UNIT 1: COMPOSITION WRITING

FEATURES OF THE MAIN TYPES OF COMPOSITION A composition is an organised piece of writing written for a specific purpose. It is characterised by: COHERENCE - ideas/points should be arranged in a balanced, logical manner. COHESION - ideas/sentences/paragraphs should be linked together satisfactorily. CLARITY - points should be expressed clearly so that they are easily comprehensible to the reader CORRECTNESS - mistakes in grammar and spelling must be avoided

Every composition should have a recognisable INTRODUCTION, DEVELOPMENT (divided into PARAGRAPHS, each dealing with a particular aspect of the topic), CONCLUSION. Compositions can be roughly divided into four main types: 1 DESCRIPTIVE Typical development: from the general to the particular from outside to inside or vice versa different features of a particular thing, place, person contrasting positive and negative aspects 2 NARRATIVE Typical development: setting the scene, place, background, situation, earlier events, descriptive paragraph events in chronological order (what happened first, later, next, as a result, in the end, etc.) anecdotes Main tenses: Simple Past, Past Perfect, Past Continuous 3 ARGUMENTATIVE Typical development: comparing different opinions, pros and cons destroying an argument persuading "selling" a point of view 4 FACTUAL Typical development: comparing past and present cause and effect differences between one place and another increase and decrease trends N.B. Most compositions are a mixture of the above types and their features.

A MODEL ESSAY Points to note: o the use of pairs of words and pairs of ideas o contrasting points o how paragraphs / points are linked o adding detail to support a point o use of repetition to reinforce a point o use of generalisation o use of the pronoun you o focusing on what to do rather than what not to do The Successful Interview Introduction To be successful in a job interview (or for that matter in almost any interview situation), you should demonstrate certain personal and professional qualities. You need to create a good image in the limited time available, usually from 30 to 45 minutes. Furthermore, you must make a positive impression which the interviewer will remember while he or she interviews other applicants. At all times, you should present your most attractive qualities during an interview.

UNIT 3 THE PARAGRAPH

Features of the paragraph A paragraph is a set of related sentences dealing with a single feature or aspect of a broader topic. It can stand alone or be part of a longer piece of writing. The sentences within the paragraph should be appropriately linked to what precedes and what follows and arranged in a logical sequence. A paragraph has some of the features of the sentence (unity, balance, cohesion) and some of the features of a wellstructured essay or composition, that is, it should consist of an introduction, development and conclusion. Research shows that the average paragraph contains about five to seven sentences, however, they may be shorter or longer depending on the complexity of the subject Sentence functions within the paragraph The first sentence of a paragraph (introducer or topic sentence) serves to introduce the main idea and establish the focus of the paragraph as a whole. The body of the paragraph (developers) provides details to support the main idea. Developers may present examples or details of various kinds to support or illustrate the topic sentence, or they may introduce exceptions, alternatives, differences. In any case they provide a transition leading to the concluding sentence. The closing sentence (conclusion or terminator) logically concludes the ideas expressed in the paragraph in a psychologically satisfactory manner. The terminator often reaffirms or underlines the central idea. Alternatively it may provide a lead-in to the subsequent paragraph. Introductory and concluding paragraphs Paragraphs which serve to introduce or conclude a longer text have specific characteristics. The introduction may have one or more of the following functions: to arouse interest in the subject to indicate which aspects of the subject you are going to deal with to define the subject or the words of the title to give your own or someone else's opinion on the subject (if the topic is controversial) to express some general considerations about the topic to be developed

The conclusion usually includes one or more of the following, depending on the topic: a logical deduction based on the points made a personal opinion based on/ justified by what you have said a pertinent quotation a reaffirmation of what you said in the introduction a brief summary of the points you have made and what can be deduced from them outlook for the future Development paragraphs In a standard composition of 500-700 words, the section between the introduction and the conclusion is called the development. The paragraphs in this section each develop a particular aspect or feature of the main topic. They should follow in a logical order and be linked so as to form part of a cohesive whole, in harmony with all the other elements of the text. Decide in advance what the theme of the paragraph is to be, how you are going to open and close it, how it is to be linked to what comes before and after and which is the best order to arrange the paragraphs. Individual paragraphs may be developed in a variety of ways. Depending upon the purpose or intent of the writer, particular paragraphs may be thought of as aiming to persuade, inform, argue, or arouse interest or they may have a specific function such as summarising, introducing, explaining, describing or defining. Paragraphs are often developed according to such techniques as comparison, contrast, advantages versus disadvantages, cause/effect relationships, or by listing, classifying or giving examples. Another developmental device might be to organises items or ideas chronologically or spatially. These different ways of developing paragraphs are characterised by specific discourse markers: Contrast: on the other hand, on the contrary, conversely, whereas, by contrast, unlike Similarity: similarly, in the same way, likewise, just as ..... so Adding something: moreover, furthermore, in addition, as well as, not only ..... but also, what is more Cause and effect. therefore, as a result, thus, accordingly, for this reason, this is why, as a consequence Chronological: later, subsequently, afterwards, the following year, next Example: for example, for instance, a case in point Whatever the function of the paragraph may be, and whatever the technique used to develop it, each paragraph should have a recognisable introductory and concluding sentence. Each sentence should contain a key idea and the sentences should follow on in a logical manner, linked by appropriate cohesive devices.

