4.5.1:- Module 1 4.5.1.

1:- Introduction to Materials:

Scope of Material Science & Technology and its Importance in Chemical Engineering:Materials science is an interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering. This scientific field investigates the relationship between the structure of materials at atomic or molecular scales and their macroscopic properties. It incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry. With significant media attention focused on nanoscience and nanotechnology in recent years. It is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis. Materials science also deals with fundamental properties and characteristics of materials. The basis of materials science involves relating the desired properties and relative performance of a material in a certain application to the structure of the atoms and phases in that material through characterization. The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and the way in which it has been processed into its final form. These characteristics, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics, govern a materials microstructure, and thus its properties. Materials science encompasses various classes of materials, each of which may constitute a separate field. There are several ways to classify materials. For instance by the type of bonding between the atoms. The traditional groups are ceramics, metals and polymers based on atomic structure and chemical composition. New materials have resulted in more classes. One way of classifying materials is: Biomaterials Carbon Ceramics Composite materials Glass Metals Nanomaterials Polymers Refractory Semiconductors Thin Films Functionally Graded Materials. Radical materials advances can drive the creation of new products or even new industries, but stable industries also employ materials scientists to make incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues with currently used materials. Industrial applications of materials science include materials design, cost-benefit tradeoffs in industrial production of materials, processing techniques (casting, rolling, welding, ion implantation, crystal growth, thin-film deposition, sintering, glassblowing, etc.), and analytical techniques (characterization techniques such as Electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Calorimetry, Nuclear microscopy, Rutherford backscattering, Neutron diffraction, small-angle X-ray scattering, etc.). 01

Besides material characterization, the material scientist/engineer also deals with the extraction of materials and their conversion into useful forms. Thus ingot casting, foundry techniques, blast furnace extraction, and electrolytic extraction are all part of the required knowledge of a metallurgist/engineer. Often the presence, absence or variation of minute quantities of secondary elements and compounds in a bulk material will have a great impact on the final properties of the materials produced, for instance, steels are classified based on 1/10 and 1/100 weight percentages of the carbon and other alloying elements they contain. Thus, the extraction and purification techniques employed in the extraction of iron in the blast furnace will have an impact of the quality of steel that may be produced.

4.5.1.2:- Atomic Structure & Chemical Bonding:Structure of the Atom: The name atom comes from the Greek word atomos" which means
impossible to cut, or indivisible, something that cannot be divided further. The concept of an atom as an indivisible component of matter was first proposed by early Indian and Greek philosophers. Basic Atomic Structure

Atoms are made up of three main particles. These are the neutron, electron, and proton. These main parts are each made up of smaller particles. This picture shows the placement of each of the main particles. The Proton is positively charged and is in the nucleus. The Neutron has no electrical charge and is in the nucleus also. The electron moves around the nucleus and it has a negative charge. The number of protons in an atom determines the type of atom it will be. 02 The proton and the neutron are very large and make up most of the MASS of the atom. The electrons have very little mass, but since they move around the nucleus they take up most of the SPACE in the atom.

A generic atomic planetary model, or the Rutherford model:-

A Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, showing an electron jumping between fixed orbits and emitting a photon of energy with a specific frequency:-

The behavior of protons, neutrons and electrons in electric fields:If a beam of each of these particles is passed between two electrically charged plates - one positive and one negativeProtons are positively charged and so would be deflected on a curving path towards the negative plate. Electrons are negatively charged and so would be deflected on a curving path towards the positive plate. Neutrons don't have a charge, and so would continue on in a straight line.

03

Nucleus: The nucleus is at the centre of the atom and contains the protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are collectively known as nucleons. Virtually all the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus, because the electrons weigh so little. Working out the numbers of protons and neutrons No of protons = ATOMIC NUMBER of the atom The atomic number is also given the more descriptive name of proton number. No of protons + no of neutrons = MASS NUMBER of the atom The mass number is also called the nucleon number. This information can be given simply in the form:

How many protons and neutrons has this atom got? The atomic number counts the number of protons (9); the mass number counts protons + neutrons (19). If there are 9 protons, there must be 10 neutrons for the total to add up to 19. The atomic number is tied to the position of the element in the Periodic Table and therefore the number of protons defines what sort of element you are talking about. So if an atom has 8 protons (atomic number = 8), it must be oxygen. If an atom has 12 protons (atomic number = 12), it must be magnesium. Similarly, every chlorine atom (atomic number = 17) has 17 protons; every uranium atom (atomic number = 92) has 92 protons. The atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons (except in the case of hydrogen-1, which is the only stable nuclide with no neutrons). The electrons of an atom are bound to the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. Likewise, a group of atoms can remain bound to each other by chemical bonds based on the same force, forming a molecule. An atom containing an equal number of protons and electrons is electrically neutral, otherwise it is positively or negatively charged and is known as an ion. An atom is classified according to the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus: the number of protons determines the chemical element, and the number of neutrons determines the isotope of the element.

