Geometric Optics According to Kantz Milton, geometric optics is concerned in how light propagated, reflected and refracted, that

is why it also concerns to the formation of images. It is also a branch of optics, wherein it deals with light as rays, especially in the study of the effect of lenses and mirrors. It also describes light propagation in terms of rays. Geometric optics is also known as ray optics. Ray in geometric optics, is an abstraction or instrument, wherein it became a model in how light propagate. The Ray of Light is a single line of light coming from the point source, wherein it is a merely a direction of light propagation. It is assumed that it consist of rays, in which our eyes detect. A. Images In physics, images are a usual reproduction of an object formed by a mirror or a lens. We see an image, when light rays go straight into our eyes in the same spot as the object. Wherein, images are formed when light rays converge. When light rays converge and formed images it is either real or virtual. Real images are formed by light rays. It can only view with the use of a screen. That image that cannot be projected on a screen is called virtual. Virtual images are formed by sight lines and always upright. Images can be described as upright image or inverted image. Upright image has the same orientation as the object while inverted image is upside down relative to the object. There are qualitative descriptions of an image: (1) enlarged, (2) diminished, and (3) unmagnified. B. Mirrors A mirror is a highly polished surface which can produce images by the regular reflection of light. Images are formed when the mirror reflects, it converges the light rays. C. Reflection of Light Light that is bent back from the surface of an object is called reflection. It governs the interaction of light rays with conducting surfaces. The amount of light that enters a medium and partially transmitted depends on three factors: (1) the kind of medium the object is made of, (2) the smoothness of the surface of the medium, and (3) the angle at which the light strikes the surface. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection is known as the law of reflection. D. Kinds of Mirror

Plane mirrors produce images which are always the same size as the objects they reflect. The images, formed by plane mirrors, appear to be as far behind the mirror as the image in front. The type of image a plane mirror produce are (1) virtual, (2) upright, and (3) unmagnified. Another kind of mirror is spherical mirror. The images formed by a curved mirror are different from those formed by plane mirrors, although the law of reflection are also applicable. It is a mirror that has surface which is a section of a sphere. Wherein, if the reflecting surface of the curved mirror is the outer surface of the sphere, the mirror is described as a convex mirror: it curves outward toward the user of the mirror. If the inner surface of the mirror of the spherical mirror is used as the reflecting surface, it is a concave mirror: it curves inward away from the user. The terms used with curved mirror are the following: 1. The center of curvature C is the center of the sphere of which the mirror is part. 2. The vertex E is the center of the mirror. 3. The line passes through the center of curvature C and vertex E is called principal axis. 4. Point F is the principal focus and is at the midpoint of the vertex E and center of curvature C. 5. The distance between vertex E and point F is called focal length f. 6. The normal is any line drawn from the surface of the mirror perpendicular to the tangent to the surface. E. Image Formation in Mirrors Image formed by mirrors can be constructed by the ray tracing method. \ Rules for Concave Mirrors 1. Parallel rays of light are reflected through the principal focus F. 2. Rays of light passing through F are reflected parallel (reverse of rule 1) 3. A ray of light passing through the center of curvature C will strike the mirror at right angles and will be reflected back along the own path. 4. The position of the top of the image is where the reflected ray meet.

The image formed by concave mirror can be characterized by the position of the object: Case 1: When the object is at infinity in the case of a concave mirror, the image formed has the following properties. 1. The image is real. 2. The image is inverted. 3. The image is highly diminished to a point. 4. The image is formed at the the concave mirror. principal focus in front of

Case 2: When the object is between infinity and the center of curvature in front of a concave mirror, the image formed has the following properties. 1. The image is real. 2. The image is inverted. 3. The image is diminished. 4. The image is formed between the the center of curvature in front of the concave mirror. principal focus and

Case 3: When the object is placed at the principal focus in front of a concave mirror, the image formed has the following properties. 1. The image is real. 2. The image is inverted. 3. The image is highly enlarged. 4. The image is formed at infinity in front of the concave mirror. Case 4: When the object is placed between the pole and the principal focus in front of a concave mirror, the image formed has the following properties. 1. The image is virtual. 2. The image is erect. 3. The image is enlarged. 4. The image is formed behind the concave mirror.

