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(readasAcaporAhat).
Since,
A
A
A =
A A A
= .
Thus,wecansaythatunitvectorgivesusthedirection.
(7) Orthogonal unit vectors j i
,
and k
,
y
y
j =
,
z
z
k =
i x x
= , j y y
= , k z z
=
(8) Polar vectors : These have starting point or point of
application.Exampledisplacementandforceetc.
(9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational effects and are
alwaysalongtheaxisofrotationinaccordancewithrighthandscrew
rule. Angular velocity, torque and angular momentum, etc., are
exampleofphysicalquantitiesofthistype.
(1)Magnitudeofresultantvector
In , ABN A
B
AN
= u cos u cos B AN =
B
BN
= u sin u sin B BN =
In , OBN A wehave
2 2 2
BN ON OB + =
2 2 2
) sin ( ) cos ( u u B B A R + + =
u u u
2 2 2 2 2 2
sin cos 2 cos B AB B A R + + + =
u u u cos 2 ) sin (cos
2 2 2 2 2
AB B A R + + + =
u cos 2
2 2 2
AB B A R + + =
u cos 2
2 2
AB B A R + + =
(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If u is angle between A
and , B then
u cos 2 | |
2 2
AB B A B A + + = +
If R makesanangleowith , A thenin , OBN A
Axial vector
Anticlock wise rotation
Axis of rotation Axial vector
Clock wise rotation
Axis of rotation
i
z
y
x
B A R + =
B
O A
A
B
B
O A
R
B
A
o u
N
B cosu
B sinu
AN OA
BN
ON
BN
+
= = o tan
u
u
o
cos
sin
tan
B A
B
+
=
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition
If two non zero vectors are represented by the two adjacent
sidesofaparallelogramthentheresultantisgivenbythediagonalof
the parallelogram passing through the point of intersection of the
twovectors.
(1)Magnitude
Since,
2 2 2
CN ON R + =
2 2 2
) ( CN AN OA R + + =
u cos 2
2 2 2
AB B A R + + =
u cos 2 | | | |
2 2
AB B A B A R R + + = + = =
Specialcases: B A R + = whenu=0
o
B A R = whenu=180
o
2 2
B A R + = whenu=90
o
(2)Direction
u
u
|
cos
sin
tan
B A
B
ON
CN
+
= =
Polygon Law of Vector Addition
Ifanumberofnonzerovectorsarerepresentedbythe
(n 1) sides of an nsided polygon then the resultant is given
by the closing side or the n
th
side of the polygon taken in opposite
order.So,
E D C B A R + + + + =
OE DE CD BC AB OA = + + + +
Note:
- Resultantoftwounequalvectorscannotbezero.
- Resultant of three coplanar vectors may or may not be
zero
- Resultantofthreenoncoplanarvectorscannotbezero.
Subtraction of vectors
Since, ) ( B A B A + = and
u cos 2 | |
2 2
AB B A B A + + = +
) 180 ( cos 2 | |
2 2
u + + =
o
AB B A B A
Since, u u cos ) 180 ( cos =
u cos 2 | |
2 2
AB B A B A + =
u
u
o
cos
sin
tan
1
B A
B
+
=
and
) 180 ( cos
) 180 ( sin
tan
2
u
u
o
+
=
B A
B
But u u sin ) 180 sin( = and u u cos ) 180 cos( =
u
u
o
cos
sin
tan
2
B A
B
=
Resolution of Vector Into Components
Consideravector R inXYplaneas
shown in fig. If we draw orthogonal
vectors x R and y R along x and y axes
respectively, by law of vector addition,
y
x R R R + =
Nowasforanyvector n A A
= so,
x
x R i R
= and
y
y R j R
=
so
y x
R j R i R
+ = (i)
Butfromfigure u cos R R
x
= (ii)
C
O
u
B
A
B
B A R + =
B sinu
A
u
|
B
B cosu
N
D C
E B
A
O
C
B
A
E
R
D
o1
o2
180 u
u
A
B
B
) ( B A diff R + =
B A sum R + =
R Ry
Rx
u
Y
X
and u sin R R
y
= (iii)
SinceRanduareusuallyknown,Equation(ii)and(iii)givethe
magnitudeofthecomponentsof R alongxandyaxesrespectively.
Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved into its
components, the componentsthemselvescan beused to specifythe
vectoras
(1)Themagnitudeofthevector R isobtainedbysquaringand
addingequation(ii)and(iii),i.e.
2 2
y x
R R R + =
(2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by dividing
equation(iii)by(ii),i.e.
) / ( tan
x y
R R = u or ) / ( tan
1
x y
R R
= u
Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector
q R R R R z y x + + = or k R j R i R R
z y x
+ + =
) (
) (
1 2 1 2 1 2
+ + =
=
AB
B A.
cos
1
u
(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when
, 1 max cos = = u i.e. , 0
o
= u i.e.,vectorsareparallel
AB B A =
max
) . (
(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum when
, 0 min | cos | = = u i.e.
o
90 = u
0 ) . (
min
= B A
i.e. if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors vanishes the
vectorsareorthogonal.
(vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self
dotproductandisgivenby
2 2
cos . ) ( A AA A A A = = = u
i.e. A A A . =
(viii)Incaseofunitvector n
1 0 cos 1 1
= = n n so 1
.
.
.
= = = = k k j j i i n n
(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors j i
,
and ,
k
0 90 cos 1 1
.
.
.
= = = = i k k j j i
(x)Intermsofcomponents
) ( . ) ( .
z y x z y x
B k B j B i A k A j A i B A + + + + = ] [
z Z y y x x
B A B A B A + + =
(3)Example:(i)WorkW:Inphysicsforconstantforceworkis
definedas, u cos Fs W = (i)
But by definition of scalar product of two vectors,
u cos . Fs s F = (ii)
Z
X
Y
x
R
R
y
R
z
R
u
A
B
Fig. 0 . 10
Sofromeq
n
(i)and(ii) s F W . = i.e.workisthescalarproduct
offorcewithdisplacement.
(ii)PowerP:
As s F W . = or
dt
s d
F
dt
dW
. = [As F isconstant]
or v F P . = i.e., power is the scalar product of force with
velocity.
(
(
= = v
dt
s d
P
dt
dW
and As
(iii)MagneticFlux | :
Magnetic flux through an area
isgivenby u | cos ds B d = (i)
But by definition of scalar
product u cos . Bds s d B = ...(ii)
Sofromeq
n
(i)and(ii)wehave
s d B d . = | or
}
= s d B. |
(iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric dipole of
moment p is situatedin anelectricfield E or a magnetic dipole of
moment M in a field of induction , B the potential energy of the
dipoleisgivenby:
E p U
E
. = and B M U
B
. =
Vector Product of Two Vectors
(1) Definition : The vector product or cross product of two
vectors is defined as a vector having a magnitude equal to the
product of the magnitudes of two vectors with the sine of angle
between them, and direction perpendicular to the plane containing
thetwovectorsinaccordancewithrighthandscrewrule.
B A C =
Thus,if A and B aretwovectors,thentheirvectorproduct
writtenas B A isavector C definedby
n AB B A C
sinu = =
0 sin = = n AA A A
o
in accordance
withrighthandscrewrule:
u
s d
O
i
,
k j i = i k j
= and j i k
=
Andascrossproductisnotcommutative,
k i j
= , i j k
= and j k i
=
(x)Intermsofcomponents
z y x
z y x
B B B
A A A
k j i
B A
=
) (
y z z y
B A B A i = ) (
) (
x y y x z x x z
B A B A k B A B A j + +
(3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors is a vector,
vector physical quantities (particularly representing rotational effects)
liketorque,angularmomentum,velocityandforceonamovingcharge
inamagneticfieldandcanbe expressed as thevectorproductoftwo
vectors.Itiswellestablishedinphysicsthat:
(i)Torque F r = t
(ii)Angularmomentum p r L =
(iii)Velocity r v = e
(iv)Forceonachargedparticle qmovingwithvelocity v ina
magneticfield B isgivenby ) ( B v q F =
(v)Torqueonadipoleinafield E p
E
= t and B M
B
= t
Lami's Theorem
Inany C B A A withsides c b a , ,
c b a
| o sin sin sin
= =
Relative Velocity
(1)Introduction:Whenweconsiderthemotionofaparticle,
we assume a fixed point relative to which the given particle is in
motion. For example, if we say that water is flowing or wind is
blowingorapersonisrunningwithaspeedv,wemeanthattheseall
arerelativetotheearth(whichwehaveassumedtobefixed).