UNIT 5 THE SENTENCE

Features of the sentence A sentence should express only one main idea. It may contain more than one fact, but all the facts must be related to the central idea. Whatever fact, idea, focus or contrast the sentence is intended to convey, it should be balanced, well constructed and free from grammar and spelling mistakes. Do not write sentences that are too long. English sentences are normally made up of one main clause plus one, or at the most two, subordinate clauses. Remember that the average length of an English written sentence for academic writing is 22 words, the average length for modern novels is 14 words. Word order The standard word order of the English sentence is: 1) Subject 2) Verb 3) Object

4) Adverbs and adverbial phrases in the following order: 5) a) Manner b) Place c) Time This classic order is sometimes referred to as SVOMPT. This order may be varied for a number of reasons. Some adverbs are normally placed before the main verb; some adverbs are followed by inversion of subject and verb if placed at the beginning of the sentence; questions require inversion and in passive sentences adverbs of manner are often placed before the past participle. Sometimes adverbs of place and time are placed at the beginning for emphasis or to avoid a long string of adverbs at the end. N.B. In English the verb and object should not be separated. Emphasis within the sentence Standard word order is often varied for purposes of emphasis or dramatic effect: Out of the wardrobe felt a body. Never before had I been in such a dilemma. Only now do l understand why he behaved as he did. Drunk though he was, he managed to carry the child to safety. That the students were bored was obvious. "It is"/was" or an initial phrase beginning with "what" or "all" are sometimes used for emphasis within the sentence: It was an interesting story that he told. What these signs mean is a mystery. All he did was ask you a simple question. Repitition for emphasis Repetition of the same word or phrase may also be used for emphasis "Men in great places are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or state; servants of fame; and servants of business." (Francis Bacon) "A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse " "Do", "does" or"did" can be added for emphasis: These people don't have many resources but they do know how to make the best use of what they have. He did nothing to help the poor. what he did do was throw away his money on gambling, women and fast cars. Structural repetition Here's a short example of structural repetition from the play Getting Married, by George Bernard Shaw: There are couples who dislike one another furiously for several hours at a time; there are couples who dislike one another permanently; and there are couples who never dislike one another; but these last are people who are incapable of disliking anybody.

UNIT 6 THE PHRASE

Definitions of phrase A small group of words standing together as a conceptual unit, typically forming a component of a clause. Any small group of words within a sentence or a clause. In everyday speech, a phrase may refer to any group of words. In linguistics, a phrase is a group of words which form a constituent and so function as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. For example, the house at the end of the street is a phrase. It acts like a noun. It can further be broken down into two shorter phrases functioning as adjectives: at the end of the street, a shorter prepositional phrase within the longer noun phrase. At the end of the street could be replaced by an adverb such as nearby. The end of the street could also be replaced by another noun, such as the crossroads to produce the house at the crossroads. Categories of phrases Phrases may be classified as follows:

Prepositional phrase (e.g. only on Saturdays, over the rainbow, out of sight). Noun phrase (e.g. a bunch of flowers, that man over there, the girl with the pearl earring) Verb phrase (e.g. phrasal verbs and verbs followed by a preposition or adverb, collocations containing verbs) Adverb + adjective/participle phrases (e.g. not easily comprehensible, totally wrong, fairly well dressed) Participial phrases (e.g. not knowing what to do, while working abroad, once left alone)

Idioms, stock phrases, collocations Many phrases are idiomatic, in other words, it is not always possible to understand their meaning from the individual words that form them (e.g. out of the blue (= unexpectedly), to smell a rat (= to be suspicious), to cut no ice (= to have no effect), over the moon (= very happy). Many phrases are fixed expressions, that is sets of words always used in the same order (e.g. last but not least, all things considered, first and foremost). Many phrases are collocations, that is they are made up of words that tend to be used in combination (e.g. to make a mistake, to find out the truth, the same old story).