 Case 5: When the object is placed between the principal focus and the center of curvature in front of a concave mirror, the image formed has the following properties. 1. The image is real. 2. The image is inverted. 3. The image is enlarged. 4. The image is formed beyond the center of curvature in front of the concave mirror, but not at infinity. Case 6: When the object is placed at the center of curvature in front of a concave mirror, the image formed has the following properties. 1. The image is real. 2. The image is inverted. 3. The image is of the same size as the object. 4. The image is formed at the center of curvature in front of the, concave mirror Rules for Convex Mirror 1. Parallel rays of light are reflected so that they appear to come from F. 2. Rays of light moving forward C hit the mirror at right angle and are reflected back along their own path. The image formed by the convex mirror can be characterized by the position of the object: When the object is at Infinity 1. The image is virtual. 2. The image is erect 3. The image is highly diminished to a point 4. The image is formed at the principal focus behind the convex mirror.

 When the object is anywhere between the pole and infinity in front of the convex mirror 1. The image is virtual. 2. The image is erect. 3. The image is diminished. 4. The image is formed between the principal focus and the pole behind the convex mirror. F. Size of the Object In plane mirrors the object and image do not differ in size. In curved mirrors, the size of the object will depend upon the relative distance of the object from the mirror, especially its distance from the center of curvature. Experiments have shown that the relation between the size of the object and the size of the image is directly proportional to the distance of the object and the distance of the image.

Where: So = size of the object Si = size of the image do = distance of the object di = distance of the image G. Mirror Equation The formula that can be used for concave and convex mirror is the mirror equation. Wherein, the relationship between the distance of object, distance of the image and the focal length of the curved mirror is summarized as:

H. Refraction of Light Refraction is when light bends as it passes from one medium into another. It is when the light traveling through air passes into the glass block is refracted towards the normal. When the light passes back out of the glass into the air, it is refracted away from the normal. Since light refracts when it changes mediums it can be aimed. Lenses are shaped so light is aimed at a focal point.

I. Lenses One of the most important devices used in optical instruments is the lens. A lens is a transparent object bounded by one or more curved surfaces like spherical. Light entering and leaving a lens undergoes various changes because of the curvature of the lens surfaces and the different materials which have different degrees of refractivity. One advantage in using lenses is the fact that light rays coming from any one point of an object and incident upon a lens with a convex curvature may be brought to a focus, or single image point. Wherein, the larger the lens the better the focusing and the brighter the image point. Lenses are mostly made of glass or plastic. There are two kinds of lenses commonly used. Converging lenses are those which are thicker in the middle than they are at the edge. It causes the light passing through the lenses to converge at a point on the principal axis. The lenses which direct refracted light away the principal axis is called diverging lenses. It is thick at the edge. Lens Terminologies 1. Principal axis the line that joins the two centers of curvature. 2. Principal focus the point where rays o\f light parallel to the principal axis converge after being refracted by lens. 3. Optical center the geometrical center of the lens through which the secondary axes pass. 4. Focal length the distance from the principal focus to the optical centre. 5. Center of curvature the centers of two intersecting spheres which form the lens surfaces. J. Images Formed by Concave Lenses Concave lenses are thin in the middle and make light rays diverge (spread out). Rules: 1. The first ray comes in parallel to the optical axis and refracts from the focal point. 2. The second ray goes straight through the center of the lens. 3. The light rays dont converge, but the sight lines do.

