A Concise

Psychological
Dictionary
Edited by A. V. Petrovsky
and M. G. Yaroshevsky
rogress Publishers
Moscow

from Ihe Rus.\lan
Ediled by Pyolr Shikhirt'I', Cando Sc, (Phil.)
De<;igned b)" Yur; Dal'ydm'
CJ10IlAPb
nOA pe.'l. A.n.neTpo8cKoro II
M.r. SlpoweacKOro
c nOJlI1TI13.'laT, 1985
English lranslalion C, Progress Publishers 1987
Printed in Ihe Union of SOI'iel Sociaiisl Republi cg
K 0304000000-5 19
014(01)-87 17- 87
'.
Publisher's Nofe
This dictionary is intended for a wide range of readers
seeking information on concepts used in modern psychologgy.
The entries embrace the main branches of psychology. theoret-
ical trends and concepts, methods of psychological research,
and major aspects of the history of psychology.
Because of its concise form, many special notions from
engineering and medi cal psychology, pathopsychology, psycho-
physics. and other branches of psychological knowledge are
not included in the dictionary, while others may be found in
more general entries. Italici sed cross-references will help
the reader to find relevant entries with fuller information
on the subject of interest.
The dictionary does not include terms which, though used
in psychological literature, actually belong to other branches
of knowledge. such as philosophy, pedagogy, anatomy. and
physiology. This information may be found in special encyclo-
paedias and dictionaries.
When cited in the body of an entry. its title is abbreviated
to the firsl letter (or letters). A's standing for the plural
and A.'s, for the possessive case.

,\bililies. individual
p,ychological fea-
tures of [he person-
ality, a premise for
accom-
of specific
productive acthjty.
A. became the subject of specialised
psychological In Ihe 19th
..:entury. when the worb of Francis
Galton initialed experimental and statis-
tical studie:. of per:.onal dislincliom..
Other conditions being tXlual, A. mani-
fest Ihemo;eivcs in how quickly, ea:;ily
and effllienlly Ihe individual masters
methods needed 10 organbe and per-
form some kind of aclivity. A. are
dmely with the general
o('ir>ntu.lion 01 the pa.umalit)', with
stability of human for a
given form of 31.:tiviIY. DifTerCnI A.
may underlie idel1lical accomphsh-
menh in some 8<.:1lvil),; al Ihe same time,
Ihe same A. may underlie suc(:t'::;s in
different types of act;,ity. An important
factor in the couro;e of training and
education is that (If '>Cnsitive periods
which help develop certain A. (see
Dew/opm(.'nta/ A. pre-
sumably form on the ba!.i!. of indina-
tions. A qualitative analysi!; of A. is
designed 10 reveal individual human
needed to accomplish
'peciflc type of activity. Quantitative
change.s In A. characterise their
development level, which i:> generally
estimated by Achiel'('meITt
Telt.l: InielliXl'IKe Tests; and Crea-
Ii lIily A st uJy of psyc!lO-
logil'al of A.
make.\ it to di.'>tinguish the
individual's general qualities that meet
the requiremcn" of nOI one, but sel'eral
of activity (see Imel/ect) , and
the spo:x:ial qualities that meet a reslrict_
ed range of requirements in that
particular form of activity (see Abili-
lies, Specific). The degree of develop_
ment of A. is expressed in talent
and geniality. In So\'iet rr.>ychology,
the problem of A. treated in the
work:; of Boris Tcplov, Natan Leites,
Vadim Krutctsky, and others. All-round
development of m8n\ A. is in line with
the principle of socialist society: "From
each according to his ability, to each
according to hi!> work."
Specific, individual
logical allowing to
fully perform spel'ifll: activity
(muskal, literary, etc.). A.,S.
develop on the basis of sui table illdi
notiOflS, such as good mu!>ical ear and
memory. Today. we know of
sensitive periods (sec Dt.'\e/opmellta/
Semilil'('II('Ss ) , Juring which A .. S,
develop particularly well. For imtance,
A.,S. for music invol\e children unner
fIH". who actively develop good musical
ear and memory. Given that inclina-
tions are A .. S. can form
on various phy"iological Thus,
a certain level of A.,S. (mathematicIIl.
artisti", etc.) could be devdoped in
virtually all healthy children. Thus,
there is every reason to believe that
all-round development of talems in
children .::al1 be achieved through
specially organil>Cd training.