04 Periodic table
A periodic table is a tabular display of the chemical elements, organized on the basis of their atomic numbers, electron configurations, and recurring chemical properties. Elements are presented in order of increasing atomic number (number of protons). The standard form of table comprises an 18 7 grid or main body of elements, positioned above a smaller double row of elements. The table can also be deconstructed into four rectangular blocks: the s-block to the left, the p-block to the right, the d-block in the middle, and the f-block below that. The rows of the table are called periods; the columns of the s-, d-, and p-blocks are called groups, with some of these having names such as the halogens or the noble gases. Since, by definition, a periodic table incorporates recurring trends, any such table can be used to derive relationships between the properties of the elements and predict the properties of new, yet to be discovered or synthesized, elements. As a result, a periodic tablewhether in the standard form or some other variant provides a useful framework for analyzing chemical behavior, and such tables are widely used in chemistry and other sciences. Although precursors exist, Dmitri Mendeleev is generally credited with the publication, in 1869, of the first widely recognized periodic table. He developed his table to illustrate periodic trends in the properties of the then-known elements. Mendeleev also predicted some properties of thenunknown elements that would be expected to fill gaps in this table. Most of his predictions were proved correct when the elements in question were subsequently discovered. Mendeleev's periodic table has since been expanded and refined with the discovery or synthesis of further new elements and the development of new theoretical models to explain chemical behavior. All elements from atomic numbers 1 (hydrogen) to 118 (ununoctium) have been discovered or synthesized. Of these, all up to and including californium exist naturally; the rest have only been synthesized in laboratories. Production of elements beyond ununoctium is being pursued, with the question of how the periodic table may need to be modified to accommodate any such additions being a matter of ongoing debate. Numerous synthetic radionuclides of naturally

occurring elements have also been produced in laboratories.

05 Ionization Potential or Ionization Energy:

Amount of energy required to remove an electron from an isolated atom or molecule. There is an ionization potential for each successive electron removed, though that associated with removing the first (most loosely held) electron is most commonly used. The ionization potential of an element is a measure of its ability to enter into chemical reactions requiring ion formation or donation of electrons and is related to the nature of the chemical bonding in the compounds formed by elements. Thus ionization potential can be defined as the energy per unit charge needed to remove an electron from a given kind of atom or molecule to an infinite distance; usually expressed in volts. Ionization potential is the potential difference through which a bound electron must be raised to free it from the atom or molecule to which it is attached. In particular, the ionization potential is the difference in potential between the initial state, in which the electron is bound, and the final state, in which it is at rest at infinity. The ionization potential for the removal of an electron from a neutral atom other than hydrogen is more correctly designated as the first ionization potential. The potential associated with the removal of a second electron from a singly ionized atom or molecule is then the second ionization potential, and so on.

Electron affinity:
Definition

The electron affinity of an atom or molecule is defined as the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule to form a negative ion.
X + e X

This property is measured for atoms and molecules in the gaseous state only, since in the solid or liquid states their energy levels would be changed by contact with other atoms or molecules. A list of the electron affinities was used by Robert S. Mulliken to develop an electronegativity scale for atoms, equal to the average of the electron affinity and ionization potential. Other theoretical concepts that use electron affinity include electronic chemical potential and chemical hardness. Another example, a molecule or atom that has a more positive value of electron affinity than another is often called an electron acceptor and the less positive an electron donor. Together they may undergo charge-transfer reactions. In solids, the electron affinity is the energy difference between the vacuum energy and the conduction band minimum. To use electron affinities properly, it is essential to keep track of sign. For any reaction that releases energy, the change in energy, E, has a negative value and the reaction is called an exothermic process. ...06 Electron capture for almost all non-noble gas atoms involves the release of energy and thus are exothermic. The positive values that are listed in tables of Eea are amounts or magnitudes. It is the word, released within the definition energy released that supplies the negative sign. Confusion arises in mistaking Eea for a change in energy, E, in which case the positive values listed in tables would be for an endo- not exo-thermic process. The relation between the two is Eea = - E(attach). However, if the value assigned to Eea is negative, the negative sign implies a reversal of direction, and energy is required to attach an electron. In this case, the electron capture is an endothermic process and the relationship, Eea = - E(attach) is still valid. Negative values typically arise for the capture of a second electron, but also for the nitrogen atom. The usual expression for calculating Eea when an electron is attached is
Eea = (Einitial Efinal)attach = - E(attach)