UNIT 7 THE WORD

Words are classified as: nouns verbs adjectives adverbs prepositions conjunctions In English these forms often overlap in usage or in meaning. In other words a word with same form may be both a noun and a verb; nouns are often used adjectivally, prepositions may also be conjunctions or they may function as adverbs (as in phrasal verbs). Many words have both a literal and a figurative meaning and some words are only used in specific phrases. Many English words have two or more distinct meanings (homonyms). Many English words resemble Italian words but mean something different (false friends) Many English words are actually two words (compound words) EXERCISE 1: Related words Choose two words from each line theta's in some way linked. Example: bullet, calendar, skirt, brick, gun 1. tree, sock, stone, branch, blanket 2. weed, horse, tune, mane, mayor 3. bark, gang, receiver, joint, knee 4. thread, tree, needle, crown, tea 5. kettle, reins, hen, teapot, office 6. key, surgeon, scalpel, desk, band 7. floor, pew, trial, fire, church 8. foot, fringe, plait, pavement, basket 9. net, stitch, step, drum, stair 10. string, cord, bow, arch, violet

UNIT 9 PREPOSITIONS
NOTE Prepositions cause problems for a variety of reasons: they often have different meanings and different functions; they are used in many idiomatic phrases, the meaning of which is not always immediately apparent (e.g. at large, by all means, for good, in return, at hand); they do not always correspond to the same preposition in Italian (i.e. on is not always su, in is not always in, etc.); English sometimes requires a preposition where Italian does not (wait for, pay for, look at) and vice versa; compared with Italian, prepositions in English may have a different function, e.g. the to of the infinitive, or to form phrasal verbs; adverbial particles often have the same form as prepositions (e.g. on, off, by, in, over, etc.); two or more prepositions in English are often required where one preposition does the job in Italian (a = to / at, in = in / into, da = for / since / from / by / at, di = of / than); prepositions often have the same form as other parts of speech: before the war (prep.), before I arrived (conjunction), havent we met before? (adverb), he walked past the bank (prep.), the plane flew past (adverb), in the past (noun), in past times (adj.); prepositions have a different position in modern English as compared with Italian (e.g. in questions and relative clauses): Who did you speak to? (not To whom did you speak?) ... the party I voted for (rather than the party for which I voted).

UNIT 10 IDIOMS AND STOCK PHRASES

Introduction One way of making your writing more colourful and interesting to read is to use idiomatic expressions and stock phrases in an appropriate way. An idiom is a combination of words with a special meaning that cannot usually be inferred from its separate parts. Words used idiomatically are often not used in the sense that you would normally associate with them. Type 1) idioms (the meaning can be deduced from the components of the phrase) Even if you had never heard the following expressions you would probably be able to understand them. He eats like a pig. He took the lions share. Veronicas on the wrong side of thirty. Type 2) idioms (literal and figurative meaning) Rosemary wouldnt say boo to a goose. On the face of it this is a strange thing to say. Of course it is perfectly possible to say boo to a goose, but who would want to? This statement is only used idiomatically, meaning that Rosemary is very timid and wouldnt dare to make even the mildest protest. Clearly, its impossible to deduce this figurative meaning from the separate elements. Thus, the sentence has two meanings a literal meaning which you would be very unlikely to use, and a metaphorical meaning which all native speakers of English would understand. More examples: Every family has a skeleton in the cupboard. He buried his head in the sand. Dont rock the boat. Hes kicked the bucket.

Type 3) idioms (only figurative meaning) Shall we go Dutch? This has no literal meaning at all, only an idiomatic one. It means I suggest that you pay for your meal and Ill pay for mine. Again, it is impossible to infer the meaning from the individual words. More examples: He sold those old paintings for a song, not realising their true value. The new job is right up his street. Jazz isnt really my cup of tea. Conclusion Many idioms, proverbs and stock phrases are related to basic human needs and experiences. Many are therefore linked to the agricultural life, seafaring, warfare, the cycle of the seasons, celestial bodies, animals, food, clothing, family, parts of the body, the home, colours, numbers, money. Many were first used in works of literature such as fables, fairy stories, Shakespeares plays and the English translation of the Bible. Many are related to the culture and customs of a particular historical period. Many are similes or metaphors. It is quite common for the same word (e.g. game, time, ship, hand) to be used in several different idiomatic expressions.

WRITING TIPS (1)

THE FIVE PARAGRAPH ESSAY Writing the Five-Paragraph Essay A good, clear format can make any essay easy to write. Structuring your ideas clearly, creating *a strong thesis statement, and providing lots of support make the essay easier to read. The five-paragraph essay provides a schema into which ideas will fit. By confining the ideas of your paper into this format you will increase your organization, your reader's attention and understanding, and thus your grade. The Five-Paragraph Format The five-paragraph format is a tried and true way to structure an essay. The first paragraph is the introduction. It should include a basic overview of the subject matter, as well as an idea of what will be discussed in the body of the work. The paragraph should conclude with a strong thesis statement. The body of the essay should include approximately three paragraphs, each with one well-developed thoughts. The conclusion will sum up the material covered in the body and restate the thesis. By following this basic format, any essay can become easy to write. The Introduction The introduction is the first thing a reader sees. It sets the tone for the entire piece by laying out not only what will be written, but also how it will be written. Begin the essay with something catchy. A bold statement or even a question is a great way to begin. Next, discuss what the body of the essay will include. This is a brief summary of what the subject is, and your opinion about the subject. Finally, conclude with a directly stated thesis. This is one sentence including what the point of the essay is and how you plan on proving it. The Body The body is the true meat of your essay. This is where you lay out your ideas and make your point. Begin your paragraph with a topic sentence. State the point you're trying to make in this paragraph, along with how you intend to do that. If there is one thing to remember when writing your essay, it should be SUPPORT, SUPPORT, SUPPORT. Just as the essay has three supporting paragraphs, your paragraph should have three supporting points. These points, especially if the paper is for an English class, chould include citations. As long as you support the citation you've made, quotes can only help you. Conclude the paragraph with a wrap-up sentence revisiting the point of the paragraph. Conclusion End your essay as neatly as you can. Restate the thesis you laid out in the introduction. Talk about the points you've made in the essay and to what conclusion those points ultimately lead. This is a great opportunity to look back over your essay and see whether you met the promise of your thesis. Did you discuss all the things you planned to? Did you

