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Introduction of Vector

Physical quantities having magnitude, direction and


obeyinglawsofvectoralgebraarecalledvectors.
Example : Displacement, velocity, acceleration,
momentum, force, impulse, weight, thrust, torque, angular
momentum,angularvelocityetc.
Ifaphysicalquantityhasmagnitudeanddirectionboth,
thenit does notalways imply thatit isavector.Forit tobe a
vector the third condition of obeying laws of vector algebra
hastobesatisfied.
Example : The physical quantity current has both
magnitude and direction but is still a scalar as it disobeys the
lawsofvectoralgebra.
Types of Vector
(1)Equalvectors:Twovectors A and B aresaidtobeequalwhen
theyhaveequalmagnitudesandsamedirection.
(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors A and B are said to be
parallelwhen
(i)Bothhavesamedirection.
(ii)Onevectorisscalar(positive)nonzeromultipleofanother
vector.
(3) Antiparallel vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to
beantiparallelwhen
(i)Bothhaveoppositedirection.
(ii) One vector is scalar nonzero negative multiple of another
vector.
(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors under consideration
can share the same support or have a common support then the
consideredvectorsarecollinear.
(5) Zero vector ) 0 ( : A vector having zero magnitude and
arbitrarydirection(notknowntous)isazerovector.
(6)Unitvector:Avectordividedbyitsmagnitudeisaunitvector.
Unitvectorfor A is A

(readasAcaporAhat).
Since,
A
A
A =

A A A

= .
Thus,wecansaythatunitvectorgivesusthedirection.
(7) Orthogonal unit vectors j i

,

and k

are called orthogonal unit vectors.


These vectors must form a Right Handed
Triad (It is a coordinate system such that
when we Curl the fingers of right hand
fromxtoythenwemustgetthedirection
ofzalongthumb).The

x
x
i =

,
y
y
j =

,
z
z
k =

i x x

= , j y y

= , k z z

=
(8) Polar vectors : These have starting point or point of
application.Exampledisplacementandforceetc.
(9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational effects and are
alwaysalongtheaxisofrotationinaccordancewithrighthandscrew
rule. Angular velocity, torque and angular momentum, etc., are
exampleofphysicalquantitiesofthistype.

(10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) vectors are called


coplanar vector if they lie in the same plane. Two (free) vectors are
alwayscoplanar.
Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors
If two non zero vectors are represented by the two sides of a
triangle taken in same order
then the resultant is given by
the closing side of triangle in
oppositeorder.i.e. B A R + =
AB OA OB + =

(1)Magnitudeofresultantvector
In , ABN A
B
AN
= u cos u cos B AN =
B
BN
= u sin u sin B BN =
In , OBN A wehave
2 2 2
BN ON OB + =

2 2 2
) sin ( ) cos ( u u B B A R + + =
u u u
2 2 2 2 2 2
sin cos 2 cos B AB B A R + + + =
u u u cos 2 ) sin (cos
2 2 2 2 2
AB B A R + + + =
u cos 2
2 2 2
AB B A R + + =
u cos 2
2 2
AB B A R + + =
(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If u is angle between A
and , B then
u cos 2 | |
2 2
AB B A B A + + = +
If R makesanangleowith , A thenin , OBN A
Axial vector
Anticlock wise rotation
Axis of rotation Axial vector
Clock wise rotation
Axis of rotation
i


z
y
x


B A R + =
B
O A
A
B

B
O A
R
B
A
o u
N
B cosu
B sinu

AN OA
BN
ON
BN
+
= = o tan
u
u
o
cos
sin
tan
B A
B
+
=
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition
If two non zero vectors are represented by the two adjacent
sidesofaparallelogramthentheresultantisgivenbythediagonalof
the parallelogram passing through the point of intersection of the
twovectors.
(1)Magnitude
Since,
2 2 2
CN ON R + =

2 2 2
) ( CN AN OA R + + =
u cos 2
2 2 2
AB B A R + + =
u cos 2 | | | |
2 2
AB B A B A R R + + = + = =