This expression does follow the convention X = X(final) X(initial) since E = - (E(final) E(initial)) = E(initial) E(final). Equivalently, electron affinity can also be defined as the amount of energy required to detach an electron from a singly charged negative ion, i.e. the energy change for the process
X X + e

If the same table is employed for the forward and reverse reactions, without switching signs, care must be taken to apply the correct definition to the corresponding direction, attachment-(release) or detachment-(require). Since almost all detachments (require +) an amount of energy listed on the table, those detachment reactions are endothermic, or E(detach) > 0.

Eea = (Efinal Einitial)detach = E(detach) = - E(attach)

Electronegativity:
Definition Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons. The Pauling scale is the most commonly used. Fluorine (the most electronegative element) is assigned a value of 4.0, and values range down to caesium and francium which are the least electronegative at 0.7. What happens if two atoms of equal electronegativity bond together? Consider a bond between two atoms, A and B. Each atom may be forming other bonds as well as the one shown but these are irrelevant to the argument.

If the atoms are equally electronegative, both have the same tendency to attract the bonding pair of electrons, and so it will be found on average half way between the two atoms. To get a bond like this, A and B would usually have to be the same atom. You will find this sort of bond in, for example, H2 or Cl2 molecules. This sort of bond could be thought of as being a pure covalent bond where the electrons are shared evenly between the two atoms.

07 What happens if B is slightly more electronegative than A? B will attract the electron pair rather more than A does.

That means that the B end of the bond has more than its fair share of electron density and so becomes slightly negative. At the same time, the A end (rather short of electrons) becomes slightly positive. In the diagram, " " (read as "delta") means "slightly" - so + means "slightly positive". This is described as a Polar bond. A polar bond is a covalent bond in which there is a separation of charge between one end and the other - in other words in which one end is slightly positive and the other slightly negative. Examples include most covalent bonds. The hydrogen-chlorine bond in HCl or the hydrogen-oxygen bonds in water are typical. What happens if B is a lot more electronegative than A? In this case, the electron pair is dragged right over to B's end of the bond. To all intents and purposes, A has lost control of its electron, and B has complete control over both electrons. Ions have been formed.

A "spectrum" of bonds The implication of all this is that there is no clear-cut division between covalent and ionic bonds. In a pure covalent bond, the electrons are held on average exactly half way between the atoms. In a polar bond, the electrons have been dragged slightly towards one end. How far does this dragging have to go before the bond counts as ionic? There is no real answer to that. You normally think of sodium chloride as being a typically ionic solid, but even here the sodium hasn't completely lost control of its electron. Because of the properties of sodium chloride, however, we tend to count it as if it were purely ionic.

Wave nature of electron & Schrodinger equation:

In quantum mechanics, the Schrdinger equation is a partial differential equation that describes how the quantum state of some physical system changes with time. It was formulated in late 1925, and published in 1926, by the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrdinger. In classical mechanics, the equation of motion is Newton's second law, and equivalent formulations are the EulerLagrange equations and Hamilton's equations. In all these formulations, they are used to solve for the motion of a mechanical system, and mathematically predict what the system will do at any time beyond the initial settings and configuration of the system. In quantum mechanics, the analogue of Newton's law is Schrdinger's equation for a quantum system, usually atoms, molecules, and subatomic particles; free, bound, or localized. It is not a simple algebraic equation, but (in general) a linear partial differential equation. The differential equation describes the wave-function of the system, also called the quantum state or state vector. In the standard interpretation of quantum mechanics, the wavefunction is the most complete description that can be given to a physical system. Solutions to Schrdinger's equation describe not only molecular, atomic, and subatomic systems, but also macroscopic systems, possibly even the whole universe. 08 Like Newton's Second law, the Schrdinger equation can be mathematically transformed into other formulations such as Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics, and Richard Feynman's path integral formulation. Also like Newton's Second law, the Schrdinger equation describes time in a way that is inconvenient for relativistic theories, a problem that is not as severe in matrix mechanics and completely absent in the path integral formulation. The equation is derived by partially differentiating the standard wave equation and substituting the relation between the momentum of the particle and the wavelength of the wave associated with the particle in De Broglie's hypothesis.

Time-dependent Schrdinger equation:

The form of the Schrdinger equation depends on the physical situation. The most general form is the time-dependent Schrdinger equation, which gives a description of a system evolving with time.