support each with evidence from the text? Finally, did the things you wrote about in your essay point to one ultimate conclusion? The conclusion is the last chance you have to make your point and leave a lasting impression on the reader. Make the piece as memorable as possible. *Definition for thesis statement: a brief sentence presenting the main point of a persuasive writing, usually in the introductory paragraph a thesis statement clearly expresses the author's opinion on the subject and can be argued and supported with evidence. an explicit statement of the purpose, intent or main idea of a piece of writing POSSIBLE PARAGRAPH THEMES FOR A COMPOSITION ABOUT FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING difficulty of learning a foreign language best way to learn a foreign language opportunities for learning foreign language teaching in your country comparison with language learning in other countries bilingualism usefulness / necessity of knowing another language social and cultural aspects own experience prospect for the future

N.B. Not all of these. Be selective.

WRITING TIPS (2)

DISCOURSE MARKERS, TRANSITIONAL DEVICES, LINKING DEVICES, CONNECTORS Two effective ways to achieve coherence in your writing are with transitions (or connectors) and with parallel structures linked by conjunctions (e.g. and, but, so, not only ..... but also) or adverbs (moreover, however, therefore). Transitions allow sentences to hang together and make connections between sentences and between paragraphs. These linking devices act very much like directional signals to your reader allowing him to follow your words. They can also be thought of as bridges that connect sentences and paragraphs to each other. The purpose of these connections is to show the relationship between succeeding parts of sentences, phrases and clauses. A. To add, amplify or carry forward also / and / and then / as well / besides / beyond that / especially / first, second, etc. / finally / for example / for instance / furthermore / in addition / indeed / in fact / in other words / in particular / in the same way / likewise / moreover / namely / next / similarly / that is / too / to illustrate this point / whats more / for one thing ..... for another B. To show a result after all / and so / as a consequence / as a result / because of this / consequently / for this reason / hence / so / then / therefore / thus

C. To locate in a place on the other side of the world / all over the world / worldwide / elsewhere / in most places / far and wide / in every corner of the world / in such places / here and there / nearer to home / locally / nationally / beyond national boundaries / further afield / further away / not far away D. To locate in time after a while / at the same time / at last at present / briefly / currently / during ..... / earlier / eventually / finally / at first / formerly / gradually / immediately / in the future / later / today / meanwhile / subsequently / suddenly / soon afterwards / not long afterwards / until now / up to this point / previously / prior to this / in the last few years / throughout history / from time immemorial / within living memory / in those days / in Shakespeares day / in the distant past / at one time E. To express similarity also / as well / both (neither) / in the same way / in like manner / likewise / similarly F. To express contrast although / be that as it may / but / even though / however / in (by) / contrast / in spite of / despite / nevertheless / on the contrary / on the other hand / otherwise / (and) yet still / though / whereas / conversely G. To summarize / generalize all in all / altogether / as stated above / eventually / finally / in brief / in conclusion / in other words / in sum / lastly / on the whole / to sum up H. To concede (a point) certainly / granted (that) / of course / no doubt / to be sure / undoubtedly / admittedly I. To illustrate as a case in point / as an example / as an illustration / for example / for instance / in particular / one such example / yet another example / take, for example J. To emphasize (or show authority) above all / certainly / especially / indeed / in fact / in particular / most important(ly) / naturally / obviously / of course / surely / to be sure K. To express possibility perhaps / maybe / it is possible that / it could be that / possibly L. To give a reason as / because / for / since / this is why / that is why / for this reason

WRITING TIPS (3)

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ESSAY These essay types overlap. In other words they contain features of one another. N.B. Most essays are a combination of more than one of the types outlined below. Argumentative Essay - An argumentative essay puts forward a strong statement which may be new or potentially provocative and uses the standard essay format to expand on and support the thesis with evidence which attempts to persuade the reader that the opening statement is correct whilst acknowledging other arguments.

