Project Report - Radio Over Fiber Network

DWDM BASED RADIO-OVER-FIBER SOLUTION TO SUPPORT ULTRA-WIDEBAND RADIO
Affan Hasan Khan Omer Khalid
07-TE-36 07-TE-68
Project Supervisor _______________ Prof. Dr. Muhammad Khawar Islam
DEPARTMENT OF TELCOM ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY TAXILA July, 2011
ABSTRACT
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Wireless coverage of the end-user domain, be it outdoors or indoors (in-building), is poised to become an essential part of broadband communication networks. In order to offer integrated broadband services (combining voice, data, video, multimedia services, and new value added services), these systems will need to offer higher data transmission capacities well beyond the present-day standards of wireless systems. Wireless LAN (IEEE802.11a/b/g) offering up-to 54 Mbps and operating at 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz, and 3G mobile networks (IMT2000/UMTS) offering up-to 2 Mbps and operating around 2 GHz, are some of todays main wireless standards. IEEE802.16 or WiMAX is another recent standard aiming to bridge the last mile through mobile and fixed wireless access to the end user at frequencies between 2 66 GHz. The need for increased capacity per unit area leads to higher operating frequencies (above 6 GHz) and smaller radio cells, especially in in-door applications where the high operating frequencies encounter tremendously high losses through the building walls. To reduce the system installation and maintenance costs of such systems, it is imperative to make the radio antenna units as simple as possible. This may be achieved by consolidating signal processing functions at a centralized headend, through Radio-over-Fiber technology. In this report we will discuss our design of a Radio-over-Fiber network to support Ultra-wideband radio. Chapter 1 and 2 will provide a brief introduction to these fascinating technologies i.e. Radio-over-Fiber and Ultra-wideband Radio. Chapter 3 will present a simple technique for optical generation of UWB pulses along with the basic RoF network design to carry the pulses from centralized processing node to the user premises. In chapter 4 we will study the effect of different optical amplifiers on UWB pulses. Chapter 5 will introduce multiple access and the procedure to embed CMDA in the proposed network design. Finally, chapter 6 will observe the effect of nonlinearities on the system.
UNDERTAKING
I certify that research work titled DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio is my own work. The work has not, in whole or in part, been presented elsewhere for assessment. Where material has been used from other sources it has been properly acknowledged/ referred.
Signature of Student Affan Hasan Khan (2K7-TE-36) Omer Khalid (2K7-TE-68)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This thesis would not have been possible without the guidance and help of several individuals who in one way or the other contributed and extended their valuable assistance in the preparation and completion of this study. We are heartily thankful to our supervisor, Prof. Dr. M Khawar Islam, whose encouragement, guidance and support from the initial to the final level enabled us to develop an understanding of the subject. Also, we owe our deepest gratitude to Mr. Ateeq Mumtaz from Pakistan Telecommunications Company Limited (PTCL) for his unselfish and unfailing support as our research adviser; He has made available his support whenever we required. We offer our regards and blessings to all the teachers and staff members who supported us in any respect during the completion of the project. Last but not the least, our family and the one above all of us, the Almighty God, for answering our prayers for giving us the strength to move on despite our constitution wanting to give up, thank you so much Dear Lord.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Undertaking......................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................iii List of figures .................................................................................................................... vii List of tables ....................................................................................................................... ix Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... x CHAPTER 1: .................................................................................................................... 1 The Dawn Of Radio-Over-Fiber Technology ..................................................................... 1 1.1 1.2 1.2.1 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.2.1 1.3.2.2 1.3.2.3 1.3.2.4 1.3.2.5 1.3.3 1.3.4 Narrowband Wireless Communications Systems .............................................. 1 Broadband Wireless Communication Systems .................................................. 1 Challenges ..................................................................................................... 2 Radio-over-Fiber (RoF) Technology ................................................................. 4 General Concept ............................................................................................ 4 Advantages of RoF Technology .................................................................... 5 Very Low Attenuation Loss ..................................................................... 5 Huge Bandwidth ...................................................................................... 5 Immune to RF interference ...................................................................... 6 Easy Installation and Maintenance .......................................................... 6 Reduced Power Consumption .................................................................. 6 Limitations of RoF technology...................................................................... 7 Applications .................................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER 2: .................................................................................................................... 9 Introduction to Ultra-Wideband Technology ...................................................................... 8 2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6 2.4 2.5 Introduction to UWB Radio .............................................................................. 8 Regulatory ....................................................................................................... 8 Important UWB pulses .................................................................................. 9 Characteristics of UWB ................................................................................... 10 High Data Rates .......................................................................................... 10 Low Power Consumption ............................................................................ 10 Interference Immunity ................................................................................. 10 High Security .............................................................................................. 10 Reasonable Range ....................................................................................... 11 Low Complexity, Low Cost ........................................................................ 11 UWB over Fiber .............................................................................................. 11 Impulse Radio UWB ....................................................................................... 12
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2.5.1 2.5.1.1 2.5.1.2 2.5.1.3 2.6
Modulation Techniques ............................................................................... 12 On-Off Keying ....................................................................................... 12 Pulse Phase Modulation (PPM) ............................................................. 12 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) ..................................................... 13
OFDM Based UWB Radio .............................................................................. 13
CHAPTER 3: .................................................................................................................. 14 Basic System Design ......................................................................................................... 14 3.1 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.2 Methodology.................................................................................................... 14 UWB Generation Mechanism ..................................................................... 14 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing .................................................. 16 Simulations and Results................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER 4: .................................................................................................................. 22 Optical Amplifiers............................................................................................................. 22 4.1 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.4 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 22 Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier ....................................................................... 23 Advantages of EDFAs:................................................................................ 29 Disadvantages of EDFAs: ........................................................................... 30 Semiconductor Optical Amplifier.................................................................... 30 SOA - Basic Description ............................................................................. 30 Principles Of Optical Amplification ............................................................ 31 Advantages: ................................................................................................. 33 Disadvantages: ............................................................................................ 34 Comparison of SOA and EDFA: ................................................................. 34 Raman Amplifier ............................................................................................. 34
CHAPTER 5: .................................................................................................................. 39 Multiple Access ................................................................................................................ 36 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 36 FDMA ............................................................................................................. 36 TDMA ............................................................................................................. 37 CDMA ............................................................................................................. 37 Embedding CDMA in UWB-over-Fiber System ........................................ 38
CHAPTER 6: .................................................................................................................. 42 Effect of Nonlinearities on Ultra-Wideband over Fiber Systems ...................................... 42 6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 42 Self-Phase Modulation .................................................................................... 44 Analysis ....................................................................................................... 45 Theory ......................................................................................................... 45 Simulations .................................................................................................. 45
6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3
Cross-Phase Modulation .................................................................................. 50 Analysis ....................................................................................................... 51 Theory ......................................................................................................... 51 Simulations .................................................................................................. 51 Four Wave Mixing .......................................................................................... 56 Analysis ....................................................................................................... 56 Theory ......................................................................................................... 56 Simulations .................................................................................................. 56
CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 61 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 62 GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................... 64
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Overview of Wireless Communication System ................................................. 2 Figure 1. 2 Wireless Access Network ................................................................................. 3 Figure 1. 3 A Radio Over Fiber Network ............................................................................ 4 Figure 1. 4 Fiber Infrastructure for both Wired and Wireless Applications ........................ 7 Figure 2. 1 FCC Spectrum for Indoor Applications ............................................................ 9 Figure 2.2: Most used UWB Pulses .................................................................................... 9 Figure 3. 1 Generation Mechanism for UWB ................................................................... 14 Figure 3. 2 Working of a Differentiator ............................................................................ 15 Figure 3. 3 Gaussian Pulse and its Frequency Spectrum................................................... 15 Figure 3. 4 Ultra Wideband Monocycle with its Frequency Spectrum ............................. 16 Figure 3. 5 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing ...................................................... 17 Figure 3. 6 UWB Monocycle Generated at 2Gb/s ............................................................ 18 Figure 3. 7 Frequency spectrum of UWB monocycle at 2 GB/s. The spectrum is centered at 5 GHz having a bandwidth of 6 GHz at -10dbm ........................................................... 18 Figure 3. 8 UWB Monocycle Generated at 1 Gb/s ........................................................... 19 Figure 3. 9 Frequency spectrum of UWB monocycle at 1 GB/s. The spectrum is centered at 2 GHz having a bandwidth of 3 GHz at -10dbm ........................................................... 19 Figure 3. 10 Relation between input data rate and bandwidth for two different values of Gaussian pulse width used ................................................................................................ 20 Figure 3. 11 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexed channels for 32 users .................. 20 Figure 3. 12 Received signal after travelling 1 km fiber span with 0.2 db/km attenuation and 16.75 ps/nm/km dispersion. Photodetector noise has also been added....................... 21 Figure 3. 13 Received signal after travelling 1 km fiber span with 0.2 db/km attenuation and 16.75 ps/nm/km dispersion excluding photodetector noise ........................................ 21 Figure 4.1: Gain Bandwidth of optical amplifier .............................................................. 23 Figure 4.2: Working of an EDFA ..................................................................................... 23 Figure 4.3: Erbium doped fiber amplifier components ..................................................... 24 Figure 4.6: UWB monocycle prior to passing through an EDF ........................................ 25 Figure 4.7: UWB monocycle after passing through an EDFA .......................................... 25 Figure 4.8: Graph showing the comparison of forward pump power and the output power while keeping the length and input power of laser constant ............................................. 26 Figure 4.9: Graph showing the comparison of length of the fiber and the output power while keeping the lforward pump power and input power of laser constant ..................... 27 Figure 4.10: Graph showing the comparison of fiber length and the output power while keeping the Erbium ions concentration (m-3 )and Numerical Aperture (NA) constant .... 28 Figure 4.11: Graph showing the comparison of Erbium ions concentration (m-3) and the output power while keeping the fiber length and Numerical Aperture (NA) constant ...... 29 Figure 4.12: Semiconductor optical amplifier basic architecture ...................................... 30 Figure 4.13: Fabry-Perot amplifier ................................................................................... 31 Figure 4.14: Travelling wave amplifier ............................................................................. 31 Figure 4.16: Graph showing the comparison of injection current and the output power while keeping the dimensions of SOA and the input power of laser constant .................. 33 Figure 5.1: Multiple access aims at channel sharing without interference ........................ 36 Figure 5.2: Allocation of separate channels using FDMA ................................................ 37 Figure 5.3: Allocation of time slots in TDMA .................................................................. 37 Figure 5.4: Code division multiple access ........................................................................ 38 Figure 5.5: Summation of spread bit streams .................................................................... 39 Figure 5.6: Modulated Gaussian pulse train ...................................................................... 39
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Figure 5.7: Modulated UWB monocycle pulses ............................................................... 40 Figure 5.8: CDMA demodulation ..................................................................................... 40 Figure 5.9: Recovered data of User 3 ................................................................................ 41 Figure 6.1: Linear and Nonlinear interactions................................................................... 43 Figure 6.2: Nonlinear effects in optical fibers ................................................................... 43 Figure 6.3: Frequency chirping of pulse due to SPM. ....................................................... 44 Figure 6.4: Original Pulse before the effect of SPM ......................................................... 45 Figure 6.5: Effect of SPM ................................................................................................. 46 Figure 6.6: Effect of transmitted power ............................................................................ 47 Figure 6.7: Effect of fiber length ....................................................................................... 48 Figure 6.8: Effect of effective core area ............................................................................ 49 Figure 6.9: Dispersion to counter the effects of SPM ....................................................... 50 Figure 6.10: Effect of XPM .............................................................................................. 52 Figure 6.11: Effect of fiber length ..................................................................................... 53 Figure 6.12: Effect of dispersion ....................................................................................... 54 Figure 6.13: Effect of effective core area of the fiber ....................................................... 55 Figure 6.14: Original unaffected pulse .............................................................................. 57 Figure 6.15: Effect of FWM.............................................................................................. 57 Figure 6.16: Effect of dispersion on FWM ....................................................................... 58 Figure 6.16: Effect of increase dispersion ......................................................................... 59 Figure 6.18: Effect of fiber length on FWM ..................................................................... 59 Figure 6.19: Fiber length and optimum dispersion ........................................................... 60
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1 ........................................................................................................................... 17 TABLE 2 ........................................................................................................................... 26 TABLE 3 ........................................................................................................................... 27 TABLE 4 ........................................................................................................................... 28 TABLE 5 ........................................................................................................................... 29 TABLE 6 ........................................................................................................................... 33 TABLE 7 ........................................................................................................................... 46 TABLE 8 ........................................................................................................................... 46 TABLE 9 ........................................................................................................................... 47 TABLE 10 ......................................................................................................................... 48 TABLE 11 ......................................................................................................................... 49 TABLE 12 ......................................................................................................................... 50 TABLE 13 ......................................................................................................................... 52 TABLE 14 ......................................................................................................................... 53 TABLE 15 ......................................................................................................................... 54 TABLE 16 ......................................................................................................................... 55 TABLE 17 ......................................................................................................................... 57 TABLE 18 ......................................................................................................................... 58 TABLE 19 ......................................................................................................................... 58 TABLE 20 ......................................................................................................................... 59 TABLE 21 ......................................................................................................................... 60
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ABBREVIATIONS
WLAN: Wireless Local Area Network GSM: Global System for Mobiles WPAN: Wireless Personnel Area Network MS: Mobile Station WTU: Wireless Terminal Unit RAP: Radio Access Point BS: Base Station MU: Mobile Unit RoF: Radio over Fiber RAU: Remote Antenna Unit SMF: Single Mode Fiber EDFA: Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier DWDM: Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing EMI: Electromagnetic Interference UMTS: Universal Mobile Telecommunication System RF: Radio Frequency FCC: Federal Communication Commission Hiper LAN: High Performance Radio Local Area Network IF: Intermediate Frequency MAC: Media Access Control DLP: Digital Light Processor UWB: Ultra Wideband CW: Continuous Wave IR: Impulse Radio OOK: On-Off Keying PPM: Pulse Position Modulation PAM: Pulse Amplitude Modulation ASK: amplitude shift key
TM: Time Modulation PN: Pseudo-Noise SOA: Semiconductor Optical Amplifier EDFA: Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier TW: Travelling-Wave FP-SOA: Fabry-Perot Semiconductor Optical Amplifier VB: Valence Band CB: Conduction Band SRS: Stimulated Raman Scattering FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access SPM: Self-Phase Modulation CPM: Cross-Phase Modulation FWM: Four-Wave Mixing SBS: Stimulated Brillouin-Scattering GVD: Group Velocity dispersion XPM: Cross-Phase Modulation
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Chapter 1: The Dawn of Radio-over-Fiber Technology
CHAPTER 1:
The Dawn Of Radio-Over-Fiber Technology