4. A virtual image forms where the sight lines converge. K. Images Formed by Convex Mirror Convex lenses are thicker in the middle and focus light rays to a focal point in front of the lens. The focal length of the lens is the distance between the center of the lens and the point where the light rays are focused. The rules are the same as concave mirror. Images Formed by Convex Lenses Case 1: The object is located beyond 2F NATURE AND POSITION OF IMAGE 1. The image will form between F and 2F. 2. The image will be real and inverted. 3. The image will be smaller in size. Case 2: The object is located at 2F NATURE AND POSITION OF IMAGE 1. The image will form at 2F. 2. The image will be real and inverted. 3. The image will be equal in the size of object. Case 3: The object is located between 2F and F NATURE AND POSITION OF IMAGE 1. The image will form beyond 2F. 2. The image will be real and inverted. 3. The image will be magnified. Case 4: The object is located at F NATURE AND POSITION OF IMAGE 1. The image will form at infinity. 2. The image will be real and inverted. 3. The image will be highly magnified. Case 5: When the Object is Placed at Infinity NATURE AND POSITION OF IMAGE 1. The image will form at the principal focus (F). 2. The image will be real and inverted. 3. The image will be very small in size.

 Case 6: When the object is placed between the pole (P) and F NATURE AND POSITION OF IMAGE 1. The image will form on the same side of object. 2. The image will be virtual and erect. 3. The image will be magnified. L. Lens Application The most important application of lenses would probably be the human eye. The eye is an exceptional optical instrument. The transparent media of the eyes with their curved surfaces constitute the lenses made of living tissues. They are actually double convex lenses which form a real image of objects on the retina. The retina, which consists of a curtain of nerve filaments, is an inner coat on the rear portion of the eyeball. It acts as a screen for the image formed by the lenses. The eyeball is protected by a tough outer coat called the sclera, which helps to retain the shape of the eyeball and protects the eye. In front of the sclera is the transparent cornea, which admits the light into the eye. The choroid layer, which absorbs all light which fail to be focused properly to avoid the blurring of images, is the middle coat which consist a black pigment. The colored portion of the eye is the iris which acts as diaphragm to control the amount of light which enters the inner eye. In the middle of the iris is the pupil which contracts in bright sunlight to reduce the amount of light entering the eye or expands when one enters a dark room to allow more light to enter the eye. Normal eyes have distinct vision at a distance of 25 cm and are able to look at objects 50 m away when completely relaxed. M. Eye Defects Our eyes can automatically adjust themselves to enable us to see far and near objects clearly. But for one reason or another some people develop one or more of the following defects: 1. The defects that prevents a person from seeing distant object clearly is called nearsightedness or myopic. Myopic people see far objects as a mere blur because the image formed is in front of the retina instead of falling on the retina itself. Only by placing the object closer to the eyes will the person get a distinct image to diverge the rays before they enter lens. This defects id probably due to long, continued reading or using small or dim lights which overtaxed and weakened the eye muscles, or the

eyeballs may be too long. To remedy this defect, diverging lenses are ground to suit the defect of each eye. 2. The second defect is known as hyperopia or farsightedness. This is cause by the failure of the lenses to contract and make them thicker to shorten their focal length, or the eyeball is too short. The image is formed behind the retina and is seen as a blurred reproduction of the object. To focus the object in the retina, the farsighted person moves the object farther from the eye. This defect is common with people who are over 40 years old. Just like in myopia, the ciliary muscles have lost their power of accommodation. The afflicted person resorts to adjusting the distance of the object to be able to see it better. 3. Astigmatism is a common eye defect caused by the lack of curvature of the refracting surfaces, beginning with the cornea which may not be perfectly curved and the lens itself which may be irregular. A person with astigmatism will fail to see clearly. N. Prism A typical prism is a solid figure, a transparent homogenous and isotropic medium bounded by 2 non-parallel plane surfaces (each forms a parm ). In geometrical optics, we can view a prism as a triangle characterized by its vertex angle alpha (suppose 'a' ) and its index of refraction n. A prism can be used to cause dispersion of a beam of white light dividing it into its respective components, each of its own wavelength or frequency.