Cause and Effect Essay - A cause and effect essay deals with why something occurs and the results of this. This seems very straightforward but it requires clear thinking and the ability to express concepts in straightforward language, with a logical presentational structure. Classification Essay - Stated simply, the purpose of a classification essay is to organize things into categories. This is done by putting useful categories in place following a single underlying principle and finding examples that fit into each category. Comparison Essay - The comparison essay is commonly used in essay writing across the disciplines. It requires the writer to look at the similarities and differences between two or more subjects which may, in fact, be related under an 'umbrella topic'. For example, a Literature essay might require you to compare how two writers approach the same theme by using a different genre. Deductive Essay - Typically, the deductive essay is based on the premise that given a certain set of facts, by using deductive reasoning assumptions can be made leading to a conclusion. Thus, the three stages of a deductive essay would be the premise, the evidence and the conclusion. Descriptive Essay - Of all , the descriptive essay is the one which requires most creative writing ability as it is based on the ability of the writer to facilitate the visualization of a scene, evoking sensory reactions and responses. Much of the writing will be adjectival and lexical variety is essential. Evaluative Essay - The evaluative essay sets out to evaluate something according to predetermined criteria. For an evaluation to be recognised as valid, both the subject to be evaluated and the criteria to be used to make the evaluation must be stated clearly. Expository Essay - The expository essay does not so much ask the writer to set out to give their views, unlike other essays. Instead, you are being asked to display, as fairly and comprehensively as possible, the views of others; as the name suggests, to 'expose' them. The expository approach is also used in the case of reportage e.g. in journalism. Narrative Essay - A narrative essay tells a tale, usually a personal experience told in the form of a story. The point of view is usually personal and description is very important to contribute to the overall feel of the narrative. However, narrative essays can also be used for book reports. Illustration Essay - In an illustration essay, the evidence is largely provided by the inclusion of examples, or 'illustrations', to support your argument; in many ways it is similar to a narrative essay. Basically, in an illustration essay you are literally inviting your reader to picture, via your 'illustrations', the argument's effectiveness. Literature Essay - The Literature essay assesses a students ability to respond to a question about given texts or select texts that will be used to address a specific problem/topic. You may also have completely free choice and select both texts and topics yourself. Persuasive Essay - The persuasive essay uses reasoned argument to persuade the reader to adopt/agree with the position being proposed in the opening statement. Experts are often quoted to support the central argument and give it additional credibility.

Find out more from : http://www.ukessays.com/ http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/

PREPARING TO WRITE Think, Make Notes, and Prepare the Material You Want to Use Before You Begin to Write Spend a few minutes gathering the ideas and thoughts you will need to include in your essay. Then consider the most effective way to present that material to your reader. Remember that essay exam responses are usually read very quickly: the more quickly the reader can move through your writing, the less time he or she will have to consider its deficiencies. Many students find it useful to create a short topic outline or to draw a key diagram at this point, as a way to organize their thoughts. The focus of your writing depends on the task stated in the question. In a question that asks you to explain, for example, your focus should be on presenting information as clearly as possible so that the reader understands the topic. At other times you may be asked to take a position on a topic; in these cases, you need to state that position clearly and then prove to your reader, through the careful use of illustration and examples, the validity of the statement with which you started. But in either case, the reader needs a clear statement of your purpose at the beginning of your essay. Write Strategically Writing that merely responds to the question (no matter how accurately) may garner only an average grade unless it is also successfully presented in other ways. Here are some areas that often make a difference: Unless you have been told for some reason to restate the question in your own words, do not waste valuable time repeating information is already written in the title. Move immediately to answering the question.

Order the points of your discussion. Follow some sort of sequence - logical, chronological, procedural, etc. Add support to assertions. Incorporate examples or facts hat support these main statements. Tie your discussion to your focus. Demonstrate, both along the way and in your conclusion, how everything relates to the topic. Be direct when you write. Avoid overlong complex sentences (more than three clauses), use a mixture of long and short sentences, long lists, long parenthetical remarks, do not overuse the same boring adjectives (important, good, bad, etc.), do not use etc.. Use signals to direct the reader through your points. For example: "There are three reasons why..." "First,....Second,......Finally,....." "In early Greece....But in Rome..." Be legible. You will probably not be graded on neatness, but you could easily lose credit if your instructor has a hard time reading what you have written. Sloppy handwriting, multiple cross-outs, and confusing circles and arrows will all make grading difficult. Remember that your instructor has many other papers to read and may easily become impatient with anything that makes grading harder.