1.1 Narrowband Wireless Communications Systems The last two decades have seen enormous growth in the area of wireless communications. Less than 1% of the worlds population had access to a mobile phone in 1991. This percentage was increased to around 17% by the end of 2001.[1] In 2002, the number of mobile subscribers in the world crossed 1 billion and overtook the number of fixed-line subscribers. During the same period the countries in the world having a mobile network increased from just three to over 90%. In February, 2010, United Nations published a report which indicates that 67% of the worlds populations are mobile subscribers representing 4.6 billion people around the globe. [2] The boom of wireless communications is not limited to telephones only, rather the Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) which came on the scene less than one and a half decade ago, have also experienced exceptional growth. The rapid increase in the number of WLAN hotspots in public places, such as airport terminals has been astonishing. It is expected that the number of wireless Internet subscribers will overtake the number of wired Internet subscribers in the near future. This rapid growth of wireless communications can be attributed the ease of installation as compared to fixed networks, technological advancements and fierce competition among mobile operators.
1.2 Broadband Wireless Communication Systems We live in the era of communication anytime, anywhere, and with anything. As the optical fiber increases the data rates of wired communication substantially, the ever growing demand to bring this broadband capacity in wireless communication as well has put immense pressure on the wireless systems to increase their transmission capacity and coverage. There are two different issues to be addressed to clarify the primary difference between mobile communications and wireless communications. The mobile communication networks provide the user with high mobility. The user can move around at high speed while communicating over the network. But they lack the other important thing, i.e. capacity. On the other hand, the wireless communication networks provide high capacity, high data rate wireless access but they cannot allow the user to move around while accessing network services. As the mobile networks struggle to increase capacity and the wireless networks, their
DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio
mobility, both of them tend to move towards a point of convergence, a broadband wireless communications system. A comparison of different mobile and wireless communication systems in this regard has been presented in figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Overview of Wireless Communication System[3][4]
On one side, we have the Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) providing high mobility but the data rates restricted to just a few tens of kbps. On the other hand, we find the Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs) supporting data rates up to several tens of Mbps with almost no mobility.
1.2.1 Challenges To understand the challenges faced by broadband wireless systems, we need to first look into the working principle of current widely deployed narrowband wireless access systems. GSM can provide a good example. In these systems a central office handles call processing and switching, while the base stations provide the radio interface for Mobile Stations (MS) or Wireless Terminal Units (WTU) held by users. The base stations are linked to the central processing office either by the help of a point to point microwave link or digital optical fiber link. The modulation of the signals onto the appropriate carrier is performed at the base stations with all the mobile stations within the coverage radius of a single base station sharing the radio frequency spectrum. Similar is the configuration of Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) in which the radio interface is called the Radio Access Point (RAP). The general architecture of narrowband wireless communication systems has been demonstrated in figure 1.2.
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Figure 1.2 Wireless Access Network
One of the reasons why narrowband wireless systems offer limited capacity is their low frequency operation. Another reason is the stiff competition for frequency spectrum among different wireless communication systems which include, mobile communications, TV broadcasts, and vital communication systems such as airports and rescue services, wireless LANs etc. Though the use of low frequency for operation limits the capacity of a system, but it has its advantages as well. Low frequency usage allows the vendors to manufacture low cost radio front-ends both in the Base Stations (BSs) and the Mobile Units (MU). Moreover, the RF active devices are more efficient at low frequencies than at high frequencies. Furthermore, low frequency RF signals have longer ranges allowing larger cell sizes to be deployed which in turn enhance mobility. From the discussion above we can extract information on ways to increase the capacity of wireless communication systems. One natural way to achieve this is to deploy smaller cells. As the range of low frequency signals is large, the use of smaller cells demands for reduced radiated power at the antenna. In this way we may succeed in reducing the cell size somewhat. Another option to enhance the capacity of a wireless system is to increase carrier frequencies. Higher frequencies naturally offer greater modulation bandwidth. The problem with this capacity improvement solution is that owing to the use high frequency carriers, the cost of radio front-ends in the base stations and mobile units is significantly increased. Moreover, smaller the cell size, more are the cells required to cover an area and more are the base stations required one for each cell, increasing the cost of the system further.
Hence, to increase the capacity of the system we can reduce the cell size and increase the carrier frequency resulting in improved spectral efficiency through increased frequency reuse. But, for the system-wide deployment of such a system and the system to be economically feasible, the cost of a single base station must be fairly low. This is where the Radio-over-Fiber technology plays its role. It achieves the simplification of the Base Stations (BSs in case of mobile communication) or Remote Antenna Units (RAUs in case of WLANs) by integrating all the system functionalities at a centralized headend. These functionalities are then shared by the RAUs. To reduce the cost of the extensive feeder network, low-cost multimode fibers can be used to carry the signal from the centralized headend to RAUs. 1.3
Radio-over-Fiber (RoF) Technology
1.3.1 General Concept Radio-over-Fiber (RoF) technology involves the use of Optical fibers to distribute RF signals from centralized headend to Remote Antenna Units (RAUs). RoF technology enables processing functions like frequency up-conversion, carrier modulation and multiplexing to be performed at the centralized headend unlike the traditional narrowband communication where these functions are performed at the base stations immediately before the signals are fed to the antenna. The use of centralized processing location significantly simplifies the RAUs. The only function performed at RAUs is optoelectronic conversion and amplification. These features account for the major savings in system installation, operation and maintenance especially in case of broadband wireless communication systems where a large number of BS/RAPs are required due to smaller cell sizes. A Radioover-Fiber (RoF) system has been shown in figure 1.3. Processing is performed at the optical core network as shown. The data for all the users is multiplexed and carried over the fiber up to the Remote Access Node where it is distributed among respective base stations.
Figure 1.3 A Radio Over Fiber Network
1.3.2
Advantages of RoF Technology
1.3.2.1 Very Low Attenuation Loss Transmitting high frequency microwave signals electrically using either transmission lines or free space is problematic and expensive due to high attenuation offered by both of these media. Significant losses in free space include absorption and reflection. In transmission lines, the attenuation is mainly offered by the line impedance. All these factors increase with frequency, i.e. greater attenuation is faced at higher frequencies. Hence, transmitting high frequency RF signals electrically over long distances using transmission lines demands for costly regenerating equipment. In case of mm-waves, transmission lines are not feasible for their distribution even for short distances. A solution around this problem can be to transmit baseband signals at an intermediate frequency from the headend to base stations. Upon reaching the base station, frequency up-conversion can be performed. The signals can then be amplified and radiated. This technique leads to complex base stations because of the need for high performance local oscillator at each base station that performs frequency up-conversion. A real solution to this problem lies in the use of optical fibers to carry the signals from the headend to base stations. Since optical fiber offers very low attenuation loss, Radio-over-Fiber technology achieves low loss distribution as well as simplified RAUs. The standard Single Mode Fibers (SMFs) made up of glass have attenuation losses as low as 0.2 dB.km and 0.5 dB/km in the 1550 nm and the 1300 nm windows, respectively. These losses are much lower than those offered by the same length of other media. For example, the losses in coaxial cable are higher than those in optical fiber by three orders of magnitude at higher frequencies. Therefore, by transmitting high frequency RF signals over optical fiber, not only the transmission distances are increased several times but transmission powers are also reduced considerably.
1.3.2.2 Huge Bandwidth Optical fibers offer huge bandwidth. The three transmission windows offering low attenuation include the windows at 850 nm, 1310 nm, and 1550 nm wavelengths. In case of a standard single mode fiber the accumulated bandwidth of these three windows is as high as 50 THz. Despite this enormous bandwidth available, the commercial systems of the time use only a fraction of this capacity due to their own limitations. Efforts are being made to make use of more bandwidth offered by optical fibers. These efforts include the use of Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFA) and advanced multiplexing techniques like Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM). The advantages of huge bandwidth offered by optical fibers are not limited to high capacity only. In fact, this high optical bandwidth allows for very high speed
signal processing to be performed in optical domain which is by far impossible in electronic systems. In other words, some of the demanding microwave functions such as filtering, mixing, up- and down-conversion, can be implemented in the optical domain. The primary element that hampers the effective utilization of huge bandwidth offered by optical fibers is the limitations in bandwidth of electronic systems which are the primary sources and receivers in transmission systems. This problem is referred to as Electronic Bottleneck.
1.3.2.3 Immune to RF interference One of the most attractive features of optical fiber communications is its immunity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI). Optical fiber transmits signals in the form of light and hence does not face any interference from the nearby EM radiators. This property makes optical fiber a primary candidate even for short range mmwave transmission. Moreover, optical fiber communication is highly secure. It is immune to eavesdropping. If the fiber is intercepted to extract the information being transmitted, the signal drops. Hence optical fiber can provide private and secure communication.
1.3.2.4 Easy Installation and Maintenance A centralized headend makes RAUs simpler. All the complex processing is performed at a central location while the RAUs comprise of a photo-detector, an amplifier, and an antenna to transmit and receive the signals. In this way, the key equipment is kept at the headend and is share by multiple RAUs. This kind of arrangement adds another prominent quality to the overall system. It reduces systems installation and maintenance cost substantially which is an imperative requirement for mm-wave systems demanding large number of RAUs. Moreover, there may applications where the RAUs might not be easily accessible, in such cases, major operational cost can be saved owing to the reduction in maintenance requirements.
1.3.2.5 Reduced Power Consumption Reduced power consumption is a consequence of having simple RAUs with reduced equipment. Most of the complex equipment is kept at the centralised headend. In some applications, the RAUs are operated in passive mode. For instance, some 5 GHz Fiber-Radio systems employing pico-cells can have the RAUs operate in passive mode. Reduced power consumption at the RAU is significant considering that RAUs are sometimes placed in remote locations not fed by the power grid.
1.3.3 Limitations of RoF technology Fundamentally, the Radio-over-Fiber technology is an analogue transmission system as it entails the use of analogue modulation. Therefore, the transmission impairments which have importance in analogue communication systems are faced in RoF systems as well. Dynamic range of a system is the measure of its tolerance when the received power is varying. The dynamic range of RoF systems is limited. This means that RoF technology cannot be used for communication systems like GSM where the received power at the BS from the MUs varies extensively. The RF power received from a mobile unit closer to the BS is much higher than that received from a mobile unit several kilometers away, within the same cell. 1.3.4 Applications Radio-over-Fiber distribution systems can be used for indoor distribution of wireless signals of both mobile and data communication systems. The in-building fiber infrastructure may then be used for both wired and wireless applications as shown in Figure 1.4. RoF systems are also attractive for other present and future applications where high dynamic range is not required. For instance, in Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), mobile units control their output power so that same power is received at the base station from all mobile units. Hence, UMTS does not require high dynamic range like GSM, so that RoF distribution systems may be used for both indoor and outdoor UMTS signal distribution. RoF technology can also be used to distribute WiMAX signals. Optical fiber network can be used to carry WiMAX signals over long distances up to the user premises, from where wireless links help to achieve broadband access, in a cost effective way.
Figure 1.4 Fiber Infrastructure for both Wired and Wireless Applications
Chapter 2: Introduction to Ultra-Wideband Technology
CHAPTER 2:
Introduction to Ultra-Wideband Technology