Nowtofindthevelocityofamovingobjectrelativetoanother
movingobject,consideraparticlePwhosepositionrelativetoframe
Sis
PS
r whilerelativeto S' is
' S P
r .
If the position of frames S' relative to S at any time is
S S
r
'
thenfromfigure,
'
'
+ =
S S S P PS
r r r
Differentiatingthisequationwithrespecttotime
dt
dr
dt
dr
dt
dr
S S S P PS
'
'
+ =
or
'
'
+ =
S S S P PS
v v v [as dt / r d v
= ]
or
'
'
=
S S PS S P
v v v
(2)GeneralFormula:TherelativevelocityofaparticleP
1
movingwithvelocity
1
v withrespecttoanotherparticleP
2
moving
withvelocity
2
v isgivenby,
12
r v
1
v
2
v
(i)Ifboththeparticlesaremovinginthesamedirectionthen:
2 1
12
u u u =
r
(ii)Ifthetwoparticlesaremovingintheoppositedirection,
then:
2 1
12
u u u + =
r
(iii) If the two particles are moving in the mutually
perpendiculardirections,then:
2
2
2
1
12
u u u + =
r
(iv) If the angle between
1
u and 2
u be u, then
| |
2 / 1
2 1
2
2
2
1
cos 2
12
u u u u u u + =
r
.
(3) Relative velocity of satellite : If a satellite is moving in
equatorialplanewithvelocity s v
andapointonthesurfaceofearth
with e v
R
v and an observer is moving horizontally with speed
M
v
thevelocityofrainrelativetoobserverwillbe
=
M R RM
v v v
whichbylawofvectoradditionhasmagnitude
2 2
M R RM
v v v + =
direction ) / ( tan
1
R M
v v
= u withtheverticalasshowninfig.
v andwaterisflowingrelativetogroundwith
velocity
R
v velocityofmanrelativetoground
M
v willbegivenby:
,
R M
v v v
= i.e.,
R M
v v v
+ =
So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of water,
R M
v v v + =
And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of water,
R M
v v v =
(6) Crossing the river : Suppose, the river is flowing with
velocity
r
u
. He is
standing on one bank of the river and wants to cross the river, two
casesarise.
(i) To cross the river over shortest distance : That is to cross
the river straight, the man should swim making angle u with the
upstreamasshown.
r m
w w
t
u u
u
= =
(ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time : The man
shouldswimperpendiculartothebank.
Thetimetakentocrosstheriverwillbe:
m
w
t
u
=
2
Inthiscase,themanwilltouchtheoppositebankatadistance
ABdownstream.Thisdistancewillbegivenby:
m
r r
w
t AB
u
u u = =
2
or w AB
m
r
u
u
=
M
v
R
v
M
v
R
v
vM
vR
u
O
A B
w
Upstream Downstream
u
o
O
A B
v w
Upstream
Downstream
u
vr
vr
vm
vr
vr
All physical quantities having direction are not vectors. For
example, the electric current possesses direction but it is a scalar
quantity because it can not be added or multiplied according to
therulesofvectoralgebra.
A vector can have only two rectangular components in plane
andonlythreerectangularcomponentsinspace.
A vector can have any number, even infinite components.
(minimum2components)
Following quantities are neither vectors nor scalars : Relative
density, density, viscosity, frequency, pressure, stress, strain,
modulus of elasticity, poissons ratio, moment of inertia, specific
heat, latent heat, spring constant loudness, resistance,
conductance, reactance, impedance, permittivity, dielectric
constant,permeability,susceptibility,refractiveindex,focallength,
poweroflens,Boltzmanconstant,Stefansconstant,Gasconstant,
Gravitationalconstant,Rydbergconstant,Plancksconstantetc.
Distancecoveredisascalarquantity.
Thedisplacementisavectorquantity.
Scalarsareadded,subtractedordividedalgebraically.
Vectorsareaddedandsubtractedgeometrically.
Division of vectors is not allowed as directions cannot be
divided.
Unitvectorgivesthedirectionofvector.
Magnitudeofunitvectoris1.
Unitvectorhasnounit.Forexample,velocityofanobjectis5
ms
1
dueEast.
i.e.
1
5
= ms v
dueeast.
