking. This distinction derives from the fact that Eli Terry, the first to systematize clock production on a basis similar to that of interchangeable parts manufacture, was apprenticed to Daniel Burnap in 1786. It was most probably under Burnap's tutelage that Terry, who is recognized as the outstanding Connecticut clockmaker of the nineteenth century as well as the originator of clockmaking by machinery, was introduced to the concept of volume production as opposed to the customary practice of production to order.

Leaving Burnap's shop, Terry commenced business at Plymouth, Connecticut, in 1794. Shortly after 1800 he began to produce wooden clocks in quantity and in 1808 contracted with the Porter brothers of Waterbury for the production of 4,000 wooden clock movements at $4 each. Production in such quantities was unheard of up to that time, and the contract price contrasted sharply with the more usual $25 average price for movements. About 1814 Terry designed and manufactured the thirty-hour wooden shelf clock, hundreds of thousands of which were produced until his retirement in 1833.

Seth Thomas and Chauncey Jerome, both of whom worked for Eli Terry, greatly elaborated the system of factory production and carried the clock industry into its distinctly modern phase. Jerome worked for Terry for a year or two after 1816. Then he engaged in itinerant clockmaking and moved to Bristol in 1821. In 1825 Jerome designed the bronze looking-glass clock, which was an instant commercial success. Even though Joseph Ives of Bristol must be given credit for the pioneer development of the cheap American brass clock, which evolved from his work around 1815, it was Chauncey Jerome who, in 1838, developed the commercial possibilities of the thirty-hour rolledbrass movement. By 1842 Jerome was exporting brass clocks in large quantities to England. By 1855 almost all common clocks in America were brass, the four largest firms producing 400,000 rolled-brass movements in that year. Virtually every major firm in

existence at the end of the nineteenth century could trace its descent from these early Connecticut-based establishments.

Watchmaking helped establish and carry forward a new standard of accuracy in American metalworking. Until World War I, nearly all watches produced in the United States were pocket watches, and for much of this time they were luxury goods. Although watches were probably made in America before the Revolution, the earliest production of watches in some volume is accorded to Thomas Haftand of Norwich, Connecticut. Between 1809 and 1817 Luther Goddard of Shrewsbury, Massachusetts, produced about 500 movements. Goddard learned the art of clockmaking from his cousin Simon Willard, son of Benjamin Willard; and thus this line of mechanical influence can be traced from Benjamin Cheney. Between 1836 and 1841 James and Henry Pitkin of East Hartford, Connecticut, made perhaps 800 movements, using the most elaborate tools known in America up to that time. Shortly before 1850 Aaron Dennison and Edward Howard made plans to manufacture watches on a volume basis, using a system of interchangeable parts, some of the parts being held to an accuracy of 1/10,000 of an inch. Dennison had learned clockmaking in Maine and watchmaking in Boston. Howard had been apprenticed to Aaron Willard Jr. for five years commencing in 1829again in the Cheney line of descent. Other men who contributed prominently to the watchmaking industry throughout the balance of the nineteenth century were Ambrose Webster, Charles Mosley, Edward Marsh, and Charles Vander Woerd.

Dennison and Howard's attempts to use interchangeable parts in watch manufacture resulted in the formation of Dennison, Howard, and Davis, the firm that was the predecessor of the American Watch Company, later the Waltham Watch Company. When it was formed in 1850, the Waltham Watch Company was the only firm manufacturing watches in the United States, and it maintained a virtual monopoly on watch production through the 1870s. Although the factory used machinery, it depended on workers' abilities to manipulate and adapt very complicated technology. Owners offered generous wages and benefits, a clean working environment, and promises of promotion to retain and recruit the highly skilled labor force they needed. New watchmaking firms were established in the years just preceding and following the Civil War, and Waltham employees were in high demand by companies in Chicago, Providence, Springfield, Massachussetts, and Springfield, Illinois. All American watchmaking firms can trace their lineage either through the Waltham Watch Company prior to 1885 or through personnel associated with that firm. The watchmaking business expanded in the 1890s, when many firms began marketing cheaper "dollar watches." Just as Eli Terry had made clocks into an affordable item for many Americans, now watches were something that many people could see themselves owning. These watches did not use the jeweled parts that had been part of older and more expensive watches. Rather, a punch press was used to stamp highly standardized and cheaper parts out of sheets of metal. Simultaneously, railroads issued new requirements for the watches worn by their employees. Because reliable time-keeping was so essential to the scheduling and operation of railroads, the watches worn by employees had to be of very high quality; these watches represented the opposite end of the spectrum of "dollar watches." Firms developed ever more sophisticated techniques to produce ever more precise watches. Watches gained an even bigger market when American firms began producing wristwatches. First developed in Switzerland and marketed as women's watches, wristwatches were distributed to

soldiers in World War I, and they quickly became popular items for both men and women.

The American watch industry declined considerably in the interwar years, the result of over expansion and the high costs of specialized machinery. Only seven firms survived the 1930s, and the industry continued to contract in subsequent decades. While many Americans continue to wear watches, these are often manufactured overseas.

Ice Ice is frozen water , or in other words, water in solid state. Ice is a transparent, colorless substance with some special properties; it floats in water, ice expands when water freezes, and its melting point decreases with increasing pressure. Water is the only substance that exists in all three phases as gas, liquid, and solid under normal circumstances on Earth.

Water, and thus ice molecules, consist of one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms. Water is a polar molecule, with a slight negative charge on the oxygen side, and a slight positive charge on the hydrogen side, which makes it possible to interact with other polar molecules or ions. Thus, a loose chemical connection called a hydrogen bond forms between the water molecules, where each water molecule can bind to other water molecules, forming a complex network. These hydrogen bonds are the main reason for the special properties of water and ice.

Water in the solid state forms a highly ordered hexagonal (six-sided) crystal lattice structure, because it is the most stable arrangement of the water molecules. Although the individual molecules can vibrate, they cannot move fast enough to leave the crystal structure, since the opposite electrical polarities hold them together. This lattice crystal can be visualized as layers of hexagonal rings of the oxygen atoms stacked on each other. Ice has eleven known crystal forms, depending on pressure, temperature , or how quickly the ice forms. Ice cannot form from liquid water at the freezing point, unless there are seeds for the crystal, which dissipate the energy of the colliding water molecules, keeping them locked in the lattice structure. If no seeds are present, spontaneous crystal nucleation begins only if the water is supercooled below the freezing point.

Ice is present in nature in many places and in many forms: icebergs , ice sheets, glaciers , snow, freezing rain, sleet, ice crystals , icicles, hail, rime, graupel, and ice fog . Ice plays an important role in erosion (water fills the cracks of rock , freezes, expands, and breaks the rock), and in atmospheric

energy transport (when water vapor changes into liquid or ice, latent heat is released). The way ice forms in bodies of water (not from the bottom up, but from the top down) protects many organisms in the water from very cold and fast temperature fluctuations.