2.1 Introduction to UWB Radio Ultra-wideband is an up-and-coming technology in wireless communication that has the potential to provide high data rate broadband wireless access. Though it is an emerging technology at present, the concept is not new at all. The history of using UWB for wireless communication goes back to early 1900s when Marconi used UWB pulses in his spark-gap radio transmitter to transmit Morse code sequences. UWB systems can transmit signals at a much broader frequency. UWB pulses have a very wide fractional and absolute RF bandwidth. They have very short pulses and are persistent to multipath reflections. Their transmission is carrier-less. UWB is a Radio Frequency (RF) technology that transmits binary data, using low energy and extremely short duration impulses or bursts (in the order of picoseconds) over a wide spectrum of frequencies. It delivers data over 15 to 100 meters and does not require a dedicated radio frequency, so is also known as carrier-free, impulse or base-band radio. Although the technology is old, its usage and consideration for commercial applications such as home networking picked up after the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) ruling in February 2002. This ruling approved the limited use of unlicensed wireless systems that transmit high-speed data across a broad portion of the UWB spectrum band. Technical standards and operational restrictions accepted by FCC are intended to enable the co-existence of UWB with existing radio technologies such as IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), HomeRF, and HiperLAN (High Performance Radio LAN). People commonly refer to UWB as available spectrum rather than as a technology. 7,500 MHz of unlicensed spectrum, in the 3.1-10.6 GHz band, is currently available in the US for any communication system that occupies more than 500 MHz.
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2.2 Regulatory The primary issue in the usage of UWB in practical applications was that the spectrum was not available and the chunk of spectrum required by UWB radio was already occupied by other bands. In 2002, FCC authorized the unlicensed use of UWB in the spectral range of 3.1 GHz to 10.6 GHz. As this band was already filled, the requirement for UWB was that the transmission power level must be kept below -41 dBm/MHz. There is no mystery about the number -41, it is just that its the same power limit that applies to unintentional emitters and it does not
produce much noise to interfere with other licensed systems. However, the emission limit for UWB emitters can be significantly lower (as low as -75 dBm/MHz) in other segments of the spectrum. Another requirement for a signal to be classified as an UWB signal is that it must occupy a bandwidth equal to 20% of the central frequency. For example, if a signal is centered around a frequency of 2 GHz then, to be called an Ultra-wideband signal, it must have a bandwidth of 500 MHz. A general method to generate such a pulse would be to trasmit pulses with a time interval below 1 nanosecond. All these standards set by Federal Communications commission are shown in the form of a graph in figure QWE.
Figure 2.1 FCC Spectrum for Indoor Applications
2.2.1 Important UWB pulses The UWB pulses that are generally used in various applications are shown in the figure below. It is the Gaussian pulse and the first, second derivatives of Gaussian pulse. Third derivative of Gaussian pulse is also a frequently used UWB signal.
Fig 2.2: Most used UWB Pulses
2.3 Characteristics of UWB Ultra-wideband radio has the following prominent characteristics. 2.3.1 High Data Rates UWB technology can do things that the existing wireless networking systems cannot. Most importantly, UWB can handle more bandwidth-intensive applications like streaming video, than either 802.11 or Bluetooth because it can send data at much faster rates. UWB technology has a data rate of roughly 100 megabits per second, with speeds up to 500 megabits per second, This compares with maximum speeds of 11 megabits per second for 802.11b (often referred to as Wi-Fi) which is the technology currently used in most wireless LANs; and 54 megabits per second for 802.11a, which is Wi-Fi at 5MHz. Bluetooth has a data rate of about 1 megabit per second.
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2.3.2 Low Power Consumption When transmitting data, UWB devices consume less than several tens of microwatts. That is a huge saving and the reason is that UWB transmits short impulses constantly instead of transmitting modulated waves continuously like most narrowband systems do. UWB chipsets do not require Radio Frequency (RF) to Intermediate Frequency (IF) conversion, local oscillators, mixers, and other filters. The low power consumption makes UWB ideal for use in battery-powered devices like cameras and cell phones.
2.3.3 Interference Immunity Due to low power and high frequency transmission, UWBs aggregate interference is undetected by narrowband receivers. Its power spectral density is at or below narrowband thermal noise floor. The low power level thus causes no irritating interferences to existing home wireless systems. According to its First Report and Order, the FCC requires that indoor UWB devices transmit only when operating with a receiver. A device connected to AC power is not constrained to reduce or conserve power by ceasing transmission, so this restriction will eliminate unnecessary emissions. Additional tests conducted by the FCC have also demonstrated conclusively that UWB devices may be permitted to operate under a proper set of standards without causing harmful interference to other radio operations. 2.3.4 High Security UWBs white-noise-like transmissions enhance security since receivers without the specific code cannot decode it. Different coding schemes, algorithms, and modulation techniques can be assigned to different users for data transmissions.
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Although security standard is available for UWB, the study group IEEE 802.15.3 has defined AES-128 symmetric security for payload protection and integrity. 2.3.5 Reasonable Range IEEE 802.15.3a Study Group defined 10 meters as the minimum range at speed 100Mbps. However, UWB can go further. The Philips Company has used its Digital Light Processor (DLP) technology in UWB device so it can operate beyond 45 feet at 50 Mbps for four DVD screens. 2.3.6 Low Complexity, Low Cost The most attractive of UWBs advantages are of low system complexity and cost. UWB radio is a cheaper technology as compared to traditional carrier based technologies as UWB systems do no need to modulate and demodulate complex analog carrier waveforms. In this way, minimal microwave electronics is required to make a UWB system. Moreover, UWB system designs are highly frequency adaptive and hence can be placed anywhere within the radio frequency spectrum. Also home UWB wireless devices do not need transmitting power amplifier. This is a great advantage over narrowband architectures that require amplifiers with significant power back-off to support high-order modulation waveforms for high data rates. The cost of placing UWB technology inside a consumer electronics device is $20, compared with $40 for 802.11b and $65 for 802.11a. 2.4 UWB over Fiber High frequency signals face more interference from the environment, get attenuated fairly quick, and hence travel less distance. On the other hand a low frequency signal with the same transmitting power can travel farther. Owing to their high frequency the typical range of UWB signals in few tens of meters. A system with such short range would mainly operate in stand-alone mode, with no integrating option with existing wired or wireless wide-area infrastructures. Therefore, the short range of the technology can hamper its use in numerous useful wide area applications. But the issue is resolved when optical fibers come into play. To increase the coverage area of UWB pulses and to give accessibility of continuous service across different networks, a revolutionary technique was introduced which uses optical fiber feeder network to carry high frequency UWB signals to the user premises hence extending the range of UWB radio technology. The ultra-wide band (UWB) radio over fiber technology is a fresh technology for the transmission of UWB signals by making use of a carrier (optical) propagating through optical fiber. In the UWB system, the UWB RF signal itself is superimposed on the optical continuous wave (CW) carrier. This strategy makes the conversion process transparent to the UWB's modulation method and allows avoiding the high costs of additional electronic components required for synchronization. In an UWB over fiber system, UWB signals are generated in the centralized headend. These UWB signals are then distributed to the access points via optical fiber. UWB signals can be generated directly in the optical domain without the need of extra electrical to optical conversion which is rather
11
considered as a key advantage of a UWB over fiber system. In addition, the generation of UWB signals in the optical domain provides other features such as light weight, small size, large tunability, and immunity to electromagnetic interference. 2.5 Impulse Radio UWB Impulse- radio UWB (IR-UWB) is one of the most attractive techniques. Its carrier-free impulse modulation not only keeps away from complicated frequency mixer and filter circuits, but also has better pass-through characteristic due to base-band transmission. Therefore UWB can also be used in radar imaging technology, precision locating and tracking and precision time-of-arrival-based localization approaches. 2.5.1 Modulation Techniques The following commercially useful UWB impulse modulation techniques exemplify a wide range of implementation possibilities: On-Off Keying (OOK) Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
[8]
2.5.1.1 On-Off Keying On-off keying (OOK) is the simplest form of amplitude-shift keying (ASK) modulation that represents digital data as the presence or absence of a carrier wave. In its simplest form, the presence of a carrier for a specific duration represents a binary one, while its absence for the same duration represents a binary zero. Some more sophisticated schemes vary these durations to convey additional information. It is analogous to uni-polar encoding line code. On-off keying is most commonly used to transmit Morse code over radio frequencies (referred to as CW (continuous wave) operation), although in principle any digital encoding scheme may be used. OOK has been used in the ISM bands to transfer data between computers, for example. In addition to RF carrier waves, OOK is also used in optical communication systems (e.g. IrDA). In aviation, some possibly unmanned airports have equipment that let pilots key their VHF radio a number of times in order to request an Automatic Terminal Information Service broadcast, or turn on runway lights. 2.5.1.2 Pulse Phase Modulation (PPM) PPM modulation has been developed in the form of Time Modulation (TM) and was introduced by Time Domain Corporation in the late 1980s. It involves transmitting impulses at high rates, in the millions to tens of millions of impulses per second. However, the pulses are not necessarily evenly spaced in time, but
12
rather they are spaced at random or pseudo-noise (PN) time intervals. The process creates a noise like signal in both the time and frequency domains. Time coding of the pulses allows for channelization, while the time dithering, fine pulse position, and signal polarity provide the modulation. UWB systems built around this technique and operating at very low RF power levels have demonstrated very impressive short- and long-range data links, positioning measurements accurate to within a few centimeters, and high-performance through-wall motion sensing radars. 2.5.1.3 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) Pulse amplitude modulation is a scheme, which alters the amplitude of regularly spaced rectangular pulses in accordance with the instantaneous values of a continuous message signal. Then amplitude of the modulated pulses represents the amplitude of the intelligence. A train of very short pulses of constant amplitude and fast repetition rate is chosen. The amplitude of these pulse is made to vary in accordance with that of a slower modulating signal the result is that of multiplying the train by the modulating signal the envelope of the pulse height corresponds to the modulating wave. The PAM wave contains upper and lower side band frequencies besides the modulating and pulse signals. 2.6 OFDM Based UWB Radio It is an FDM modulation technique for transmitting large amounts of digital data over a radio wave. OFDM works by splitting the radio signal into multiple smaller sub-signals that are then transmitted simultaneously at different frequencies to the receiver. OFDM reduces the amount of crosstalk in signal transmissions. 802.11a WLAN, 802.16 and WiMAX technologies use OFDM. Ultra-wideband (UWB) wireless personal area network technology also utilizes OFDM, such as in Multiband OFDM (MB-OFDM). This UWB specification is advocated by the WiMedia Alliance(formerly by both the Multiband OFDM Alliance [MBOA] and the WiMedia Alliance, but the two have now merged), and is one of the competing UWB radio interfaces.
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Chapter 3: Basic System Design
CHAPTER 3:
Basic System Design