Abstraction, a type Qf thinkillg
whereby the mentally differen-
some qualilies or IISpcCts of lin
object and 111,,"111 from OIher

or aspects. The result is an
intellectual construct (concept, model,
theory, also
by the term "A". Ongmally" A. IS st:en
ill a direct sensory rellectlon of the
environment, when some of
the laller provide orientatIOn for per-
ception and action others. are
ignored. A. is a condition
for categorisation. By A.
images of reality are formed,
to select relations and connections
essential to activity by isolating t.hem
from other rellU,ions and connecti ons.
When essential properties of
are ignored, A. assumes a
and shallow character. In thiS case,
the term is used to refer to conceptu-
alisation and reasoning which
basis in reality. A. true to IS
that simplifIcation of the multitude of
phenomena which increases t.he ca-
pacity of thought by ,of Its COII-
centration on that which IS essent.lal
for a given cognitive Practice
is the cri terion for determllllng to w.hat
extent A. is genuine and productive.
Abulia, a pathological disturbance
the mental regulation of aetiol/s. It IS
seen in the absence of an impulse t.o
act, inabili ty to make or aCI.on deCI-
sions, although the person IS awa.re
of this necessity. A. should .be diS-
tinguished from of
as a {'haracter trait resulll1lg from
IInproper upbringing and corrigible by
adequate training (see Will).
Acalculia, inability to and
perform ari thmeti cal as a
5
result of cortical lesions. Various groups
of A. are recognised: primary .
associated with disturbance
organisation of numbers and Impaired
ability to calculate; and secondary A.,
-;eell in other disorders of mental func-
tions (aphasia. agnosia. amnesia) or
in general impairment of purposeful
intellectual activity.
Acceleration, an increase in the rate
of the somatic and physiological matu-
ration of children and teenagers. ob-
served over the past 100-150 y.ears. A.
shows itself primarily in an
in the bodily size and weight and m
earlier onset of puberty. Data show
that during this century the average
size of infants has increased by 0.5-1.0
cm and the weight, by 100-300 g:
the body size and of 5-7-year.
olds has been increasmg by an average
of 1.5 cm and 0.5 kg every ten rears;
and the body size of schoolchildren
has increased by 10-15 cm over the I
period. Puberty in to _two
years earlier. ThiS condlllon. gIVen
traditional modes of pre+adolescent
upbringing and of behal'iOllr,
can sometimes r!se }O_ ..
collisions, such as semanllC _hu_'!!.ers.
-c()I1f!iCH. and affective behaVIOUr.
There are data related to the
rated mental development of children
.Jsychological acceleration): however, )
there Is not enough statistical data to
draw a reliable conclusion.
Accentuation of Character,
tion of certain personality traits
festing itself in selective
of personality in to certam
types of psychogemc stress (profound

di\\re ....,>, mental pressure, etc.)
while the person ..:an maintain emotional
eqUilibrium under other types of mental
Although pure typt!s are
and mIxed predominate, the
followmg of A. of C. are dis-
tInguished: (I) ..:yeloid:- va.rimions of
",1000 resulting from an external situa-
tion; (2) worry,
fatigue, irritability, inclination
l/epreHiom;; (3) scnsitive-
\ tendency to feel
lIlfenor; (4) reti-
..:ence, of ability to maintain per-
sonal contacts hee xlrol'ersion-
Il1IrOl'f'nion), inability to sympathise
(see .ElI1phathy); (5) paranoiac-
Irrllability. persistence of
negative hypersensith'ity. sus-
PICIousness. exaggerated sense of self-
Importan..:e; (6) epileptic-uncont-
rolled and impulsive behaviour, in-
tolerance, mental rigidity, fighting and
quarrelmg. mordmately detailed speech,
to standards: (7) histrionic
(hysten..:al) -pronounced tendency
towards repression of unpleasant faclS
or events, lying, fantasy and affected
behaviour aimed at drawing attention
dIsregard for the feeling of oEhe;
persons, tendency towards recklessness
vanlly, "escape into disease" when
need for recognition is not satisfIed'
(8) hypenhymic-constantly high
splnb, cravl11g for action combined
wllh mood shifES and a tendency to
abandon in mid-course, exces-
sive (galloping thought);
(9) dysthymlc,- gravity, high
of concentration
on gloumy and \ad aspects of life,
to inade-
-
quate a":!l\cnes,\: (It)) un\tahle (extra-
vert) -- temll-ncy to bc mnuellccd hy
external ,8 ,carch
for mlprc).slons or new cumpany,
abLlII) to estabh\h qUick contact (al _
though of 8\uperflcial character);
(II). conformmg-cxaggcl"alcd sub-
and dependability. Depend-
mg 011 the degree of manifeMation
overt and .covert of A. of C:
arc Becoming mure pro-
nounced IOwards teenage. A. of C.