Specialcases: B A R + = whenu=0
o

B A R = whenu=180
o

2 2
B A R + = whenu=90
o

(2)Direction
u
u
|
cos
sin
tan
B A
B
ON
CN
+
= =
Polygon Law of Vector Addition
Ifanumberofnonzerovectorsarerepresentedbythe
(n 1) sides of an nsided polygon then the resultant is given
by the closing side or the n
th
side of the polygon taken in opposite
order.So,
E D C B A R + + + + =
OE DE CD BC AB OA = + + + +

Note:
- Resultantoftwounequalvectorscannotbezero.
- Resultant of three coplanar vectors may or may not be
zero
- Resultantofthreenoncoplanarvectorscannotbezero.
Subtraction of vectors

Since, ) ( B A B A + = and
u cos 2 | |
2 2
AB B A B A + + = +
) 180 ( cos 2 | |
2 2
u + + =
o
AB B A B A
Since, u u cos ) 180 ( cos =
u cos 2 | |
2 2
AB B A B A + =










u
u
o
cos
sin
tan
1
B A
B
+
=
and
) 180 ( cos
) 180 ( sin
tan
2
u
u
o
+

=
B A
B

But u u sin ) 180 sin( = and u u cos ) 180 cos( =

u
u
o
cos
sin
tan
2
B A
B

=
Resolution of Vector Into Components
Consideravector R inXYplaneas
shown in fig. If we draw orthogonal
vectors x R and y R along x and y axes
respectively, by law of vector addition,
y
x R R R + =
Nowasforanyvector n A A

= so,
x
x R i R

= and
y
y R j R

=
so
y x
R j R i R

+ = (i)
Butfromfigure u cos R R
x
= (ii)
C
O
u
B
A
B
B A R + =
B sinu
A
u
|
B
B cosu
N

D C
E B
A
O
C
B
A
E
R
D

o1
o2
180 u
u
A
B
B
) ( B A diff R + =
B A sum R + =

R Ry
Rx
u
Y
X

and u sin R R
y
= (iii)
SinceRanduareusuallyknown,Equation(ii)and(iii)givethe
magnitudeofthecomponentsof R alongxandyaxesrespectively.
Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved into its
components, the componentsthemselvescan beused to specifythe
vectoras
(1)Themagnitudeofthevector R isobtainedbysquaringand
addingequation(ii)and(iii),i.e.
2 2
y x
R R R + =
(2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by dividing
equation(iii)by(ii),i.e.
) / ( tan
x y
R R = u or ) / ( tan
1
x y
R R

= u
Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector
q R R R R z y x + + = or k R j R i R R
z y x

+ + =

If R makes an angle o with x axis, | with y axis and with z


axis,then
l
R R R
R
R
R
z y x
x x
=
+ +
= =
2 2 2
coso
m
R R R
R
R
R
z y x
y y
=
+ +
= =
2 2 2
cos |
n
R R R
R
R
R
z y x
z z
=
+ +
= =
2 2 2
cos
Wherel,m,narecalledDirectionCosinesofthevector R and
= + +
2 2 2
n m l 1 cos cos cos
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
=
+ +
+ +
= + +
z y x
z y x
R R R
R R R
| o
Note: WhenapointPhavecoordinate(x,y,z)
thenitspositionvector k z j y i x OP

+ + =
Whenaparticlemovesfrompoint(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)to(x
2
,
y
2
,z
2
)thenitsdisplacementvector
k z z j y y i x x r

) (

) (

) (
1 2 1 2 1 2
+ + =

Scalar Product of Two Vectors


(1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot product) of two
vectors is defined as the product of the magnitude of two vectors
withcosineofanglebetweenthem.
Thus if there are two vectors A and B having angle u
between them, then their scalar product written as B A. is defined
as B A. u cos AB =
(2) Properties : (i) It is always a scalar
whichispositiveifanglebetweenthevectors
is acute (i.e., < 90) and negative if angle
betweenthemisobtuse(i.e.90<u<180).
(ii)Itiscommutative,i.e. A B B A . . =
(iii) It is distributive, i.e.
C A B A C B A . . ) ( . + = +
(iv)Asbydefinition u cos . AB B A =
Theanglebetweenthevectors
(
(