East
5
East) ( 5
| |
1
1
= = =
ms
ms
v
v
v
Sounitvector v
hasnounitasEastisnotaphysicalquantity.
Unitvectorhasnodimensions.
1
.
.
.
= = = k k j j i i
0
= = = k k j j i i
j i k i k j k j i
,
,
= = =
0
.
.
.
= = = i k k j j i
0
= A A .Also 0
= A A But A A A A
=
Because A A A
and A A
iscollinearwith A
Multiplicationofavectorwith1reversesitsdirection.
If B A
= ,thenA=Band B A
= .
If 0
= + B A ,thenA=Bbut B A
= .
Minimumnumberofcollinearvectorswhoseresultantcanbe
zeroistwo.
Minimumnumberofcoplanervectorswhoseresultantiszero
isthree.
Minimumnumberofnoncoplanervectorswhoseresultantis
zeroisfour.
Twovectorsareperpendiculartoeachotherif 0 . = B A
.
Twovectorsareparalleltoeachotherif . 0 = B A
Displacement,velocity,linearmomentumandforcearepolar
vectors.
Angular velocity, angular acceleration, torque and angular
momentumareaxialvectors.
Divisionwithavectorisnotdefinedbecauseitisnotpossible
todividewithadirection.
Distancecoveredisalwayspositivequantity.
Thecomponentsofavectorscanhavemagnitudethanthatof
thevectoritself.
The rectangular components cannot have magnitude greater
thanthatofthevectoritself.
Whenwemultiplyavectorwith0theproductbecomesanull
vector.
Theresultantoftwovectorsofunequalmagnitudecannever
beanullvector.
Three vectors not lying in a plane cannever add up to give a
nullvector.
Aquantityhavingmagnitudeanddirectionisnotnecessarilya
vector. For example, time and electric current. These quantities
have magnitude and direction but they are scalar. This is because
theydonotobeythelawsofvectoraddition.
A physical quantity which has different values in different
directions is called a tensor. For example : Moment of inertia has
differentvaluesindifferentdirections.Hencemomentofinertiais
a tensor. Other examples of tensor are refractive index, stress,
strain,densityetc.
The magnitude of rectangular components of a vector is
alwayslessthanthemagnitudeofthevector
If B A
= ,then
y y x x
B A B A = = , and
z z
B A = .
If C B A
= + . Or if 0
= + + C B A , then B A
, and C
lie in
oneplane.
If C B A
= ,then C
isperpendicularto A
aswellas B
.
If | | | | B A B A
= ,thenanglebetween A
and B
is90.
Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when u = 0 i.e.
vectorsareparallel.
| | 0 cos 2
2 2
max
Q P PQ Q P R + = + + =
Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when u = 180 i.e.
vectorsareantiparallel.
| | 180 cos 2
2 2
min
Q P PQ Q P R = + + =
Thus, minimum value of the resultant of two vectors is equal to
thedifferenceoftheirmagnitude.
Thus,maximumvalueoftheresultantoftwovectorsisequal
tothesumoftheirmagnitude.
Whenthemagnitudesoftwovectorsareunequal,then
0
min
= = Q P R |] | | | [ Q P
=
Thus, two vectors P
and Q
and B
isgivenby
| | | |
.
cos
B A
B A
= u
Projectionofavector A
inthedirectionofvector B
| |
.
B
B A
=
Projectionofavector B
inthedirectionofvector A
| |
.
A
B A
=
If vectors C B A
and , are represented by three sides ab, bc
andcarespectivelytakeninaorder,then
ca
C
bc
B
ab
A | | | | | |
= =
The vectors k j i
+ + is equally inclined to the coordinate
axesatanangleof54.74degrees.
If C B A
= ,then 0 . = C B A
.
If 0 . = C B A
,then B A
. and C
arecoplanar.
Ifanglebetween A
and B
is45,
then | | . B A B A
=
If 0 ......
3 2 1
= + + + +
n
A A A A and
n
A A A A = = = = ......
3 2 1
then the adjacent vector are inclined to each other at angle
n / 2t .
If C B A
= + and
2 2 2
C B A = + ,thentheanglebetween A
and B
is90.AlsoA,BandCcanhavethefollowingvalues.
(i)A=3,B=4,C=5
(ii)A=5,B=12,C=13
(iii)A=8,B=15,C=17.