towards adulthood, rnanife;ting
IIself nOI III any situat ion (as in
.but .only in a complex
psychogel1lc Slluations, those bringing
pressure 10 bear on the "weak link".
A. of C. promote; the development
of reactions (sec
gen.,e Disorders), neuroses, patho-
logical behaviour disorders. A. of C.
be taken into account in elTe.;lUat-
an individual approach to raising
chl ldr.en and teenagers, as well as in
choos1l1g adequate forms of individual
and psycholherapies. The above
cJassllicallon was suggcsled by Karl
Leonghard and Andrei Lichko.
Acceplor of AClion Result a mental
",1echanism of anticipation evalua-
lion of the result of action in functional
systems. The. was introduced by
Anokhm III 1955. In Ihe informa-
aspect, A. of A.R. is "the informa-
1I0nai equivalent of the result" re-
from memory in the of
deCfSlolI-lIIokillK which determines the
of the motor
aClIvlty during the behavioural act
and carries out Ihe comparison of the
resull with its "anticipated rene.;tion".
If they coincide, the completed futlc-

- - -
lional s..:hemc falls apart, ilnd the Mla-
nism can I"lro..:eed to another purpO\eful
hehuI'iour; if they overlap. improve-
menls arc introdu!;cd !II the programme
of aClion; if they are lotally dilIcrent,
exploratory-orienting behaviour
developed.
Achievement Motivalion, Ihe lllhjed_\
need 10 reach success in variou.\ types
of actIvity. especially in competiti on
with other people. Studics of A.M. were
begun by a group of American re-
searchers headed by David McClelland.
They proposed the theory and method-
ology of measuring A, M. which were
funher elaborated in the works of John
Alkinson and Heinl. Heckhausen.
A special projective method was worked
out for lhe qualitative estimation and
slUdy of A.M. (see Projective Tests).
According 10 McClelland and others,
A.M. is formed during the child's
upbringing in the family, under the
infl uence of his parents, flTSlly of his
mother. The basis of A.M. Is made up
of the affectivel y coloured associations
which link the child's emotiOlwl expe-
riem:e with Ihe forms of his behuI';Ollr.
If in early childhood the child is praised
by the parents for his successes and
punished for failures, by lhe age of 5
to 6 he forms A.M. which laler becomes
a steady need and is manifested in
various types of activity. McClelland
allernpted to explain, proceeding from
A.M., the speciflc !raits in the socio-
economic developmenl of I'arious
nalions. which is counter 10 the his-
torical approach. Soviet psy..:holog)'
rejecls the idea of A.M. bcing formed
exclusively during early childhood.
7
-
Achitvement Tnc,. a technique of
f1I'.YI:hlldiul(rllJHS reveahllg tht e!llellt
!O whi..:h wbJC..:!'J have ma\lered 'I!'e-
(If" knowledge, abilitie1. and skill"
A,T. (t'"'>cmble '>pecial abilitin IC!U
(o;ec Crealil-ity Unlike the
laller, the)' reveal what the
\ubject already ma.\lered, ralher
than generalised devoid of
!;oncrete ..:ontent and rC';ulting from
variegated life experienc.:. There are
three types of A.T., namely_ allion
tests, wrillen tests. and oral te'>ts.