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The Expository Essay Expository writing is a type of writing that is used to explain, describe, give information, or inform. The text is organized around one topic and developed according to a pattern or combination of patterns. The writer of an expository text cannot assume that the reader or listener has prior knowledge or prior understanding of the topic that is being discussed. Since clarity requires strong organization, one of the most important mechanisms to improve skills in exposition is to organize the text effectively. The patterns outlined below are frequently used to create an expository essay. Additionally, more than one pattern may be used within an expository essay. Expository essays are written by students to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of a particular topic. For example, a student might use a descriptive pattern to explain the features and characteristics of a place or person. Sequential writing emphasizes the order of events, listing items in numerical or chronological order. A writer might use a comparison or contrast pattern to emphasize the similarities or differences between

two topics. A cause and/or effect pattern shows the relationship between events, while a problem/solution pattern shows a different kind of relationship that discusses a problem and suggests solutions. Variations of these patterns are sometimes used, as well as a combination of patterns to create an expository essay. Expository writing is intended to convey the writer's knowledge about a topic. While different patterns may be employed to create the essay, every essay contains the same features: the introduction, the thesis, the body paragraphs, and the conclusion. The introduction is the first paragraph in the essay. The introduction contains the thesis statement, one sentence that summarizes the main idea of the essay. The body paragraphs follow the introduction and explain the main topics. Lastly, the conclusion is the final paragraph that restates the main topics and the thesis. Every expository essay contains these features, in this order. Expository writing has distinct features that distinguish it from creative writing. The content of an expository essay is factual and straightforward while the content of a creative story is imaginative. Expository essays are written for a general audience but creative stories are more likely to be designed for a specific audience. The writing style of an expository essay is formal, standard and academic, while a creative story may use an informal and more personal style. The organization of an expository essay is systematic and deliberate; on the other hand, the organization of a creative story is more imaginative and artistic. Finally, the most important difference between the two types of writing is the purpose of the text. An expository essay is written to inform and instruct, while a creative story is written to entertain and captivate.

Typical features of expository writing Description The author describes a topic by listing characteristics, features, and examples. It provides details about how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, makes one feel, or sounds Sequence or Process The author lists items or events in numerical or chronological order. Words and phrases: first, second, third, next, then, finally Comparison The author explains how two or more things are alike and/or how they are different. A comparison essay usually discusses the similarities between two things, while the contrast essay discusses the differences. Words and phrases: unlike, whereas, in contrast, on the other hand, alike, similarly, the same as Cause / Effect The author focuses on the relationship between two or more events or experiences. The essay could discuss both causes and effects, or it could simply address one or the other. A cause essay usually discusses the reasons why something happened. An effect essay discusses what happens after a specific event or circumstance. Words and phrases: the reason why; if...then, as a result, therefore, thus, because since, as, for, consequently Problem / Solution The author states a problem and lists one or more solutions for the problem. A variation of this pattern is the questionand-answer format in which the author poses a question and then answers it. Words and phrases: the main / major problem is, an unsolved problem is ..., question (How?) ... answer, one solution might be to .....

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The Persuasive Essay What is a persuasive essay? Put simply, a persuasive essay is a short commentary designed to persuade your audience. It is an article traditionally five paragraphs long that communicates your position in a persuasive manner. The persuasive essay is used to assess students writing skills and understanding of a topic. The persuasive essay features can also be applied to a sales promotion, a job application or even a presentation to a group of people. The persuasive essay is constructed using a title, thesis statement, supporting paragraphs and a conclusion. Lets break these down a little further:

1. Title The title is straightforward. What topic are you writing about? You can be a little descriptive here to give your reader a brief overview of what you are discussing. For example, your title heading might be Modern Eco Friendly Housing. You havent taken a position yet but you are letting your reader know what is to come. 2. Thesis Statement This is a statement about what you are trying to convince your readers of. For example, your thesis statement might be Housing made from renewable resources have a low carbon footprint compared to traditional construction methods. Make your thesis statement a little controversial to emotionally involve your audience. But only be a little controversial. If you take the extremist point of view, you risk alienating your readers. The thesis statement is a bait to hook your readers. If you need help with how to write your thesis statement, then walk through your local mall or turn on the TV. You are surrounded by them every day. Advertising headlines are great examples of thesis statements that capture attention. 3. Supporting Paragraphs A persuasive essay will normally have a minimum of three supporting paragraphs. Start each supporting paragraph with a statement that supports your main thesis. Back up their statement with facts or testimonials from well known sources. Facts form the foundation of your argument and allow you to act as an authority on the subject. The key to your supporting paragraph is to remember that a fact is not debatable. The statement you make in these paragraphs is an emotional interpretation of these facts to persuade readers. Marketers know the best way to sell something is to use the Feature-Benefit rule. First, identify a feature (or a fact) and then draw the reader in with the benefit they will receive by agreeing with you. Marketers sell the sizzle, not the sausage. For example, Good orientation increases the energy efficiency of a home, making it more comfortable to live in and cheaper to run. Good orientation and energy efficiency is the feature. But what does it mean to the house owner? The benefit to the owner is a house that is comfortable to live in and cheaper to run. 4. Conclusion The last part of the persuasive essay is the conclusion. Make a mistake here and all your effort is down the drain. The conclusion is the call to action. If you are selling something, then this is a real physical action such as clicking on the buy button. In your essay, the call to action is having your reader agree with you. Use your conclusion to remind the reader of what your thesis statement is together with your supporting facts. Next, tell your reader what to do or think. If youre selling a product, tell them to buy. Get the reader to share your point of view. What happens if your reader does not take action or agree? It does not mean you have failed, it just means you have not taken into account the objections your readers have. These are the Nos that you must overcome before you can get to a Yes. Persuasive essays use passive argument to overcome objection. When you first sit down to write, ask yourself what objections your readers may have to your ideas? Now, what features and benefits can you discuss to overcome these objections? For example Objection: Eco-friendly housing is expensive when compared to other designs. Feature/Benefit: Savings in heating and cooling will quickly offset the price over just a few years. In the paragraph above I stated that a persuasive essay uses passive argument. This is where you focus on the features and benefits of your point of view. You do not actively discuss the opposing view. If you are in a job interview, you dont talk about how good the other candidates are for the job, you focus on how you can fill their needs. If you use an active argument discussing both sides of the topic, then you are writing an argumentative essay.