=

AB
B A.
cos
1
u
(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when
, 1 max cos = = u i.e. , 0
o
= u i.e.,vectorsareparallel
AB B A =
max
) . (
(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum when
, 0 min | cos | = = u i.e.
o
90 = u
0 ) . (
min
= B A
i.e. if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors vanishes the
vectorsareorthogonal.
(vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self
dotproductandisgivenby
2 2
cos . ) ( A AA A A A = = = u
i.e. A A A . =
(viii)Incaseofunitvector n


1 0 cos 1 1

= = n n so 1

.

.

.

= = = = k k j j i i n n
(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors j i

,

and ,

k
0 90 cos 1 1

.

.

.

= = = = i k k j j i
(x)Intermsofcomponents
) ( . ) ( .
z y x z y x
B k B j B i A k A j A i B A + + + + = ] [
z Z y y x x
B A B A B A + + =
(3)Example:(i)WorkW:Inphysicsforconstantforceworkis
definedas, u cos Fs W = (i)
But by definition of scalar product of two vectors,
u cos . Fs s F = (ii)
Z
X
Y
x
R
R
y
R
z
R

u
A
B
Fig. 0 . 10
Sofromeq
n
(i)and(ii) s F W . = i.e.workisthescalarproduct
offorcewithdisplacement.
(ii)PowerP:
As s F W . = or
dt
s d
F
dt
dW
. = [As F isconstant]
or v F P . = i.e., power is the scalar product of force with
velocity.
(
(

= = v
dt
s d
P
dt
dW
and As
(iii)MagneticFlux | :
Magnetic flux through an area
isgivenby u | cos ds B d = (i)
But by definition of scalar
product u cos . Bds s d B = ...(ii)
Sofromeq
n
(i)and(ii)wehave
s d B d . = | or
}
= s d B. |
(iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric dipole of
moment p is situatedin anelectricfield E or a magnetic dipole of
moment M in a field of induction , B the potential energy of the
dipoleisgivenby:
E p U
E
. = and B M U
B
. =
Vector Product of Two Vectors
(1) Definition : The vector product or cross product of two
vectors is defined as a vector having a magnitude equal to the
product of the magnitudes of two vectors with the sine of angle
between them, and direction perpendicular to the plane containing
thetwovectorsinaccordancewithrighthandscrewrule.
B A C =
Thus,if A and B aretwovectors,thentheirvectorproduct
writtenas B A isavector C definedby
n AB B A C

sinu = =

The direction of , B A i.e. C is perpendicular to the plane


containing vectors A and B and in the sense of advance of a right
handed screw rotated from A (first vector) to B (second vector)
through the smaller angle between them. Thus, if a right handed
screwwhoseaxisisperpendiculartotheplaneframedby A and B
is rotated from A to B through the smaller angle between them,
thenthedirectionofadvancementofthescrewgivesthedirectionof
B A i.e. C
(2)Properties
(i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a vector
perpendicular to the plane containing these two vectors, i.e.,
orthogonaltoboththevectors A and , B thoughthevectors A and
B mayormaynotbeorthogonal.
(ii) Vector product of two vectors is not commutative, i.e.,
A B B A = [but ] A B =
Hereitisworthytonotethat
u sin | | | | AB A B B A = =
i.e.incaseofvector B A and A B magnitudesare equal
butdirectionsareopposite.
(iii) The vector product is distributive when the order of the
vectorsisstrictlymaintained,i.e.
C A B A C B A + = + ) (
(iv)Thevectorproductoftwovectorswillbemaximumwhen
, 1 max sin = = u i.e.,
o
90 = u
n AB B A