AClion tl;"5ts are designed to reveal an
ability to perform actIons wilh
mechanisms. malerials, and implernent\.
Written A.T. are performed 00 spe..:ial
qucslionnaires. The subjects are told
to eilher select the correct oral an\wer
among several options. or 10 mark in a
diagram the reflection of the sltualion
described ill a l',iHn question. or 10
find in a drawing the situation or
detail providing a cut 10 the !;orrect
solution, Oral A.T. are a of
prepared questions which the subj:ts
must answer: in this case, Ihe el(pcri-
menter must foresee the diffh:ulties
that may arise because of inexperien..:e
in articulating replies. A.T. are used
in general and "ocational training.
Aclioo, a unit of activit)"; a ,'oluntary
intentional mediated aCEi,-it)" directed
towards reaching a realised f,:wl. A. as
a :;pecifLC unit of was
inlroduccd in So,iet psy,lr%gy by
Sergei Rubinstein and Alexei N. Leon-
tye'. The nOlion of A. as unIt 0; analys-
is and object of study is uscd in Ihe
slUdy of pi.'r;:eplUu/, motor, mnemonic,
mental. creative, and other A's. As
regards ics structure, A., unlike the

-- - -
-
habitual or Imnulsiv" "'-1 .
( h. " .... ......., 18Vloural acts
w leh afe directly determined b' I
,>.llIation) is always
:t smg "anous means such .
ro/('\ \' 1 as SIKns,
Ill" a 1/1',\, 1I0rms. etc. thco subject
.. aMen an A., acquiring it as his OW"
perso lal" A E , . _. . very A. consists of
eflee.lor and control pans.
s regardl> theIr fUTlctioning, A's can
grouped as voluntary and inten
Ilona I. In Oll'o1?t'llesis the function of
control and regulation of A
IS 81 li.rst in the process i
the JOInI actil'ilies of the adult
c!III? a.nd, later, as a result of the
InferiOr/saIl on of social norms (pat-
terns) and schemes of A., the child
Ix:gms to control his A. in accordance
wlIh these. patterns and schemes. The
intentIOnality of A.. is explained by Ihe
that the subJecl decides that Ihe
,magi! of the future result of his A.
10 Ihe motive of his activ-
Ity: In th1$ case this image of action
acquires a personalised meaning and
Ihe subjecfs goal. The subject's
gives rise to a goal-related
a readiness to alta in the anti-
Cipated of A. The goal-related
aHllude IS connected with the image
of the anticipaled result, which does
not Imply concrete ways and means
by wh.ich the goal could be reached
mOSI likely and effectively. This image
only. chariS the general direction for
A., while the executive pari
of A:. IS determined by the concrete
condlllOns of the given situation. In Ihe
of carrying out an A., the
subject comes inlo conlact with the
objective world and Iransforms (out-
wardly or mentally) the objective situ a-
tlOIl alld utlain .. a n ... ult. TI h
e,"aluat" .. it ..
hl\ ('motioll.f. In the of A SilVia
s.oals may 8111>Cilr hee Goal Pt""., ('w
troll) and tht' plal"C' of. . 11/1-
. n. In The (luiv
II) may change. A.:cordin .
1111 A. clln hecome all
If. 1\ repealedly al1ninc-d soat
hlch II> f1rlnly connected wit I tl'
means of reaching ;, ,c "0 I' "
I
. ,., oliger
rea Ised as a resull of il b .
automatic and becom'"'" .
_ ....." Wlt11l1 the
structure of actIvit, " '0 d . f
f' ,n 111011 or
per ormlllg another A. (shif1 of the
goal towards the condit io") B .
. " . egm-
nlllg .to an A. as a result of a
cenam motive, the subject can later
perform A. for the purpose of the A.
Itself (shtft of the motive towards the
in which case the A. becomes
an mdependent activity. The mechanism
of of realised "motive-
goals IS aile of the mechanisms of
the. f.orn.lation of new types of human
actIvIty In On Ihe dynamic
the stability of an A. is deter-
mmed by its goal orientation. The
psychophysiological organisaTion of
an A. is provided by such a funClional
block of the bruin as the block of
programming. regulation and control
?f which the frontal lobes are the mos;
Important part (Alexander Luria).