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Writing an Introduction for an Essay The quality of an essay introduction often determines whether the essay gets read in the first place. Even if it has to be read, as in the case of essay writing assignments in a university setting, a fine introduction gives the reader a good initial impression, which entices the him/her to read on. Hence, an essay introduction serves to attract the readers interest, introduce the topic, and explain what the essay will be about. Correspondingly, an essay introduction contains three features that usually appear in the following order: an attention-getter, some background information and the central idea.

Getting the readers attention Some common strategies used to attract the readers interest to an essay are: Relate a dramatic anecdote.

Expose a commonly held belief. Present surprising facts and statistics. Use a fitting quotation. Ask a provocative question. Tell a vivid personal story. Define a key term. Present an interesting observation. Create a unique scenario.

Providing background information Providing background information in an essay introduction serves to link the reader to the topic of an essay. But exactly how long this bridge should be is largely dependent on how much information the writer thinks the reader will need in order to understand the issue being discussed in the essay and appreciate the importance of the issue. For much university writing (for which the readership may not be restricted to lecturers alone), one good rule of thumb for students to determine whether enough background information has been provided is to show the draft introduction to someone who is not familiar with the topic and see whether they understand what is being talked about. Stating the central idea The central idea or thesis statement in an essay introduction is the most important part of the essay and is thus indispensable. The thesis statement is usually one or two sentences long and tells the reader what the whole essay is going to be about. A thesis statement can be direct or indirect. A direct thesis statement gives a specific outline of the essay. For example, one of my students (in his essay entitled The Qualities of a Successful Technopreneur*) wrote the following thesis statement: The three core qualities that a technopreneur must possess to be successful are vision, a never-say-quit attitude and an innovative mind. This sentence tells the reader what the essay is going to be about (i.e. the qualities a technopreneur must possess in order to succeed) and provides a structural outline (i.e. that the essay will comprise three main parts, each portion respectively covering one of the three qualities mentioned). In an indirect thesis statement, no such outline is provided; however, the reader will still know what aspect of the topic the essay is going to discuss. For example, on the same topic, another of my students wrote this thesis statement: In todays rapidly changing technology market, only technopreneurs who possess certain qualities will succeed while those who do not will falter and fall in the battlefield. From this sentence, the reader can still expect the essay to talk about some qualities of a successful technopreneur; but he/she will neither know exactly which and how many qualities the essay will cover, nor predict how many parts the writer will discuss in the main body paragraphs. The suspense given by an indirect thesis statement sometimes gives the reader a good reason to read on. Once aware of the three features of an essay introduction and some of the options for the presentation of each feature, students can experiment with different options to see which one(s) creates the best effect for each essay.

*a technopreneur is an entrepreneur involved in high technology

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What is a thesis statement? A thesis statement is a statement in an essay that you plan to support, discuss or prove. A thesis statement should also stand out as an indicator of the clear direction in which you will take your essay. It should be strongly worded, impossible to miss, and in shorter essays (e.g. the five paragraph essay), it should show up in the introduction. A thesis statement:

tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion. is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper. directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand selected aspects of the war or the novel. may make a claim that others might dispute. This applies especially to argumentative or persuasive essays. is usually a single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph that presents your argument / subject matter to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.

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Topic Sentences in paragraphs A topic sentence (also known as a focus sentence) encapsulates or organises an entire paragraph, and you should be careful to include one in most of your major paragraphs. Although topic sentences may appear anywhere in a paragraph, in academic essays they most often appear at the beginning.

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An overview of how to write effectively

Here are some of the principal points to consider in academic writing: Think of the major points or aspects that you want to cover. Ask yourself: What do I want to say here? Keep it simple. Clarity of expression is essential in good academic writing. Some people approach writing sequentially, usually in logical or historical sequence. Others approach writing holistically and use the brainstorming technique. This is up to you and your inclination. After brainstorming, it will help if you try to sort out your ideas and find links to group them together in some way. Organise your topics into an acceptable structure but remember that it is a work in progress. One of the big traps is thinking that everything has to be perfect from the beginning. A result of this is that some people waste valuable time because they cannot write perfectly the first time. Remember too that practice makes perfect. We get better at writing the more we do it; patience and practice will help to improve your writing.