] [
max
=
i.e.vectorproductismaximumifthevectorsareorthogonal.
(v) The vector product of two non zero vectors will be minimum
when = | sin | u minimum=0,i.e.,
o
0 = u or
o
180
0 ] [
min
= B A
i.e. if the vector product of two nonzero vectors vanishes,
thevectorsarecollinear.
(vi) The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector by itself
vanishes,i.e.,isnullvector 0

0 sin = = n AA A A
o

(vii) In case of unit vector 0



= n n so that
0

= = = k k j j i i
(viii) In case of orthogonal unit vectors, k j i

,

in accordance
withrighthandscrewrule:

u
s d


O


i

,

k j i = i k j

= and j i k

=
Andascrossproductisnotcommutative,
k i j

= , i j k

= and j k i

=
(x)Intermsofcomponents
z y x
z y x
B B B
A A A
k j i
B A

=
) (

y z z y
B A B A i = ) (

) (

x y y x z x x z
B A B A k B A B A j + +
(3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors is a vector,
vector physical quantities (particularly representing rotational effects)
liketorque,angularmomentum,velocityandforceonamovingcharge
inamagneticfieldandcanbe expressed as thevectorproductoftwo
vectors.Itiswellestablishedinphysicsthat:
(i)Torque F r = t
(ii)Angularmomentum p r L =
(iii)Velocity r v = e
(iv)Forceonachargedparticle qmovingwithvelocity v ina
magneticfield B isgivenby ) ( B v q F =
(v)Torqueonadipoleinafield E p
E
= t and B M
B
= t
Lami's Theorem
Inany C B A A withsides c b a , ,
c b a
| o sin sin sin
= =







Relative Velocity
(1)Introduction:Whenweconsiderthemotionofaparticle,
we assume a fixed point relative to which the given particle is in
motion. For example, if we say that water is flowing or wind is
blowingorapersonisrunningwithaspeedv,wemeanthattheseall
arerelativetotheearth(whichwehaveassumedtobefixed).

Nowtofindthevelocityofamovingobjectrelativetoanother
movingobject,consideraparticlePwhosepositionrelativetoframe
Sis

PS
r whilerelativeto S' is

' S P
r .
If the position of frames S' relative to S at any time is
S S
r
'

thenfromfigure,

'

'

+ =
S S S P PS
r r r
Differentiatingthisequationwithrespecttotime
dt
dr
dt
dr
dt
dr
S S S P PS

'

'

+ =
or

'

'

+ =
S S S P PS
v v v [as dt / r d v

= ]
or

'

'
=
S S PS S P
v v v
(2)GeneralFormula:TherelativevelocityofaparticleP
1

movingwithvelocity

1
v withrespecttoanotherparticleP
2
moving
withvelocity

2
v isgivenby,
12
r v

1
v

2
v

(i)Ifboththeparticlesaremovinginthesamedirectionthen:
2 1

12
u u u =
r

(ii)Ifthetwoparticlesaremovingintheoppositedirection,
then:
2 1
12
u u u + =
r

(iii) If the two particles are moving in the mutually
perpendiculardirections,then:

2
2
2
1
12
u u u + =
r

(iv) If the angle between

1
u and 2

u be u, then
| |
2 / 1
2 1
2
2
2
1
cos 2
12
u u u u u u + =
r
.
(3) Relative velocity of satellite : If a satellite is moving in
equatorialplanewithvelocity s v

andapointonthesurfaceofearth
with e v

relative to the centre of earth, the velocity of satellite


relativetothesurfaceofearth
e s se
v v v

=
|
o

180 |
180
180 o
c
b
a

S S
r
'
S
P
S'
S P
r
' PS
r
X
Y
Y'
X'

2
v
P2
1
v
P1

m
v

So if the satellite movesformwestto east(inthe direction of


rotationofearthonitsaxis)itsvelocityrelativetoearth'ssurfacewill
be
e s se
v v v =
Andifthesatellitemovesfromeasttowest,i.e.,oppositeto
themotionofearth,
e s e s se
v v v v v + = = ) (
(4) Relative velocity of rain : If rain is falling vertically with a
velocity

R
v and an observer is moving horizontally with speed
M
v

thevelocityofrainrelativetoobserverwillbe

=
M R RM
v v v
whichbylawofvectoradditionhasmagnitude
2 2
M R RM
v v v + =
direction ) / ( tan
1
R M
v v

= u withtheverticalasshowninfig.