3.1 Methodology Figure 1 shows the schematics of the proposed design. The electrical Gaussian pulses are generated from the incoming data by the help of a Gaussian pulse generator. These electrical pulses modulate a Mach-Zehnder modulator and optical Gaussian pulses are produced. The Gaussian pulse can be expressed as: = 1 2
2 2 2
Figure 3.1 Generation Mechanism for UWB
3.1.1 UWB Generation Mechanism Mathematically, the Ultra-wideband monocycle pulse is given by the first order differential of a Gaussian pulse. The width of resultant UWB pulse can be adjusted by manipulating the input Gaussian pulse. In our design, differentiation was performed by splitting the optical Gaussian pulse into two equal components. One component was provided with an optical bias, which lifts this component higher than the peak of the other component. The second component is passed through an optical delay line, delaying the signal in time by an amount equal to the one half of the width of Gaussian pulse. Then, optical subtraction [9][10][11] was used to subtract the later component from the former. In this way, during the time in which elevated component goes through its ascending values, represented by part 1 in figure 2, the delayed component is zero and the subtraction results in nothing but the elevated component itself. Next, during part 2 in figure 2 the subtraction results in the values forming part 5 in the UWB monocycle. And finally, during the part 3 of subtraction, the elevated Gaussian pulse has a constant positive value equal to the value of optical bias provided. Thus the subtraction of
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the delayed component from this constant positive value results in an inverted copy of the delayed component (part 6) producing UWB pulse in optical domain. The working of a differentiator has been shown in figure 3.2. The elevated and delayed component is shown and formation of UWB monocycle is depicted.
Figure 3.2 Working of a Differentiator
The equation for UWB monocycle can be deduced from equation (1): =
Figure 3.3 Gaussian Pulse and its Frequency Spectrum
Gaussian pulse along with its frequency spectra has been shown in figure 3.3. Narrower the pulse width in time domain, broader is its frequency spectrum. Ultra-wideband monocycle along with its frequency spectrum has been shown in figure 3.3. It should be noted that the original Gaussian pulse used was a baseband signal while the UWB pulse generated is a band-pass signal with its frequency spectrum symmetric around a center frequency. Figure 3.3 and 3.4 has been plotted using mathematical equations and will be used later to verify the simulation results.
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Figure 3.4 Ultra Wideband Monocycle with its Frequency Spectrum
3.1.2 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing Dense wavelength division multiplexing, or DWDM for short, refers originally to optical signals multiplexed within the 1550 nm band so as to leverage the capabilities (and cost) of erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs), which are effective for wavelengths between approximately 15251565 nm (C band), or 15701610 nm (L band). EDFAs were originally developed to replace SONET/SDH optical-electrical-optical (OEO) regenerators, which they have made practically obsolete. EDFAs can amplify any optical signal in their operating range, regardless of the modulated bit rate. In terms of multi-wavelength signals, so long as the EDFA has enough pump energy available to it, it can amplify as many optical signals as can be multiplexed into its amplification band (though signal densities are limited by choice of modulation format). EDFAs therefore allow a single-channel optical link to be upgraded in bit rate by replacing only equipment at the ends of the link, while retaining the existing EDFA or series of EDFAs through a long haul route. Furthermore, singlewavelength links using EDFAs can similarly be upgraded to WDM links at reasonable cost. The EDFAs cost is thus leveraged across as many channels as can be multiplexed into the 1550 nm band.
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Figure 3.5 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
3.2 Simulations and Results The discussed design was simulated at an input data rate of 2Gb/s. The optical delay line used for the differentiation of Gaussian pulses has an inversely proportional relationship with input data rate. Table-1 lists the input data rates corresponding to the optical delay required for proper differentiation. The value of optical delay can be calculated from the data rate and width of the Gaussian pulse. For example, if the input data rate is 2Gb/s, the width of a single bit comes out to be 1/(2*109) = 0.5 ns. So, if the Gaussian pulses are configured to be 0.1 bit wide, the width of the pulses in nanoseconds comes out to be 0.5*0.1 = 0.05 ns. Practically, due to limitations of the Gaussian pulse generator, the actual width is twice this value i.e. 2*0.05 = 0.1 ns. Hence, at a data rate of 2 Gb/s, an optical delay line of 0.05 ns (one half of Gaussian pulse width) is required for proper differentiation. From these calculations we can derive an equation to calculate the value of optical delay line from the data rate and pulse width. UWB pulses generated at 2Gb/s and the corresponding frequency spectrum is shown in figure 5 and 6 respectively. The used modulation technique was On-Off keying.
TABLE 1 DATA RATES CORRESPONDING TO THE REQUIRED OPTICAL DELAY
Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Data Rate (Gb/s) 0.5 1 2 4
Optical Delay (ns) 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.025
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Figure 3.6 UWB Monocycle Generated at 2Gb/s
Figure 3.7 Frequency spectrum of UWB monocycle at 2 GB/s. The spectrum is centered at 5 GHz having a bandwidth of 6 GHz at -10dbm
For comparison, the simulation has also been performed at a data rate of 1Gb/s. With the data rate reduced to one half, the inverse proportional relationship dictates us to double the optical delay offered. The required optical delay comes out to be 0.05*2 = 0.1ns which can be verified from table. 1. Figure 7 and 8 shows the UWB monocycle produced and the corresponding frequency spectrum respectively, at an input data rate of 1Gb/s.
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Figure 3.8 UWB Monocycle Generated at 1 Gb/s
Figure 3.9 Frequency spectrum of UWB monocycle at 1 GB/s. The spectrum is centered at 2 GHz having a bandwidth of 3 GHz at -10dbm
For comparison, the simulation has also been performed at a data rate of 1Gb/s. With the data rate reduced to one half, the inverse proportional relationship dictates us to double the optical delay offered. The required optical delay comes out to be 0.05*2 = 0.1ns which can be verified from table. 1. Figure 7 and 8 shows the UWB monocycle produced and the corresponding frequency spectrum respectively, at an input data rate of 1Gb/s. The width of the UWB monocycle in figure 5 is 0.2 ns while it is 0.4 ns in figure 7. These widths are twice the widths of the Gaussian pulses used to generate them. With the data rate reduced to one half, the width of the pulse in time domain in doubled. Intuitively, this should have an effect on the corresponding bandwidths of the pulses as well. From figure 6 and 8 we can derive conclusions that there is a direct proportionality between the input data rate and UWB pulse bandwidth.
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Doubling the data rate doubles the bandwidth. Figure 9 shows this relationship in the form a graph for two different values of Gaussian pulse width used for UWB monocycle generation.
Figure 3.10 Relation between input data rate and bandwidth for two different values of Gaussian pulse width used
From the graph, it is clear that increasing the width of Gaussian pulse used, reduces the bandwidth of output UWB pulse, while the directly proportional relationship between input data rate and bandwidth stays the same. This is in compliance with the fact that, shorter the pulses in time domain, broader are their frequency spectra. Figure 10 shows the output of Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing. The UWB pulses carrying the data of 32 different users were multiplexed using a frequency spacing of 100 GHz or a wavelength spacing of 0.8 nm.
Figure 3.11 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexed channels for 32 users
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Finally, figure 11 shows the shape of the signal for one user after travelling over a 1 km optical fiber link with an attenuation of 0.2 db/km and dispersion of 16.75 ps/nm/km. The Signal was received using a PIN photo diode.
Figure 3.12 Received signal after travelling 1 km fiber span with 0.2 db/km attenuation and 16.75 ps/nm/km dispersion. Photodetector noise has also been added
A significant fraction of the noise as can be seen in the figure above is added by the PIN photodetector. This noise includes the amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) noise and thermal noise. For a comparison, these photodetector noises were disabled and the received signal was plotted. Considerable reduction in the noise can be seen in the figure below.
Figure 3.13 Received signal after travelling 1 km fiber span with 0.2 db/km attenuation and 16.75 ps/nm/km dispersion excluding photodetector noise
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Chapter 4: Optical Amplifiers
CHAPTER 4:
Optical Amplifiers
4.1
Introduction
An optical amplifier is a device that intensifies an optical signal, without the needs to first convert it to an electrical signal. We can think of an optical amplifier as a laser with the absence of an optical cavity, or one in which feedback from the cavity is concealed. Optical amplifiers play an important role in optical communication. In order to transmit signals over long distances for example greater than 100km, it is necessary to recompense for attenuation losses within the optical fiber. Firstly this was achieved with an optoelectronic module consisting of an optical receiver, regeneration and equalization system, and an optical transmitter to transmit the data. There are several different mechanisms that can be used to amplify an optical signal, which matches to the major types of optical amplifiers.
Some types of OAs include: Semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs) Raman amplifiers Earth doped fiber amplifiers
Amplification of incoming light in doped fiber amplifiers is a result of stimulated emission in the amplifier's gain medium In semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs), electron-hole combination occurs. In Raman amplifiers, Raman scattering of incoming light with phonons is done in the lattice of the gain medium to reduce photons coherent with the incoming photons. The most realistic optical amplifiers to date include the SOA and EDFA kind. the performance of Raman amplifiers is being improved by new pumping methods and materials. The figure below shows Gain bandwidth of optical amplifiers.
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1440 1460 1480 1500 1520 1540 1560 1580 1600 1620 1640 1660 nm
EDFA ~47 nm EDFA 52 nm Fluoride EDFA 62 nm Tellurite EDFA 76 nm] TDFA 37 nm TDFA 35 nm Raman + Fluoride EDFA 80 nm Dist. Raman + Fluoride EDFA 83 nm Raman + TDFA 53 nm Raman 18 nm Raman 40 nm Raman 100 nm Raman 132 nm
1440 1460 1480 1500 1520 1540 1560 1580 1600 1620 1640 1660 nm E-Band S-Band C-Band L-Band U-Band
Fig 4.1: Gain Bandwidth of optical amplifier
4.2
Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier
Erbium-doped fiber amplifier or EDFA is an optical or IR repeater that amplifies a modulated laser beam directly, without conversion from electric to optical or vice versa. This uses a short length of optical fiber doped with the rare-earth element erbium. When the signal-carrying laser beams pass through this fiber, external energy is applied, usually at IR wavelengths. This pumping excites the atoms in the erbium-doped portion of optical fiber, raising the concentration of the laser beams passing through. The beams rising from the EDFA keep hold of all of their original modulation uniqueness, but are brighter than the input beams. Following is a pictorial view of how an erbium doped fiber amplifier works.[12]
Fig 4.2: Working of an EDFA
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Fig 4.3: Erbium doped fiber amplifier components
In fiber optic communications systems, problems arise from the fact that no fiber material is perfectly transparent. The visible-light or infrared (IR) beams carried by a fiber are attenuated as they travel through the material. This necessitates the use of repeaters in spans of optical fiber longer than about 100 kilometers. Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers are the very important components of the dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) optical communication systems. Existing improvements of the DWDM systems and networks are entirely thankful to the EDFAs. Virtues of EDFAs are high gain, low noise, broad bandwidth, high output power, and high efficiency of the pump power. Major crucial factor of the compact optical fiber amplifiers are gain, noise, bandwidth, and gain spectrum flatness. Higher gain and lower noise let the continuation of the distance between two repeaters. Wider bandwidth enables the DWDM networks to embrace more channels that bring about higher capacities, and flatter gain spectrum causes avoiding transmission impairments due to heterogeneous amplifications. Physical Components of EDFA: Biconical fused fiber couplers. One or two (if high output required) laser pumps. Polarization-insensitive optical isolators front and back. Allows only 1550 nm signals to pass. Pump radiation should not enter main fiber as well as optical feedback from reflections. Optical filter for gain flattening. Photo detector system to monitor pump power or EDFA output power.
Factors controlling the degree of gain uniformity:
24
Concentrations of the active ion (erbium). Optical gain flattening filter. Additional (second) pump laser at each end of the fiber.
These factors were kept in mind and the gain of erbium doped fiber was noted. Various results were observed by keeping the input power of the Laser and the length of the erbium doped fiber amplifier to a constant value. It was seen that as the pump laser power was increased the output gain or the output power from the fiber was amplified and increased to a large extend. However there was no change in the spectra of the output signal.
Fig 4.6: UWB monocycle prior to passing through an EDFA
Fig 4.7: UWB monocycle after passing through an EDFA
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The Input Power (Pin) was kept equal to 1mW or 0dbm and also the length of the fiber was kept 2m for all the readings while changing the Forward Pump Power (FPP). We kept on changing the Forward Pump Power from 50mW to 200mW. It was seen that there was an increase in the output power by an amount equal to 5dbm when the FPP was kept at 50mW. Similarly it increased by an amount of 7dbm when the forward pump power was kept at 100mW. It increased to 12mW.
TABLE 2 VALUES OF VARIOUS FACTORS THAT AFFECT EDFA OUTPUT
Input Power laser (mW) 1 1 1
of Forward Pump Power (mW) 50 100 200
Length (m) 2 2 2
Output Power (dbm) 5 7 12
Fig 4.8: Graph showing the comparison of forward pump power and the output power while keeping the length and input power of laser constant
So from the above results we conclude that as the forward pump of the erbium doped fiber is increased, the output gain of the optical fiber also increases. Now for the second simulation, the length of the Erbium doped fiber amplifiers length was changed while keeping the forward pump power same. It was seen that as the length of the EDFA was increased, the output gain or the output power increases but it was noted that with more increase of the length while keeping the forward pump power same, results in a decrease of the output power. The input power of the laser was kept at 1mw or 0dbm and also the forward pump power was kept the same throughout the calculation of the output power that is equal to 100mW. The length of the EDFA was increased from 1m to 20m in regular steps.
26
The output power was 8dbm at 2m of EDFA length and it became 9dbm at the length of 3m. When the length of the EDFA was changed to 5m the output gain also increased to 10dbm. But now the downfall of the output power starts as the length was increased to 10m the power at the output decreased to 9dbm. It did increase but not at the same step as it should be. Similarly when the length was further increased, the output gain decreased in the sense that the amplification took place but not up to the level that it should be.
Input Power of laser (mW) 1 1 1 1 1 1
Forward Pump Power (mW) 100 100 100 100 100 100
Length (m) 1 3 5 10 12 15
Output Power (dbm) 8 9 10 9 8 7
Fig 4.9: Graph showing the comparison of length of the fiber and the output power while keeping the lforward pump power and input power of laser constant