Act ivafion, a state of the ner vouS
system characterising the level of ils
excitation and react ivi ty. A. of The
nervous system as a whole, as its
gener al characteristic, should be dis-
t inguished from A. of anyone brain
struClure. The opt imal level of A.
would be the utmost degree of cor-
I
-
rC_\p<)ndl'nlC bttwec.-n the tl.ale uf the
nervlIUS \y\ll:," ami a hc.-hlvioural att;
the IIldividual h:vc.-I ,.f A. i, thl"' ilage
of A., pt:(uliar to each ar
whi(h he temh to elTeI-'lualc hit a.:
tivilY
Acti veness, the unlvcr\al charaddi\til
of Jiving beings, their dynamics
as a soU"C of transfnrming or malll-
taining vital with the
surrounding world: ahility for auto-
act ion. In psychology. A. is
correlated with activity, it-
self as a dynamic condition for the
laner's origination, effectuation, and
transformation, and as a property of
its movement. A. is characterised by a
high degree of mediaTion of any action
by The :.peciflc inner state of Ihe sabject
at the very moment of the action,
as distinct from reactivity (when actions
are mediated by the antecedent silUa-
lion): by autonomy, i.e. medialion by
the subject's gool, as distinct from
fIeld-dependent behaviour (see Fidd
Independence); by cross-situational
features, i.e. the surpassing of Ihe
initial goals as distinct from adapta-
bility as limitation of the subject"s
actions by the narrow framework of
the presenl goals (see ActIveness,
SillUllionally Independent): by a
considerable degree of stability vis_Ii_vis
the adoploo goal. as distinct from
passive adaptability to the objects to be
encountered by the subject in the course
of activiTY
Acti veness, Orient ing. behaviour aimed
at changing a siluatioll lor one's au i-
tude towards it) wilh an absen(e of a
-
Ikfmlle pro,nmlS of Ihe bul
With a "oflllnuoUi a(count takc-n of
the dc,ree of th(' behaviour's efree
A"O. IS an e90Cnlial component
of many Iype'l of behaviour. In animals.
it embra<.:e<i alltype1 of
(aggrCMion, complex fonn'
of danser avoidance), self_stimulation.
orit"nl3ting behaviour (Ke Group
8ehadQur of Animal\). In men. A.,Q.
c; a major component in the pn:N;C1","'S
of planning. fantasy. e-tc
Activeness of Personality. capa-
city for produ<.:ing socially rdevant
transformations in the world relying
on the appropriation of the- wealth
of material and spirilUal culture; mani-
fests itself in udil'ity. a(t5
of volition, communication (I). The
inlegra1 characteristic of A. of P. is
adoption of an active slance di5played
in the person's principled ideological
position. consislent stand in defe-nding
personal "iewpoints. maintenance of a
unity of word and deed (see A ...tilenNs;
Situationally
Deed: A.clil"ity: Persunalit)).
Acti ... Situationall) Independent.
a subje,t's capacit)" to remain inde-
pendent of a gi\en situation, set
excessi,-e from the point of vi<!:w of
the initial task (Vadim Petro\sky).
By way of A.,S.D. the subject over-
comes e"ternal and internal limitations
("barriers") to adivily (see Attitude).
A.,S.D. is manifesl<!:d in aeatiw' a,-
til'it)', cogniti,'e (intellectual) activ-
eness, "unseltlsh"' risk, supernormative
acti,eness {see E/ficien,:}' of a
Group).

10
Acthdty, a dynamic system of the
interaction with the surround-
ing ....'orld in the proceS> of which
the psychological imul!t' emerges and
dIecluated ill the and Ihe
subjecl's relalionships In objeClivl'
reality mediated by il are realised.
The category of A. is a distinctive
feature of So\'iet psychology based on
the Mar)(i5l-Lenini!;1 ml!fhod%I:Y.