Time-dependent Schrdinger equation (general)

where (psi)is the wave function of the quantum system, i is the imaginary unit, is the reduced Planck constant, and is the Hamiltonian operator, which characterizes the total energy of any given wave-function and takes different forms depending on the situation. A wave function which satisfies the non-relativistic Schrdinger equation with V=0. In other words, this corresponds to a particle traveling freely through empty space. The real part of the wave function is plotted here.

The most famous example is the non-relativistic Schrdinger equation for a single particle moving in an electric field (but not a magnetic field, see the Pauli equation): Time-dependent Schrdinger equation (single non-relativistic particle)

where, m is the particle's mass, V is its potential energy, 2 is the Laplacian, and is the wave-function (more precisely, in this context, it is called the "position-space wave-function"). In plain language, it means "total energy equals kinetic energy plus potential energy".
[In mathematics the Laplace operator or Laplacian is a differential operator given by the divergence of the gradient of a function on Euclidean space. It is usually denoted by the symbols , 2 or . The Laplacian occurs in differential equations that describe many physical phenomena, such as electric and gravitational potentials, the diffusion equation for heat and fluid flow, wave propagation, and quantum mechanics.]

The term "Schrdinger equation" can refer to both the general equation (first box above), or the specific non-relativistic version (second box above and variations thereof). The general equation is indeed quite general, used throughout quantum mechanics. 09 To apply the Schrdinger equation, the Hamiltonian operator is set up for the system, accounting for the kinetic and potential energy of the particles constituting the system, then inserted into the Schrdinger equation. The resulting partial differential equation is solved for the wave-function, which contains information about the system.

Time-independent equation

Each of these three rows is a wave-function which satisfies the time-dependent Schrdinger equation for a harmonic oscillator. Left: The real part (blue) and imaginary part (red) of the wave-function. Right: The probability distribution of finding the particle with this wave-function at a given position. The top two rows are examples of stationary states, which correspond to standing waves. The bottom row an example of a state which is not a stationary state. The right column illustrates why stationary states are called "stationary". The time-dependent Schrdinger equation predicts that wave-functions can form standing waves, called stationary states (also called "orbitals", as in atomic orbitals or molecular orbitals). These states are important in their own right, and moreover if the stationary states are classified and understood, then it becomes easier to solve the time-dependent Schrdinger equation for any state. The time-independent Schrdinger equation is the equation describing stationary states. (It is only used when the Hamiltonian itself is not dependent on time.) Time-independent Schrdinger equation (general)

In words, the equation states: When the Hamiltonian operator acts on the wavefunction , the result might be proportional to the same wavefunction . If it is, then is a stationary state, and the proportionality constant, E, is the energy of the state . 10

Chemical Bonding:

Some of the most essential facts on Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding are : 1. Elements are made up of atoms. 2. Each atom has a nucleus situated at the center. It contains positively charged particles called protons, and neutral particles called neutrons. 3. Electrons are negatively charged particles which move around the nucleus in definite circular paths called orbits, shells or energy levels. 4. The mass number of an element is equal to the sum of the number of protons and number of neutrons in its nucleus. 5. Number of protons equals the number of electrons in an atom; therefore, an atom is electrically neutral. 6. Atomic number is the number of protons of an atom. 7. Isotopes are atoms of the same element having different mass numbers. 8. The distribution of electrons in various shells or energy levels in an atom is called the electronic configuration of that atom. 9. According to Bohr and Bury, the maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in any energy level of an atom is given by the formula 2n2, where n represents the number of the energy level. 10. In order to exist independently by itself an atom must have eight electrons and if in its outermost shell two electrons then there is only one shell. This is the octet rule. 11. Atoms try to attain stable configuration (completing their outermost shell) either by losing, gaining or sharing electrons. 12. The force of attraction that holds atoms together in a molecule is known as a chemical bond. 13. A bond between an anion and cation is called an ionic bond. Cations give electrons to the anions. 14. A covalent bond is a bond in which both the reacting atoms are short of electrons. Thus, they attain stable electronic configuration by sharing electrons. 15. Coordinate bond is a covalent bond in which the shared pair of electrons is contributed by only one of the two atoms. A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical substances that contain two or more atoms. The bond is caused by the electrostatic force of attraction between opposite charges, either between electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a dipole attraction.