When the Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers length is increased while keeping the erbium ions concentration constant and also the numerical aperture of the optical fiber is kept the same. It has been seen that as the fiber length is increased the output gain is also increased. When the Erbium ions concentration is kept at 1*1024 m-3 and the numerical aperture is kept at 0.22, the output power increases. The output power was 1dbm at 2m of EDFA length and it became 2dbm at the length of 4m. When the length
27
of the EDFA was changed to 10m the output gain also increased to 4dbm. Further increasing the length of the EDFA, the gain of the fiber also increases.
Fiber Length (m) 2 4 10 15 20
Erbium ions concentration (m-3) 1*1023 1*1023 1*1023 1*1023 1*1023
Numerical Aperture (NA) 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22
Output Gain (dbm) 1 2 4 6 8
Fig 4.10: Graph showing the comparison of fiber length and the output power while keeping the Erbium ions concentration (m-3 )and Numerical Aperture (NA) constant
Various results were observed by changing the erbium ions concentration of erbium doped fiber while keeping the length of the fiber same and also the numerical aperture. It was noted that as the concentration of the erbium ions was increased the gain was also increased in the same ratio. The input power was kept the same for the calculation of output power. When the Erbium ions concentration is kept at 8.3*1024 m-3 and the numerical aperture is reserved at 0.22, the output power increases. The output power was 8dbm at 2m of EDFA length and it became 6dbm when the concentration of the erbium ions was decreased from 8.3*1024 m-3 to 6.3*1024 m-3 while keeping the length and the numerical aperture same. Similarly when the erbium ions concentration was further decreased to 6.3*1023 m-3 the output gain of the fiber decreased to 2dbm. It should be noted that amplification was still done but the amount of increase in output power was reduced as the ions concentration of
28
erbium was decreased. The spectral width of the output signal however showed no change
Fiber Length (m) 2 2 2
Erbium ions concentration (m-3) 8.3*1024 6.3*1024 6.3*1023
Numerical Aperture (NA) 0.22 0.22 0.22
Output Gain (dbm) 8 6 2
Fig 4.11: Graph showing the comparison of Erbium ions concentration (m-3) and the output power while keeping the fiber length and Numerical Aperture (NA) constant
4.2.1
Advantages of EDFAs:
High power transfer efficiency from pump to signal power (> 50%). Wide spectral band amplification with relative flat gain (>20 dB) useful for WDM applications. Large dynamic range. Low noise figure. Suitable for long-haul applications.
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4.2.2
Disadvantages of EDFAs:
Relatively large devices (km lengths of fiber) not easily integrated with other devices. ASE amplified spontaneous emission. There is always some output even with no signal input due to some excitation of ions in the fiber spontaneous noise. Cross-talk effects. Gain saturation effects.
4.3 Semiconductor Optical Amplifier The semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA) can be an substitute to costly wavelength-flattened Erbium doped optical amplifiers to be used in optical processing as wavelength switching. However, present day SOAs are costly and the accessibility of a reliable and flexible computer-aided design programs is an important task to cut designing costs and also to predict the performance of very high speed based data links. Theoretical models with different complexity levels were being applied to predict SOA-based functionalities, and complex models can provide more accurate knowledge of what happens inside the semiconductor optical active region.[13]
4.3.1
SOA - Basic Description[14]
An SOA is an optoelectronic device that under suitable operating conditions can amplify a light signal. The active region in the device communicates gain to an input signal. An external electric current provides the energy source that enables gain to take place. An embedded waveguide is used to confine the propagating signal wave to the active region, However, the optical confinement is weak so some of the signal will leak into the surrounding lossy cladding regions. The output signal is accompanied by noise. This additive noise is produced by the amplification process itself and so cannot be entirely avoided. The amplifier facets are reflective causing ripples in the gain spectrum.
Fig 4.12: Semiconductor optical amplifier basic architecture
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SOAs can be classified into two main types shown in the below figures. The Fabry-Perot SOA (FP-SOA) where reflections from the end facets are significant (i.e. the signal undergoes many passes through the amplifier) and the travellingwave SOA (TW-SOA) where reflections are negligible (i.e. the signal undergoes a single-pass of the amplifier).
Fig 4.13: Fabry-Perot amplifier
Fig 4.14: Travelling wave amplifier
4.3.2 Principles Of Optical Amplification In an SOA electrons (more commonly referred to as carriers) are injected from an external current source into the active region. These energized carriers occupy energy states in the conduction band (CB) of the active region material, leaving holes in the valence band (VB). Three radiative mechanisms are possible in the semiconductor. These are shown in the figure ahead, for a material with an energy band structure consisting of two discrete energy levels.
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Fig 4.15: Three radiated mechanisms possible in semiconductor
In stimulated absorption an incident light photon of sufficient energy can stimulate a carrier from the VB to the CB. This is a loss process as the incident photon is extinguished. If a photon of light of suitable energy is incident on the semiconductor, it can cause stimulated recombination of a CB carrier with a VB hole. The recombining carrier loses its energy in the form of a photon of light. This new stimulated photon will be identical in all respects to the inducing photon. Both the original photon and stimulated photon can give rise to more stimulated transitions. If the injected current is sufficiently high then a population inversion is created when the carrier population in the CB exceeds that in the VB. In this case the likelihood of stimulated emission is greater than stimulated absorption and so semiconductor will exhibit optical gain. In the spontaneous emission process, there is a non-zero probability per unit time that a CB carrier will spontaneously recombine with a VB hole and thereby emit a photon with random phase and direction. Spontaneously emitted photons have a wide range of frequencies. Spontaneous emission is a direct consequence of the amplification process and cannot be avoided; hence a noiseless SOA cannot be created. Stimulated processes are proportional to the intensity of the inducing radiation whereas the spontaneous emission process is independent of it. The degree of gain uniformity can be controlled by the injection current. This was kept in mind and the gain of semiconductor optical amplifier was observed. Various results were viewed by keeping the input power of the Laser and physical dimensions of the semiconductor amplifier to a constant value. It was seen that as the injection current was increased the output gain or the output power from the fiber was amplified and increased to some extent. However the spectra of the output signal was distorted to some degree.
32
The Input Power (Pin) was kept equal to 1mW or 0dbm while we kept altering the injection current. The injection current was changed from 0.15A to 1A. It was seen that there was an increase in the output power by an amount equal to 15dbm when the injection current was raised to 0.15A. Similarly it increased by an amount of 18dbm when the injection current was kept at 1A.
TABLE 6 VALUES OF VARIOUS FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOA OUTPUT
Input Power of laser Injection Current Dimensions of SOA Output Power (mW) (A) (length, width, height) m (dbm) 1 0.15 0.0005, 3e-006, 8e-008 15 1 0.50 0.0005, 3e-006, 8e-008 17 1 1 0.0005, 3e-006, 8e-008 19
Fig 4.16: Graph showing the comparison of injection current and the output power while keeping the dimensions of SOA and the input power of laser constant
So from the above results we conclude that as the injection current of the Semiconductor amplifier is increased, the output gain of the optical fiber also increases. 4.3.3
Advantages:
Is the right size to be integrated with waveguide photonic devices (short path length requirement). Can easily be integrated as preamplifiers at the receiver end. Use same technology as diode lasers. Gain relatively independent of wavelength.
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Are pumped with current, not another laser. 4.3.4
Disadvantages:
Polarization dependence. Self-phase modulation leading to chirp. Cross-phase modulation. Four-wave mixing and crosstalk Extremely short (ns) excited state lifetimes
4.3.5 Comparison of SOA and EDFA: The technology of semiconductor amplifiers competes with that of erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs). The main differences compared with EDFAs are: The setup is much more compact, containing only a small semiconductor chip with electrical and fiber connections. The output powers are significantly smaller. The gain bandwidth is smaller, but devices operating in different wavelength regions can be made. SOAs exhibit much stronger nonlinear distortions in the form of self-phase modulation and four-wave mixing. The noise figure is typically higher. The amplification is normally polarization-sensitive.
4.4 Raman Amplifier Unlike the EDFA and SOA the amplification effect in Raman amplifier is achieved by a nonlinear interaction between the signal and a pump laser within an optical fiber. There are two types of Raman amplifier: distributed and lumped. A distributed Raman amplifier is one in which the transmission fiber is utilized as the gain medium by multiplexing a pump wavelength with signal wavelength, while a lumped Raman amplifier utilizes a dedicated, shorter length of fiber to provide amplification. The pump light may be coupled into the transmission fiber in the same direction as the signal (co-directional pumping), in the opposite direction (contra-directional pumping) or both. Contra-directional pumping is more common as the transfer of noise from the pump to the signal is reduced. The pump power required for Raman amplification is higher than that required by the EDFA, with in excess of 500mW being required to achieve useful levels of gain in a distributed amplifier. Lumped amplifiers, where the pump light can be safely contained to avoid safety implications of high optical powers, may use over 1W of optical power.
34
Fig 4.17: Typical raman amplifier configuration
The principal advantage of Raman amplification is its ability to provide distributed amplification within the transmission fiber, thereby increasing the length of spans between amplifier and regeneration sites. The amplification bandwidth of Raman amplifiers is defined by the pump wavelengths utilized and so amplification can be provided over wider, and different, regions than may be possible with other amplifier types which rely on dopants and device design to define the amplification window. Raman optical amplifiers differ in principle from EDFAs or conventional lasers in that they utilize stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) to create optical gain. A Raman optical amplifier is little more than a high-power pump laser, and a WDM or directional coupler. The optical amplification occurs in the transmission fiber itself, distributed along the transmission path. Optical signals are amplified up to 10 dB in the network optical fiber. The Raman optical amplifiers have a wide gain bandwidth (up to 10 nm). They can use any installed transmission optical fiber. Consequently, they reduce the effective span loss to improve noise performance by boosting the optical signal in travel.
35
Chapter 5: Multiple Access
CHAPTER 5:
Multiple Access
5.1
Introduction
In any communication system, multiple users need to share the medium. Therefore, algorithms are required to ensure that all the users get their share of the medium without causing interference to other users. These algorithms are called multiple access techniques or multiple access schemes. Two major techniques that allow the bandwidth in a communications system to be shared are FDMA and TDMA. These techniques enable two or more signals to share the channel in such a way that each signal can be received without interference from another.
Fig 5.1: Multiple access aims at channel sharing without interference
5.2 FDMA FDMA stands for Frequency Division Multiple Access. In FDMA, signals from various users are assigned different frequencies i.e. total bandwidth of the channel is divided amongst all the users.[15] Two users cannot operate on a same frequency unless they are separated from each other by a specified distance to avoid significant interference. The bandwidths of FDMA channels are relatively narrow (25-30 kHz)
36
Fig 5.2: Allocation of separate channels using FDMA
5.3
TDMA
TDMA stands for Time Division Multiple Access. TDMA divides the channel on the basis of the time and each slot is known as time slot. The whole bandwidth is available for each time slot.[16] Information from each user is carried within one time slot. Users using different time slots may share the same frequency. When all the available time slots in a given frequency are occupied a new user connecting to a system must be assigned a time slot on a different frequency.
Fig 5.3: Allocation of time slots in TDMA
5.4
CDMA
FDMA and TDMA are decent schemes that allow the medium to be shared among users. But with the ever increasing demand for more bandwidth from both new technology and the users of technology, these techniques fail to fulfill the requirements. A faster and more advanced way of distinguishing users on a common medium is Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). CDMA allows full spectrum to be used by all users (unlike FDMA) for the entire period of time (unlike TDMA). It differentiates between communicators using orthogonal codes assigned to all the users.[17] The receiver extracts the data of any user, from the
37
medium, using the unique code of that user. All the users are on a single broad frequency of operation.
Fig 5.4: Code division multiple access
5.4.1 Embedding CDMA in UWB-over-Fiber System As an application of the fore-mentioned technique we provide an example of high speed wireless communication system where multiple-access technique is required to distinguish users on a common medium. Sharing signals have important applied applications in various disciplines such as automobile anti-collision system for expressway, inter-vehicle communication and satellite communication and location among satellite formation. Assume that user 1 is transmitting a 0, user 2 is also transmitting a 0 and user 3 transmitting a 1, represented by a -1, -1 and 1 respectively. The spreading code for user 1, user 2 and user 3 is [1 1 1 1], [1 0 1 0] and [1 0 0 1] respectively. Upon multiplication of user input with their corresponding orthogonal codes and subsequent summation, the waveform received to be transmitted over the optical fiber is shown in fig. 3.
38
Figure 5.5: Summation of spread bit streams
This waveform modulates a Gaussian pulse train as shown in fig 4. The Gaussian pulse train must be synchronized with the data rate of the input for proper amplitude modulation of the pulses. The modulated Gaussian pulse train is then used to generate UWB monocycle pulses in the optical domain through the above discussed generation mechanism. The UWB pulses carrying the cumulative data of multiple users are shown in fig. 5. The amplitude of the UWB monocycles corresponds to the amplitude of cumulative waveform carrying user data while the occurrence of positive and negative lobes corresponds to the polarity of the cumulative waveform.
Figure 5.6: Modulated Gaussian pulse train
39
Figure 5.7: Modulated UWB monocycle pulses
This modulated Gaussian pulse train is transmitted over the optical fiber. To recover the pulse, an M-ary threshold detector is configured and the waveform carrying the sum of data from all the users if obtained.
Figure 5.8: CDMA demodulation
Figure shows part of the network that recovers the cumulative waveform. To recover the data of individual users, the cumulative waveform is again multiplied with the code of that user as can be seen in the figure above. Subsequently, the different levels of the waveform after multiplication are added together and the
40
resulting value is divided by the total number of users to obtain the bit transmitted by the user. Figure shows the recovered bit for user 3.
Figure 5.9: Recovered data of User 3
41
Chapter 6: Effect of Nonlinearities on Ultra-Wideband over Fiber Systems
CHAPTER 6:
Effect of Nonlinearities on Ultra-Wideband over Fiber Systems