(5) Relative velocity of swimmer : If a man can swim relative


towaterwithvelocity

v andwaterisflowingrelativetogroundwith
velocity

R
v velocityofmanrelativetoground

M
v willbegivenby:
,
R M
v v v

= i.e.,
R M
v v v

+ =
So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of water,
R M
v v v + =
And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of water,
R M
v v v =
(6) Crossing the river : Suppose, the river is flowing with
velocity
r
u

. A man can swim in still water with velocity


m
u

. He is
standing on one bank of the river and wants to cross the river, two
casesarise.
(i) To cross the river over shortest distance : That is to cross
the river straight, the man should swim making angle u with the
upstreamasshown.

Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which



= = . ,
r m
AB v OA u Theirresultantisgivenby

= u OB .Thedirection
of swimming makes angle u with upstream. From the triangle OBA,
wefind,
m
r
u
u
u = cos Also
m
r
u
u
o = sin
Whereoistheanglemadebythedirectionofswimmingwith
theshortestdistance(OB)acrosstheriver.
Time taken to cross the river : If w be the width of the river,
thentimetakentocrosstheriverwillbegivenby
2 2
1

r m
w w
t
u u
u
= =
(ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time : The man
shouldswimperpendiculartothebank.
Thetimetakentocrosstheriverwillbe:

m
w
t
u
=
2

Inthiscase,themanwilltouchtheoppositebankatadistance
ABdownstream.Thisdistancewillbegivenby:
m
r r
w
t AB
u
u u = =
2
or w AB
m
r
u
u
=

M
v


R
v


M
v


R
v


vM
vR
u

O
A B
w
Upstream Downstream

u
o
O
A B

v w
Upstream
Downstream
u

vr

vr

vm

vr

vr







All physical quantities having direction are not vectors. For
example, the electric current possesses direction but it is a scalar
quantity because it can not be added or multiplied according to
therulesofvectoralgebra.
A vector can have only two rectangular components in plane
andonlythreerectangularcomponentsinspace.
A vector can have any number, even infinite components.
(minimum2components)
Following quantities are neither vectors nor scalars : Relative
density, density, viscosity, frequency, pressure, stress, strain,
modulus of elasticity, poissons ratio, moment of inertia, specific
heat, latent heat, spring constant loudness, resistance,
conductance, reactance, impedance, permittivity, dielectric
constant,permeability,susceptibility,refractiveindex,focallength,
poweroflens,Boltzmanconstant,Stefansconstant,Gasconstant,
Gravitationalconstant,Rydbergconstant,Plancksconstantetc.
Distancecoveredisascalarquantity.
Thedisplacementisavectorquantity.
Scalarsareadded,subtractedordividedalgebraically.
Vectorsareaddedandsubtractedgeometrically.
Division of vectors is not allowed as directions cannot be
divided.
Unitvectorgivesthedirectionofvector.
Magnitudeofunitvectoris1.
Unitvectorhasnounit.Forexample,velocityofanobjectis5
ms
1
dueEast.
i.e.
1
5

= ms v

dueeast.
East
5
East) ( 5
| |

1
1
= = =

ms
ms
v
v
v

Sounitvector v

hasnounitasEastisnotaphysicalquantity.
Unitvectorhasnodimensions.
1

.

.

.

= = = k k j j i i
0


= = = k k j j i i
j i k i k j k j i

,

,

= = =
0

.

.

.