Main types of chemical bonds:

A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms. This attraction may be seen as the result of different behaviors of the outermost electrons of atoms. Although all of these behaviors merge into each other seamlessly in various bonding situations so that there is no clear line to be drawn between them, nevertheless behaviors of atoms become so qualitatively different as the character of the bond changes quantitatively, that it remains useful and customary to differentiate between the bonds that cause these different properties of condensed matter. 11 In covalent bond, one or more electrons (often a pair of electrons) are drawn into the space between the two atomic nuclei. Here the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positive charges of both nuclei, instead of just their own. This overcomes the repulsion between the two positively charged nuclei of the two atoms, and so this overwhelming attraction holds the two nuclei in a fixed configuration of equilibrium, even though they will still vibrate at equilibrium position. Thus, covalent bonding involves sharing of electrons in which the positively charged nuclei of two or more atoms simultaneously attract the negatively charged electrons that are being shared between them. In a polar covalent bond, one or more electrons are unequally shared between two nuclei. Covalent bonds often result in the formation of small collections of better-connected atoms called molecules, which in solids and liquids are bound to other molecules by forces that are often much weaker than the covalent bonds that hold the molecules internally together. Such weak intermolecular bonds give organic molecular substances, such as waxes and oils, their soft bulk character, and their low melting points (in liquids, molecules must cease most structured or oriented contact with each other). When covalent bonds link long chains of atoms in large molecules, however (as in polymers such as nylon). Or when covalent bonds extend in networks though solids that are not composed of discrete molecules (such as diamond or quartz or the silicate minerals in many types of rock) then the structures that result may be both strong and tough, at least in the direction oriented correctly with networks of covalent bonds. Also, the melting points of such covalent polymers and networks increase greatly. In an ionic bond, the bonding electron is not shared at all, but transferred. In this type of bond, the outer atomic orbital of one atom has a vacancy which allows addition of one or more electrons. These newly added electrons potentially occupy a lower energy-state (effectively closer to more nuclear charge) than they experience in a different atom. Thus, one nucleus offers a more tightly bound position to an electron than does another nucleus, with the result that one atom may transfer an electron to the other. This transfer causes one atom to assume a net positive charge, and the other to assume a net negative charge. The bond then results from electrostatic attraction between atoms, and the atoms become positive or negatively charged ions. Ionic bonds may be seen as extreme examples of polarization in covalent bonds. Often, such bonds have no particular orientation in space, since they result from equal electrostatic attraction of each ion to all ions around them. Ionic bonds are strong (and thus ionic substances require high temperatures to melt) but also brittle, since the forces between ions are short-range, and do not easily bridge cracks and

fractures. This type of bond gives a characteristic physical character to crystals of classic mineral salts, such as table salt. A metallic bond. In this type of bonding, each atom in a metal donates one or more electrons to a "sea" of electrons that reside between many metal atoms. In this sea, each electron is free (by virtue of its wave nature) to be associated with a great many atoms at once. The bond results because the metal atoms become somewhat positively charged due to loss of their electrons, while the electrons remain attracted to many atoms, without being part of any given atom. Metallic bonding may be seen as an extreme example of delocalization of electrons over a large system of covalent bonds, in which every atom participates. This type of bonding is often very strong (resulting in the tensile strength of metals). However, metallic bonds are more collective in nature than other types, and so they allow metal crystals to 12 more easily deform, because they are composed of atoms attracted to each other, but not in any particularly-oriented ways. This results in the malleability of metals. The sea of electrons in metallic bonds causes the characteristically good electrical and thermal conductivity of metals, and also their "shiny" reflection of most frequencies of white light. Strength of chemical bonds: It varies considerably; there are "strong bonds" such as covalent or ionic bonds and "weak bonds" such as dipoledipole interactions, the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding. Since opposite charges attract via a simple electromagnetic force, the negatively charged electrons that are orbiting the nucleus and the positively charged protons in the nucleus attract each other. Also, an electron positioned between two nuclei will be attracted to both of them. Thus, the most stable configuration of nuclei and electrons is one in which the electrons spend more time between nuclei, than anywhere else in space. These electrons cause the nuclei to be attracted to each other, and this attraction results in the bond. However, this assembly cannot collapse to a size dictated by the volumes of these individual particles. Due to the matter wave nature of electrons and their smaller mass, they occupy a much larger amount of volume compared with the nuclei, and this volume occupied by the electrons keeps the atomic nuclei relatively far apart, as compared with the size of the nuclei themselves. In general, strong chemical bonding is associated with the sharing or transfer of electrons between the participating atoms. The atoms in molecules, crystals, metals and diatomic gases indeed most of the physical environment around us are held together by chemical bonds, which dictate the structure and the bulk properties of matter.