6.1 Introduction The development of low loss optical fibers, highly efficient lasers, optical detectors and amplifiers has brought a revolution to telecommunications. While propagating through an optical fiber, light pulses are confronted with various impairments degrading the quality of the signal. The effects such as attenuation, temporal broadening and nonlinearities tend to distort the original signal and result in loss of information.[18] The problems get worse when multiple wavelengths constituting independent channels are multiplexed (WDM) and travel simultaneously through an optical fiber. Another issue of interest is the power contained in the pulses. For the system to be economical, increased spacing is required between optical repeaters in the link which in turn requires higher launched power per wavelength to achieve the desired signal to noise ratio. With several wavelengths multiplexed over the same fiber, increase optical power launched per wavelength, and the ever growing desire to increase the data rate, the total optical power propagating through the optical fiber increases leading to nonlinearities in optical fiber. The terms linear and nonlinear (Figure 4.1), in optics, mean intensity independent and intensity-dependent phenomena respectively. Nonlinear effects in optical fibers occur due to two main reasons: Change in the refractive index of the medium with optical intensity Inelastic scattering phenomenon.
The power dependence of the refractive index leads to optical Kerr-effect. Depending upon the type of input signal, the Kerr nonlinearity can be observed in three different effects. Self-Phase Modulation (SPM), Cross-Phase Modulation (CPM) Four-Wave Mixing (FWM).
At high power level, the inelastic scattering can provoke stimulated effects such as Stimulated Brillouin-Scattering (SBS) and Stimulated Raman-Scattering (SRS). Above a certain threshold value the intensity of the scattered light grows exponentially. The difference between Brillouin and Raman scattering is that the phonons generated in Brillouin scattering are coherent and generate a macroscopic
42
acoustic wave in the fiber, while Raman scattering is characterized by incoherent phonons and no macroscopic wave is generated.
Figure 6.1: Linear and Nonlinear interactions
Figure 6.2: Nonlinear effects in optical fibers
All nonlinear effects except SPM and CPM provide gains to some channel at the cost of reducing power from other channels. SPM and CPM affect only the phase of signals and can cause spectral broadening, leadings to increased dispersion. Due to their importance in designing optimum systems, nonlinearities in optical fiber is an area of academic research.[19-24]
43
6.2 Self-Phase Modulation The higher intensity portions of an optical pulse face a higher refractive index while propagating through the optical fiber compared with the lower intensity portions. A time varying signal intensity produces a time varying refractive index in a medium that has an intensity-dependant refractive index. The leading edge will experience a positive refractive index gradient while the trailing edge will experience a negative refractive index gradient. This time varying index change results in a temporally varying phase change, as shown in Figure. This causes the optical phase of the pulse to vary in exactly the same manner as the optical signal. Since, this nonlinear phase modulation is induced by the intensity of the pulse itself, it is called as self-phase modulation. Owing to the intensity dependence of phase fluctuations, different parts of the pulse undergo different phase shift resulting in frequency chirping. The rising edge of the pulse finds frequency shift in upper side whereas the trailing edge faces shift in lower side. Hence primary effect of SPM is to broaden the spectrum of the pulse, keeping the shape of the signal in time domain unaltered. The SPM effects are more pronounced in systems with high-transmitted power because the chirping effect is proportional to transmitted signal power.
Figure 6.3: Frequency chirping of pulse due to SPM
44
There is broadening of the spectrum without any change in distribution of the signal in time domain in case of self-phase modulation while in case of dispersion, there is broadening of the pulse in time domain and spectral contents remain unaltered. In other words, the SPM by itself leads only to chirping, regardless of the pulse shape. It is dispersion that is responsible for pulse broadening. The SPM induced chirp varies the pulse broadening effects of dispersion.
6.2.1
Analysis
6.2.2 Theory SPM arises due to intensity dependence of refractive index. Fluctuation in signal intensity causes change in phase of the signal. This change in phase induces additional chirp, which leads to dispersion penalty. This penalty will be small if input power is less than certain threshold value. The input power should be kept below 19.6mW. The appropriate chirping of the input pulses can also be beneficial for reducing the SPM effects. 6.2.3 Simulations Case 1: Original Spectrum The original spectrum of Ultra-wideband monocycle in optical domain is shown in figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4: Original Pulse before the effect of SPM
Figure 1 corresponds to the optical spectrum without any nonlinearities in place. The data rate is set to 40 Gbps and the transmitted power of the pulse is 20 mW. Several other important parameters are listed in table 1.
45
TABLE 7 SPM CASE 1
Length of the fiber Effective core area Self-Phase modulation Dispersion Data rate Transmitted power Case 2: Effect of SPM
50 Km 20 um2 Off Off 40 Gbps 20 mW
Figure 6.5: Effect of SPM TABLE 8 SPM CASE 2
Length of the fiber Effective core area Self-Phase modulation Dispersion Data rate Transmitted power Observations:
50 Km 20 um2 On Off 40 Gbps 20 mW
Self-Phase modulation causes a symmetric broadening of pulse spectrum. The effect is more prominent with transmitted power greater than or equal to 20 mW.
46
Case 3: Effect of transmitted power
Figure 6.6: Effect of transmitted power
TABLE 9 SPM CASE 3
The higher the transmitted power of the pulse, the more prominent is SPM induced spectral broadening.
47
Case 4: Effect of fiber length
Figure 6.7: Effect of fiber length TABLE 10 SPM CASE 4
Longer the fiber, greater is the impact of SPM on pulse spectrum.
48
Case 5: Effect of core area
Figure 6.8: Effect of effective core area TABLE 11 SPM CASE 5
The intensity of a pulse is inversely proportional to the effective core area. Increasing the core area reduces the intensity of the pulse propagating through the fiber which in turn reducing the effect of SPM.
49
Case 6: Dispersion to counter the effects of SPM
Figure 6.9: Dispersion to counter the effects of SPM TABLE 12 SPM CASE 6
50 Km 20 um2 On On 40 Gbps 20 mW
The effect of GVD on the pulse propagation depends on whether or not the pulse is chirped. With the proper relation between the initial chirp and the GVD parameters, the pulse broadening (which occurs in the absence of any initial chirp) will be preceded by a narrowing stage (pulse compression). On the other hand, the SPM alone leads to pulse chirping, with the sign of the SPM-induced chirp being opposite to that induced by anomalous GVD. This means that in the presence of SPM, the GVD induced pulse-broadening will be reduced (in the case of anomalous), while extra broadening will occur in the case of normal GVD. 6.3 Cross-Phase Modulation SPM is the major nonlinear limitation in a single channel system. The intensity dependence of refractive index leads to another nonlinear phenomenon known as cross-phase modulation (CPM). When two or more optical pulses propagate simultaneously, the cross-phase modulation is always accompanied by SPM and occurs because the nonlinear refractive index seen by an optical beam depends not only on the intensity of that beam but also on the intensity of the other co-
50
propagating beams. In fact CPM converts power fluctuations in a particular wavelength channel to phase fluctuations in other co-propagating channels. The result of CPM may be asymmetric spectral broadening and distortion of the pulse shape. CPM hampers the system performance through the same mechanism as SPM: chirping frequency and chromatic dispersion, but CPM can damage the system performance even more than SPM. CPM influences the system severely when number of channels is large. Theoretically, for a 100-channels system, CPM imposes a power limit of 0.1mW per channel.
6.3.1
Analysis
6.3.2 Theory The CPM-induced phase shift can occur only when two pulses overlap in time. This overlap enhances the frequency dependant phase shift which in turn enhances the broadening of the pulse significantly limiting the performance of optical systems. The effects of CPM can be reduced by increasing the wavelength spacing between channels. With an increase in wavelength spacing, the pulses overlap for a very period of time and hence reduce the effects of CPM. In fact, the sufficiently different propagation constants of the channels introduced due to fiber dispersion cause the pulses corresponding to individual channels to walk away from each other. Due to this pulse walk-off phenomenon the pulses, which were initially overlapping in the time domain, cease to be so after propagating for some distance and cannot affect each other further. Thus, effect of CPM is reduced. In a WDM system, CPM converts power fluctuations in a particular wavelength channel to phase fluctuations in other co-propagating channels. This leads to broadening of pulse. It can be greatly reduced in WDM systems operating over standard nondispersion shifted single mode fiber. One more advantage of this kind of fiber is its effective core area, which is typically 80 m2. This large effective area is helpful in reducing nonlinear effects. Like SPM, the CPM also depends on interaction length of fiber. The long interaction length is always helpful in building up this effect up to a significant level. Keeping interaction length small, one can reduce this kind of nonlinearity. 6.3.3 Simulations Case 1: Effect of XPM We simulate two pulses with spectra centered at 193.1 THz and 210 THz and having a transmit power of 20 mW and 0.5 mW respectively. Although the concepts of SPM and XPM are often overlapping, they can be observed keeping in mind the thresholds above which they are prominent. In our case, the pulse with 20 mW power is prone to the effects of both SPM and XPM while for the pulse with 2 mW power, the effect of SPM is negligible and hence asymmetric spectral broadening caused by XPM can be observed.
51
Figure 6.10: Effect of XPM TABLE 13 XPM CASE 1
Length of the fiber Effective core area Self-Phase modulation Cross Phase Modulation Dispersion Transmitted power
50 Km 20 um2 On On Off 20 mW
52
Observations: The intensity of the high power pulse modulates the intensity of low power pulse which is unaffected by self phase modulation. This phenomenon is called cross phase modulation and it leads to asymmetric pulse broadening. Case 2: Effect of fiber length:
Figure 6.11: Effect of fiber length TABLE 14 XPM CASE 2
100 Km 20 um2 On On Off 20 mW
Observations: Increasing the fiber length, increasing the effect of cross phase modulation because of increased interaction of the pulses.
53
Case 3: Effect of dispersion:
Figure 6.12: Effect of dispersion TABLE 15 XPM CASE 3
50 Km 20 um2 On On On 20 mW
Observations: Although turning on the dispersion has mitigated the effect of SPM as expected, no effect can be observed on XPM.
54
Case 4: Effect of effective core area:
Figure 6.13: Effect of effective core area of the fiber TABLE 16 XPM CASE 4
50 Km 110 um2 On On On 20 mW
55
Observations: From figure 1 and figure 2, it can be observed that the effect of XPM decreases as the effective core area of the fiber increases. This is again due to the decrease in pulse intensities increasing core area. 6.4 Four Wave Mixing The origin of FWM process lies in the nonlinear response of bound electrons of a material to an applied optical field. The FWM process originates from third order nonlinear susceptibility ((3)). If three optical fields with carrier frequencies 1, 2 and 3, co-propagate inside the fiber simultaneously, ((3)) generates a fourth field with frequency 4, which is related to other frequencies by a relation, . In quantum-mechanical context, FWM occurs when photons from one or more waves are annihilated and new photons are created at different frequencies keeping net energy and momentum conserved during the interaction. Unlike SPM and CPM, that are significant mainly for high bit rate systems, the FWM effect is independent of the bit rate and is dependent on the channel spacing and fiber dispersion. Decreasing the channel spacing increases the four-wave mixing effect and so does decreasing the dispersion. 6.4.1
Analysis
6.4.2 Theory Four-wave mixing process results in power transfer from one channel to other. This phenomenon results in power depletion of the channel, which degrades the performance of that channel (i.e., BER is increased). In order to achieve original BER, some additional power is required which is termed as power penalty. Since, FWM itself is interchannel crosstalk it induces interference of information from one channel with another channel. This interference again degrades the system performance. To reduce this degradation, channel spacing must be increased. This increases the group velocity mismatch between channels and hence FWM penalty is reduced. 6.4.3 Simulations Case 1: Original spectra of the pulses Two pulses are transmitted with spectra centered at 193.1 THz and 193.15 THz and a transmitted power of 2 mW each. The original optical spectra of the pulses are shown in figure 1. The data rate is set to 2.5 Gbps.
56
Figure 6.14: Original unaffected pulse TABLE 17 FWM CASE 1
Length of the fiber Effective core area Dispersion Data rate Transmitted power
0 Km 70 um2 Off 2.5 Gbps 2 mW each
Case 2: Effect of FWM The effect of Four Wave Mixing can be observed after the pulses traverse a 75 Km long fiber span.
Figure 6.15: Effect of FWM
57
TABLE 18 FWM CASE 2
Length of the fiber Effective core area Dispersion Data rate Transmitted power Case 3: Effect of dispersion on FWM
75 Km 70 um2 4 ps/nm/km 2.5 Gbps 2 mW each
Figure 6.16: Effect of dispersion on FWM TABLE 19 FWM CASE 3
75 Km 70 um2 16.75 ps/nm/km 2.5 Gbps 2 mW each
Observations: Increasing the dispersion from 4 ps/nm/km to 16.75 ps/nm/km has significantly minimized the effect of FWM. But this does not prove that increasing the dispersion always has a positive effect of FWM as we can see in the next figure with the following values for parameters.
58
TABLE 20 FWM CASE 3B
75 Km 70 um2 25 ps/nm/km 2.5 Gbps 2 mW each
Figure 6.16: Effect of increase dispersion
Hence, further increasing the dispersion to 25 ps/nm/km has resulted in increase in FWM effect. We can conclude that 16.75 ps/nm/km is an optimum value of dispersion to minimize FWM for a fiber length of 75 Km. Next we shall how changing the length of the fiber can make 25 ps/nm/km an optimum value for dispersion instead of 16.75 ps/nm/km. Case 4: Effect of fiber length on FWM
Figure 6.18: Effect of fiber length on FWM
59
TABLE 21 FWM CASE 4
40 Km 70 um2 16.75 ps/nm/km 2.5 Gbps 2 mW each
Observations: We reduced the length of the fiber keeping dispersion same. It is observed that 16.75 ps/nm/km is no more the optimum value to avoid the effects of FWM and significantly better results can be obtained at 25 ps/nm/km as shown in the figure.
Figure 6.19: Fiber length and optimum dispersion
60
CONCLUSION
We designed a complete and economical optical fiber backbone network to support very high data rate Ultra-Wideband Radio. The network carried out all complex processing at a single centralized location considerably simplifying the Radio Antenna Units (RAUs). For an even better and faster performance, the network made use of all-optical components wherever possible. The use of alloptical components allows exceeding the limitations of electrical components and higher data rates can be achieved. A simple technique for optical generation of Impulse radio UWB pulses was introduced along with the mechanism to transmit the data of 32 different sites over the optical fiber backbone network using Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing. Furthermore, to differentiate users over the common wireless medium and to allow the users of any site to share the medium with each other, multiple access technique was employed in the system. Code Division Multiple Access technique was embedded in the system, simulated and found to be fulfilling the requirement decently. A comparison of different optical amplifiers was conducted and the interest merit in choosing one in the face of the other was studied. Finally, the effects of index based nonlinearities posing limitations to system operation were studied and the system was optimized for better performance.
61
REFERENCES
[1] ITU, World Telecommunication Reinventing Telecoms, March, 2002.
Development
Report
2002:
[2] http://www.mobilemarketingwatch.com/67-of-the-worlds-population-aremobile-subscribers-5541/ [3] S. Ohmori, The Future Generations of Mobile Communications Based on Broadband Access Technologies, IEEE Communications Magazine, 134 - 142, (December 2000). [4] D. Novak, Fiber Optics in Wireless Applications, OFC 2004 Short Course 217, 2004. [5] Anthony Ngoma,Radio-over-Fibre Technology for Broadband Wireless Communication Systems [6] Kazimierz Siwiak and Debra McKeown Ultra-Wideband Radio Technology John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2004 [7] Xuemin (Sherman) Shen, Mohsen Guizani, Robert Caiming Qiu ultrawideband wireless communications and networks John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2004 [8] Kazimierz Siwiak, Debra McKeown, Technology, John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Ultra-Wideband Radio
[9] K. Patorski, Subtraction and addition of optical signals using a doublegrating shearing interferometer, Optics Communications Volume 29, Issue 1, April 1979, Pages 13-16 [10] S. J. S. Bradshaw and P. J. C. Child, Optical data addition and subtraction, Optical and Quantum Electronics, Volume 1, Number 1, 4548. [11] Kumshilin, A.A. Raita, E. Silvennoinen, R. Jaaskelainen, T., Optical Subtraction Using Double Phase Conjugate Mirror in a Photorefractive Waveguide, Lasers and Electro-optics Europe, 1996. CLEO/Europe. 7070.
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[12] Agrawal, G.P. (2002), Fiber-Optic Communication Systems, 3rd edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York [13] Cristiano M.Gallep, Aldrio C.Bordonalli, and Evandro Conforti, "Simulation and measurements of Current-Injected Gain Control in Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers" [14] Michael J.Connelly, "Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers" [15] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FDMA [16] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_division_multiple_access [17] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDMA [18] K Thyagarajan, Ajoy Ghatak, "Some important nonlinear effects in optical fibers" [19] Tsuritani, T., A. Agata, K. Imai, I. Morita, K. Tanaka, T. Miyakawa, N. Edagawa, and M. Suzaka, 35 GHz spaced 20 GbtsX100 WDM RZ transmission over 2700km using SMFbased dispersion flattened fiber span, Proc. Eur. Conf. Optical Communication, PD 1.5, 4041, Munich, Germany, Sep. 37, 2000. [20] Bigo, S., Design of multi-tera bit/s transmission systems, Proc. Topical Meetingon Optical Amplifiers and Their Applications (OAA01), Stresa, July 17, 2001. [21] Akimaru, H. and M. R. Finley, Elements of the emerging broadband information highway, IEEE Commun. Mag., Vol. 35, 8494, 1997. [22] Chraplyvy, A. R. and R. W. Tkach, Terabit/second transmission experiments, IEEE J. Quantum Electron., Vol. 34, 21032108, 1998. [23] Hussian, M. G. M., Mathematical method for electromagnetic conductivity of lossy materials, Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications, Vol. 19, No. 2, 271279, 2005. [24] Biswas, A. and S. Konar, Soliton-solitons interaction with kerr law nonlinearity, Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications, Vol. 19, No. 11, 14431453, 2005.
63
GLOSSARY
Radio-over-Fiber: A technology where radio signals are transmitted over optical fibers from the centralized headend to remote antenna units Ultra-wideband radio: A radio technology where user data is transmitted using very narrow pulses thereby providing large modulation bandwidth. W-PAN: A short range Wireless Personal Area Network with a typical range of few meters. On-Off Keying: A modulation technique that represents digital data as the presence or absence of the pulse. Pulse Position Modulation: This modulation technique involves transmitting impulses at high rates, in the millions to tens of millions of impulses per second. However, the pulses are not necessarily evenly spaced in time, but rather they are spaced at random or pseudonoise (PN) time intervals. Pulse Amplitude Modulation: Pulse amplitude modulation is a scheme, which alters the amplitude of regularly spaced rectangular pulses in accordance with the instantaneous values of a continuous message signal. Semiconductor Optical Amplifier SOA are amplifiers which use a semiconductor to provide the gain medium Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier EDFA is an optical repeater device that is used to boost the intensity of optical signals being carried through a fiber optic communications system. An optical
64
fiber is doped with the rare earth element erbium so that the glass fiber can absorb light at one frequency and emit light at another frequency. Raman Amplifier Raman amplifier is achieved by a nonlinear interaction between the signal and a pump laser within an optical fiber. Raman scattering Raman scattering or the Raman effect is the inelastic scattering of a photon. Frequency Division Multiple Access In FDMA, signals from various users are assigned different frequencies i.e. total bandwidth of the channel is divided amongst all the users Time Division Multiple Access TDMA divides the channel on the basis of the time and each slot is known as time slot. The whole bandwidth is available for each time slot. Code Division Multiple Access It is an access method that operates on Spread Spectrum Technique and differentiates various communicators on the basis of codes. All the users are on a single broad frequency of operation. Self-Phase Modulation SPM is a nonlinear optical effect of light-matter interaction Cross-Phase Modulation XPM or CPM is a nonlinear optical effect where one wavelength of light can affect the phase of another wavelength of light through the optical Kerr effect.
Four-Wave Mixing It is an intermodulation phenomenon in optical systems, whereby interactions between 3 wavelengths produce a 4th wavelength in the signal.
65
Brillouin Scattering It occurs when light in a medium (such as air, water or a crystal) interacts with time dependent optical density variations and changes its energy (frequency) and path.
66