= = = i k k j j i
0

= A A .Also 0

= A A But A A A A

=
Because A A A

and A A

iscollinearwith A

Multiplicationofavectorwith1reversesitsdirection.
If B A

= ,thenA=Band B A

= .
If 0

= + B A ,thenA=Bbut B A

= .
Minimumnumberofcollinearvectorswhoseresultantcanbe
zeroistwo.
Minimumnumberofcoplanervectorswhoseresultantiszero
isthree.
Minimumnumberofnoncoplanervectorswhoseresultantis
zeroisfour.
Twovectorsareperpendiculartoeachotherif 0 . = B A

.
Twovectorsareparalleltoeachotherif . 0 = B A

Displacement,velocity,linearmomentumandforcearepolar
vectors.
Angular velocity, angular acceleration, torque and angular
momentumareaxialvectors.
Divisionwithavectorisnotdefinedbecauseitisnotpossible
todividewithadirection.
Distancecoveredisalwayspositivequantity.
Thecomponentsofavectorscanhavemagnitudethanthatof
thevectoritself.
The rectangular components cannot have magnitude greater
thanthatofthevectoritself.
Whenwemultiplyavectorwith0theproductbecomesanull
vector.
Theresultantoftwovectorsofunequalmagnitudecannever
beanullvector.
Three vectors not lying in a plane cannever add up to give a
nullvector.
Aquantityhavingmagnitudeanddirectionisnotnecessarilya
vector. For example, time and electric current. These quantities
have magnitude and direction but they are scalar. This is because
theydonotobeythelawsofvectoraddition.
A physical quantity which has different values in different
directions is called a tensor. For example : Moment of inertia has
differentvaluesindifferentdirections.Hencemomentofinertiais
a tensor. Other examples of tensor are refractive index, stress,
strain,densityetc.
The magnitude of rectangular components of a vector is
alwayslessthanthemagnitudeofthevector
If B A

= ,then
y y x x
B A B A = = , and
z z
B A = .
If C B A

= + . Or if 0

= + + C B A , then B A

, and C

lie in
oneplane.
If C B A

= ,then C

isperpendicularto A

aswellas B

.
If | | | | B A B A

= ,thenanglebetween A

and B

is90.
Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when u = 0 i.e.
vectorsareparallel.
| | 0 cos 2
2 2
max
Q P PQ Q P R + = + + =
Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when u = 180 i.e.
vectorsareantiparallel.
| | 180 cos 2
2 2
min
Q P PQ Q P R = + + =
Thus, minimum value of the resultant of two vectors is equal to
thedifferenceoftheirmagnitude.
Thus,maximumvalueoftheresultantoftwovectorsisequal
tothesumoftheirmagnitude.
Whenthemagnitudesoftwovectorsareunequal,then
0
min
= = Q P R |] | | | [ Q P

=
Thus, two vectors P

and Q

having different magnitudes can


neverbecombinedtogivezeroresultant.Fromhere,weconclude
thattheminimumnumberofvectorsofunequalmagnitudewhose
resultant can be zero is three. On the other hand, the minimum
number of vectors of equal magnitude whose resultant can be
zeroistwo.
Anglebetweentwovectors A

and B

isgivenby

| | | |
.
cos
B A
B A


= u
Projectionofavector A

inthedirectionofvector B

| |
.
B
B A


=
Projectionofavector B

inthedirectionofvector A

| |
.
A
B A


=
If vectors C B A

and , are represented by three sides ab, bc
andcarespectivelytakeninaorder,then
ca
C
bc
B
ab
A | | | | | |

= =
The vectors k j i

+ + is equally inclined to the coordinate
axesatanangleof54.74degrees.
If C B A

= ,then 0 . = C B A

.
If 0 . = C B A

,then B A

. and C

arecoplanar.
Ifanglebetween A

and B

is45,
then | | . B A B A

=
If 0 ......
3 2 1

= + + + +
n
A A A A and
n
A A A A = = = = ......
3 2 1

then the adjacent vector are inclined to each other at angle
n / 2t .
If C B A

= + and
2 2 2
C B A = + ,thentheanglebetween A

and B

is90.AlsoA,BandCcanhavethefollowingvalues.
(i)A=3,B=4,C=5
(ii)A=5,B=12,C=13
(iii)A=8,B=15,C=17.

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