Bond length: In molecular geometry, bond length or bond distance is the average distance
between nuclei of two bonded atoms in a molecule. It is a transferable property of a bond between atoms of fixed types, relatively independent of the rest of molecule. It is related to bond order, when more electrons participate in bond formation the bond will get shorter. Bond length is also inversely related to bond strength and the bond dissociation energy, as (all other things being equal) a stronger bond will be shorter. In a bond between two identical atoms half the bond distance is equal to the covalent radius.

Bond lengths are measured in the solid phase by means of X-ray diffraction, or approximated in the gas phase by microwave spectroscopy. A set of two atoms sharing a bond is unique going from one molecule to the next. For example the carbon to hydrogen bond in methane is different from that in methyl chloride. It is however possible to make generalizations when the general structure is the same.

Ionic (Electrovalent) bonding: We have already discussed this type above ( page: ).
A simple view of ionic bonding: The importance of noble gas structures: A lot of importance is attached to the electronic structures of noble gases like neon or argon which have eight electrons in their outer energy levels (or two in the case of helium). These noble gas structures are thought of as being in some way a "desirable" thing for an atom to have. Ionic bonding in Sodium chloride Sodium (2,8,1) has 1 electron more than a stable noble gas structure (2,8). If it gave away that 13 electron it would become more stable. Chlorine (2,8,7) has 1 electron short of a stable noble gas structure (2,8,8). If it could gain an electron from somewhere it too would become more stable. The answer is obvious. If a sodium atom gives an electron to a chlorine atom, both become more stable.

The sodium has lost an electron, so it no longer has equal numbers of electrons and protons. Because it has one more proton than electron, it has a charge of 1+. If electrons are lost from an atom, positive ions are formed. Positive ion is sometimes called cation. The chlorine has gained an electron, so it now has one more electron than proton. It therefore has a charge of 1-. If electrons are gained by an atom, negative ions are formed. A negative ion is sometimes called an anion. The nature of the bond The sodium ions and chloride ions are held together by the strong electrostatic attractions between the positive and negative charges, hence it is electrovalent or ionic bond. The formula of Sodium chloride You need one sodium atom to provide the extra electron for one chlorine atom, so they combine together 1:1. The formula is therefore NaCl. Some other examples of ionic bonding: Magnesium oxide

Again, noble gas structures are formed, and the magnesium oxide is held together by very strong attractions between the ions. The ionic bonding is stronger than in sodium chloride because this time you have 2+ ions attracting 2- ions. The greater the charge, the greater the attraction.

The formula of magnesium oxide is MgO. Potassium oxide

Again, noble gas structures are formed. It takes two potassiums to supply the electrons the oxygen needs. The formula of potassium oxide is K2O.

Covalent bonding: We have already discussed this type above ( page: ).

A simple view of covalent bonding The importance of noble gas structures: In this type too, there is a lot of importance is attached to the electronic structures of noble gases like neon or argon which have eight electrons in their outer energy levels (or two in the case of helium). 14 As in the case of ionic bonding noble gas structures are achieved by transferring electrons from one atom to another, it is also possible for atoms to reach these stable structures by sharing electrons to give covalent bonds. Some simple covalent molecules: Chlorine: For example, two chlorine atoms could both achieve stable structures by sharing their single unpaired electron as in the diagram.

[The fact that one chlorine has been drawn with electrons marked as crosses and the other as dots to show from where all the electrons come. In reality there is no difference between them.]

The two chlorine atoms are said to be joined by a covalent bond. The reason that the two chlorine atoms stick together is that the shared pair of electrons is attracted to the nucleus of both chlorine atoms. Hydrogen:

Hydrogen atoms only need two electrons in their outer level to reach the noble gas structure of helium. Once again, the covalent bond holds the two atoms together because the pair of electrons is attracted to both nuclei. Hydrogen chloride:

The hydrogen has a helium structure, and the chlorine an argon structure. Some other cases: Now, only thing which must be changed is the over-reliance on the concept of noble gas structures. Most of the simple molecules you draw do in fact have all their atoms with noble gas structures. For example:

15

Even with a more complicated molecule like PCl3, theres no problem. In this case, only the outer electrons are shown for simplicity. Each atom in this structure has inner layers of electrons of 2,8. Again, everything present has a noble gas structure.

Metallic bonding: We have already discussed this type above ( page: ).

Metals tend to have high melting points and boiling points suggesting strong bonds between the atoms. Metallic bonding in sodium: A metal like sodium (melting point 97.8C) melts at a considerably higher temperature than the element (neon) which precedes it in the Periodic Table. Sodium has the electronic structure 1s22s22p63s1. When sodium atoms come together, the electron in the 3s atomic orbital of one sodium atom shares space with the corresponding electron on a neighboring atom to form a molecular orbital (in much the same sort of way that a covalent bond is formed).