One way to begin is by tackling the easiest parts first, which helps you get in the practice of writing, and ensures that you put pen to paper. Some Principles of Good Composition Some academics firmly believe that we should choose a design and stick to it, and it is indeed true that all good prose follows some sort of pattern and structure. Think about what you want to say and put it in order. Organisation is critical in academic writing. Paragraphs are the effective units of composition and they provide writing with definition and measure. Usually, each paragraph deals with one topic and contains a topic sentence. Some topic sentences give a good preview of what is coming next, while others simply make an opening generalisation to begin the journey. Express similar ideas in a similar form. Further Tips on Good Writing All sentences should be clear and worded accurately. Try to use a combination of simple and complex sentences. Make sure you use paragraphs. It may sound obvious, but paragraphing is not just for looks. Paragraphs give structure and definition to ideas and enable you to develop your ideas in logical sequence. It quickly becomes obvious that structure and content are very closely linked. Try to develop one idea per paragraph; move to the next paragraph with the next idea. Remember, if you say you are going to show or do something in your opening sentence you should deliver. Always check that you've done what you set out to do. The length of a paragraph is usually between 50 and 200 words. Several medium-length paragraphs (or sentences) are often followed effectively by a shorter, snappier paragraph (or sentence). Use a linking sentence to join paragraphs together. This helps maintain the flow of thought, and leads the reader naturally to the next point. Remember that precision, clarity and economy of style are the critical foundations to good writing. Precision Precision is a key to good style. An extensive vocabulary and elegant style cannot overcome a lack of precision. Whenever you have to ask yourself, 'What do I mean by this?' you know you have not been precise. Precision rests on using the right words, so when you are writing try to ensure that the words you are using do actually convey what you want to say. One trap people can fall into is assuming that a Thesaurus solves all problems. Although a word may be given as a synonym in a Thesaurus, it may not carry the exact meaning that you want to convey in this particular context; and some terms also conflict with traditional usage. Clarity Clarity involves saying something in plain English. Avoid ambiguity, which can occur when words are used loosely or carelessly. Avoid circumlocution; get to the point simply and directly. And avoid mixed constructions; make sure that your grammatical construction is correct. It's also important to use correct punctuationpoorly applied punctuation can change the entire meaning of a sentence. Strategies to avoid Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.

Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion. Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes. Making sentimental, emotional appeals that are out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.

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POINTS ABOUT PRONOUNS Using the pronouns 'he' and 'she' It is better, when possible, to avoid `he', `his' or `him' when you intend to include both men and women. Instead of: Solvent abuse is not a crime but if a police officer finds a young person under 17 sniffing solvents, he should take him to a secure place such as the police station, home or hospital. you could repeat the short titles of both people: Solvent abuse is not a crime but if a police officer finds a young person under 17 sniffing solvents, the officer should take the person to a secure place such as the police station, home or hospital. Using `he or she' and `him or her' is also feasible here - preferably, in just one of the cases: Solvent abuse is not a crime but if a police officer finds a person under 17 sniffing solvents, he or she should take the person to a secure place such as the police station, home or hospital. Repeated use of `he or she' and similar terms becomes clumsy and obtrusive. The alternatives, `s/he' or `he/she', look ugly and cannot be spoken easily. If the text is addressed specifically to police officers, it would be feasible to use `you': Solvent abuse is not a crime but if you find a person under 17 sniffing solvents, you should take him or her to a secure place such as the police station, home or hospital. Using the plural A further alternative, and often the best, is to use the plural: Solvent abuse is not a crime but if police officers find a person under 17 sniffing solvents, they should take the person to a secure place such as the police station, home or hospital. Using plurals as singulars It is becoming more acceptable to flout the grammatical conventions set in the eighteenth century by male grammarians and to do what Shakespeare did when he wrote: God send everyone their heart's desire. In other words, to revive the old use of `they', `them' and `their' as singulars: Give details of your partner's income. If they have been unemployed for more than 12 months ... You may find that an individual has levels of competence in several skills beyond those required in their current role. This will occur when someone has developed their skills and potential in readiness for other opportunities. Alternatively use the plural: You may find that individuals have levels of competence in several skills beyond those required in their current roles. This will occur when they have developed their skills and potential in readiness for other opportunities. Using one, ones, oneself Repeated use of one is best avoided. Use you, we, they, people instead where possible. All of the following sentences would sound better avoiding the use of one..

Duty is what one expects from others; it is not what one does oneself. One is morally responsible for what one does, not for what one does not do. If one takes what one does with one's life seriously, one cannot simply muddle along without thinking of ones future. Wherever one goes, one finds heaps of foul-smelling rubbish lining the streets. GOLDEN RULE: USE COLONS SPARINGLY