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DWDM BASED RADIO-OVER-FIBER SOLUTION TO SUPPORT ULTRA-WIDEBAND RADIO

Affan Hasan Khan Omer Khalid

Project Supervisor _______________ Prof. Dr. Muhammad Khawar Islam

Signature of Student Affan Hasan Khan (2K7-TE-36) Omer Khalid (2K7-TE-68)

2.5.1 2.5.1.1 2.5.1.2 2.5.1.3 2.6

OFDM Based UWB Radio .............................................................................. 13

6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3

Chapter 1: The Dawn of Radio-over-Fiber Technology

The Dawn Of Radio-Over-Fiber Technology

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 1: The Dawn of Radio-over-Fiber Technology

Figure 1.1 Overview of Wireless Communication System[3][4]

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 1: The Dawn of Radio-over-Fiber Technology

Figure 1.2 Wireless Access Network

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 1: The Dawn of Radio-over-Fiber Technology

Radio-over-Fiber (RoF) Technology

Figure 1.3 A Radio Over Fiber Network

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 1: The Dawn of Radio-over-Fiber Technology

Advantages of RoF Technology

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 1: The Dawn of Radio-over-Fiber Technology

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 1: The Dawn of Radio-over-Fiber Technology

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 2: Introduction to Ultra-Wideband Technology

Introduction to Ultra-Wideband Technology

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 2: Introduction to Ultra-Wideband Technology

Figure 2.1 FCC Spectrum for Indoor Applications

Fig 2.2: Most used UWB Pulses

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 2: Introduction to Ultra-Wideband Technology

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 2: Introduction to Ultra-Wideband Technology

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 2: Introduction to Ultra-Wideband Technology

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 2: Introduction to Ultra-Wideband Technology

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 3: Basic System Design

Basic System Design

Figure 3.1 Generation Mechanism for UWB

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 3: Basic System Design

Figure 3.2 Working of a Differentiator

Figure 3.3 Gaussian Pulse and its Frequency Spectrum

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 3: Basic System Design

Figure 3.4 Ultra Wideband Monocycle with its Frequency Spectrum

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 3: Basic System Design

Figure 3.5 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Data Rate (Gb/s) 0.5 1 2 4

Optical Delay (ns) 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.025

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 3: Basic System Design

Figure 3.6 UWB Monocycle Generated at 2Gb/s

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Chapter 3: Basic System Design

Figure 3.8 UWB Monocycle Generated at 1 Gb/s

DWDM based Radio-over-Fiber solution to support Ultra-Wideband Radio

Erbium ions concentration (m-3) 11023 11023 11023 11023 1*1023

Erbium ions concentration (m-3) 8.31024 6.31024 6.3*1023