The difference, however, is that each sodium atom is being touched by eight other sodium atoms and the sharing occurs between the central atom and the 3s orbitals on all of the eight other atoms. And each of these eight is in turn being touched by eight sodium atoms, which in turn are touched by eight atoms and so on and so on, until you have taken in all the atoms in that lump of sodium. All of the 3s orbitals on all of the atoms overlap to give a vast number of molecular orbitals which extend over the whole piece of metal. There have to be huge numbers of molecular orbitals, of course, because any orbital can only hold two electrons. The electrons can move freely within these molecular orbitals, and so each electron becomes detached from its parent atom. The electrons are said to be delocalized. The metal is held together by the strong forces of attraction between the positive nuclei and the delocalized electrons.

This is sometimes described as an array of positive ions in a sea of electrons. But, remember that a metal is made up of atoms and not ions. Each positive centre in the diagram represents all the rest of the atom apart from the outer electron, but that electron hasnt been lost it may no longer have an attachment to a particular atom, but its still there in the structure. Sodium metal is therefore written as Na not Na+. 16 Metallic bonding in magnesium: If you work through the same argument with magnesium, you end up with stronger bonds and so a higher melting point. Magnesium has the outer electronic structure 3s2. Both of these electrons become delocalized, so the "sea" has twice the electron density as it does in sodium. The remaining "ions" also have twice the charge (if you are going to use this particular view of the metal bond) and so there will be more attraction between "ions" and "sea". More realistically, each magnesium atom has 12 protons in the nucleus compared with sodium's 11. In both cases, the nucleus is screened from the delocalized electrons by the same number of inner electrons - the 10 electrons in the 1s2 2s2 2p6 orbitals. That means that there will be a net pull from the magnesium nucleus of 2+, but only 1+ from the sodium nucleus. So not only will there be a greater number of delocalized electrons in magnesium, but there will also be a greater attraction for them from the magnesium nuclei. Magnesium atoms also have a slightly smaller radius than sodium atoms, and so the delocalized electrons are closer to the nuclei. Each magnesium atom also has twelve near neighbors rather than sodium's eight. Both of these factors increase the strength of the bond still further. Metallic bonding in transition elements:

Transition metals tend to have particularly high melting points and boiling points. The reason is that they can involve the 3d electrons in the delocalization as well as the 4s. The more electrons you can involve, the stronger the attractions tend to be. The metallic bond in molten metals: In a molten metal, the metallic bond is still present, although the ordered structure has been broken down. The metallic bond is not fully broken until the metal boils. That means that boiling point is actually a better guide to the strength of the metallic bond than melting point is. On melting, the bond is loosened, not broken.

Secondary bonding (dispersion bonding, dipole bonding and hydrogen bonding): Before the discussion of this type of bonding, it is necessary to have brief about the
Van der Waals forces or Dispersion forces. In physical chemistry, the van der Waals force (or van der Waals interaction), named after Dutch scientist Johannes Diderik van der Waals, is the sum of the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules (or between parts of the same molecule) other than those due to covalent bonds, the hydrogen bonds, or the electrostatic interaction of ions with one another or with neutral molecules or charged molecule. The term includes: force between two permanent dipoles (Keesom force) force between a permanent dipole and a corresponding induced dipole (Debye force) force between two instantaneously induced dipoles (London dispersion force). It is also sometimes used loosely as a synonym for the totality of intermolecular forces. Van der Waals forces are relatively weak compared to covalent bonds, but play a fundamental role in fields as diverse as supramolecular chemistry, structural biology, polymer science, nanotechnology, surface science, and condensed matter physics. Van der Waals forces define many properties of organic compounds, including their solubility in polar and non-polar media.In low molecular weight alcohols, the hydrogen-bonding properties of the polar hydroxyl group dominate the weaker van der Waals interactions. In higher molecular 17 weight alcohols, the properties of the nonpolar hydrocarbon chain(s) dominate and define the solubility. Van der Waals forces quickly vanish at longer distances between interacting molecules.
[In 2012, the first direct measurements of the strength of the van der Waals force for a single organic molecule bound to a metal surface was made via atomic force microscopy and corroborated with density functional calculations.]

Secondary bonds are weak in comparison to primary bonds. They are found in most materials, but their effects are often overshadowed by the strength of the primary bonding. Secondary bonds-1(dipole bonding): Secondary bonds are not bonds with a valence electron being shared or donated. They are usually formed when an uneven charge distribution occurs, creating what is known as a dipole (the total charge is zero, but there is slightly more positive or negative charge on one end of the atom than on the other). These dipoles can be produced by a random fluctuation of the electrons around what is normally an electrically symmetric field in the atom.

Once a random dipole is formed in one atom, an induced dipole is formed in the adjacent atom. This is the type of bonding present in N2 molecules, and is known as van der Waals Bonding. Secondary bonding may also exist when there is a permanent dipole in a molecule due to an asymmetrical arrangement of positive and negative regions. Molecules with a permanent dipole can either induce a dipole in adjacent electrically symmetric molecules and thus form a weak bond or they can form bonds with other permanent dipole molecules. Secondary bonds-2(hydrogen bonding): Hydrogen bonding is the strongest form of secondary bonding and is formed from the polar nature of molecules containing hydrogen. The hydrogen side of the molecule is more positive than the atom it is bonded to, allowing an attraction to form with the negative end of another molecule.

In hydrogen bonding, the hydrogen is attached directly to an element which is electronegative. This causes the hydrogen to acquire a significant positive charge. 18 The melting and boiling points of materials containing hydrogen bonding, are abnormally high, for their atomic weights, due to hydrogen bonding.

Notice that in each of these molecules NH3, H2O and HF above: The hydrogen is attached directly to one of the most electronegative elements, causing the hydrogen to acquire a significant amount of positive charge. Each of the elements to which the hydrogen is attached is not only significantly negative, but also has at least one "active" lone pair. Lone pairs at the 2-level have the electrons contained in a relatively small volume of space which therefore has a high density of negative charge. Lone pairs at higher levels are more diffuse and not so attractive to positive things.

Variation in bonding character and Physical Properties (within a Group):

The physical properties (notably, melting and boiling points) of the elements in a given group vary as you move down the table. The physical properties of elements depend in part on their valence electron configurations. As this configuration remains the same within a group, physical properties tend to remain somewhat consistent. The most notable within-group changes in physical properties occur in groups 13, 14, and 15, where the elements at the top are non-metallic, while the elements at the bottom are metals. 19 The trends in boiling and melting points vary from group to group, based on the type of non-bonding interactions holding the atoms together. physical property:- A physical property is any property that is measurable whose value describes a physical system's state. malleable:- Able to be hammered into thin sheets; capable of being extended or shaped by beating with a hammer or by the pressure of rollers. ductile:- Capable of being pulled or stretched into thin wire by mechanical force without breaking. Boiling and Melting Points: It should be noted that some elements exist in different forms. For example, pure carbon can exist as diamond, which has a very high melting point, or as graphite, whose melting point is still high but much lower than that of diamond.

Different groups exhibit different trends in boiling and melting points. For groups 1 and 2, the boiling and melting points decrease as you move down the group. For the transition metals, boiling and melting points mostly increase as you move down the group, but they increase for the zinc family. In the main group elements, the boron and carbon families (groups 13 and 14) decrease in their boiling and melting points as you move down the group, whereas the nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine families (groups 15, 16, and 17) tend to increase in both. The noble gases (group 18) decrease in their boiling and melting points down the group.(See page:5) For metallic species, the metallic bonding interaction (electron-sharing) becomes more difficult as the elements get larger (toward the bottom of the table), causing the forces holding them together to become weaker. As you move right along the table, however, polarizability and van der Waals interactions predominate, and as larger atoms are more polarizable, they tend to exhibit stronger intermolecular forces and therefore higher melting and boiling points. A hydrogen bond is effectively a strong example of an interaction between two permanent dipoles. The large difference in electro-negativities between hydrogen and any of fluorine, nitrogen and oxygen, coupled with their lone pairs of electrons cause strong electrostatic forces between molecules. Hydrogen bonds are responsible for the high boiling points. There are four basic types of bonds that can be formed between two or more (otherwise nonassociated) molecules, ions or atoms. Intermolecular forces cause molecules to be attracted or repulsed by each other. Often, these define some of the physical characteristics such as the melting point of a substance. Metallic Character: Metallic elements are shiny, usually gray or silver in color, and conductive of heat and electricity. They are malleable (can be hammered into thin sheets) and ductile (can be stretched into wires). Some metals, such as sodium, are soft and can be cut with a knife. Others, such as iron, are very hard. Non-metallic atoms are dull and are poor conductors. They are brittle when solid, and many are gases at STP (standard temperature and pressure). Metals give away their valence electrons when bonding, whereas non-metals tend to take electrons. Metallic character increases from right to left and from top to bottom. Non-metallic character follows the opposite pattern. This is because of the other trends: ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity. 20