There are two characteristic points
in Soviet psychology: (a) the pro-
of Ihe unity of psyche and A.
which counterposes Soviet psychology
to various Iypes of the psychology
of consciOllSllesli which analysed psyche
apart from behul'iour (see Introspec-
til't' PsychO/o!:)': Gestalt Psychology),
and also to) various naturalistic trends
in behaviourill psychology, analysing
behaviour apart from psyche (see
Behal'iouri5m: Neobehaviourism);
(b) the introduction of the principles
of development and historicism whooe
realisation in research necessarily calls
for an approach to A. as to the driving
force of the development of psycho-
logical reflution. The category of A.
is used to explain the mind's functioning
in the study of various flelds of psychic
reality (psychology of cognitive proces-
ses, mmil'ation, will, emotions, person-
alily, intragroup processes) and in
establishing various psychological fields
(general, social, developmen/al, peda-
gogical. medical, engineering, work.
and animal psychology). The usage
of the A. calegory as an explanatory
principle led to a change in Ihe prin-
ciples of analysing psyche in general
psychology (the principle of unity of
(onsciousness and A., the principle
- - ---
of unity of the l'xternal and mternfll
strUlture!> of A., the
e.\leriori.(aliOIl prillc.:iple n\ n l11e(h.
a11lsrn of ,,(quinng 'Ol'io-hi,torical
c:\perieTll'c: the principlc of the depen-
dence of renettion 011
the of the relle..:te(t object
in the struclure of A., elC.), and to
the elaboration of the on
the systematic formAtion of mcntnl
actions, on the leading activity as the
bnsb for slruclUring the dewloprncnt
of psyche into on the l1Ii(ro-
stru,;tural analysis of cognitive and
executive A., on the mltd iation of inter-
personal relationships, etc. Object rela-
tion and subjectivity are the basic
characteristi cs of A. The specifIC
nature of A.'s object-related deter-
mination lies in the fact that the Objects
of the surrounding world influence
the subject indirectly, being trans
formed in the process of A., owing
to which they are renected in con-
sciousness with a greater adequacy.
The phylogenic preconditions of A:s
object relation are revealed in the
animal activity being conditioned by
the nature of objects and the cues
which emerged during the species'
evolution and served to satisfy the
given biological needs, and not by any
influence of the surrounding world.
Only man's A. is explicitly object-
related. This is manifested in man's A.
socially conditioned, in its link
with meallings fIxated in lools and
schemes of action, in the concepts
of language, social roles, I'aill es, and
social norms. The subjectivity of A.
is expressed in the following aspects
of the subject's ac/iI'elless: III the
-
dependence nf p"y(holotl:l(al unilflc
, nI'I'll.l. ulltlmil'.f.
on pa!i . ,
. ,'"'/\ ilnd nwIH'l'l uC cr
emO\lon" ..... .. I .
mining the orientall()Jl ilnd the 'I' .c(-
. _'"" of A' in f'('rWnullIed
tlven .... , 'flf
. ,h- mo,ive ("mcill1l1lg u or
meUI!IIl/:, ... ' .'
me") to variou, 3(\1011\ anu
The of A. may
divided into three
strucwrally fundiona! and .dynamlc.
On the genlttic plane, /mnt
aclil'ilies are the initial form of all
human A., while whkh
provides for the acquisition of
historical experience through the
formation of joint social aCI1VltlCS
into individual A., serves as a pattern
of the human psychic development.
In the process of the
transition of external A. mto IIlternal A.
also takes place. The structurally
functional approach to the structur.e
of A. is based on the "unit"
(Lev Vygotsky). when the given
is decomposed into "units" contalllmg
the basic characteristics in.herent. m
this reality as a whole. The
lies between A. units are mobIle.
Depending on the position of the renect-
ed object in the structure of A.,
the content of the psychological
tion, the level of rel1ection (consciOUS
or unconscious) and the type of A.
re.gulation (voluntary or involuntary.)
change. Analysis of A. in the dynamIC
plane is devoted 10 the study of
mechanisms providing for the
sion of A. per se: situarionally mde-
pendenl activeness (see AClil'em:ss,
Silliutiollally IlIdept'lufell!) whIch
determines the self-development of
a(tivilY and the appearance of !lew
11
-
form..: anJ to the.
the )Ctahllit) vf r
111 ,hc con'llalltly chan.glllll:
A. i'i reali-.ed lin the of .
logical rnechani,m1 :.tudleJ 111
"ph)"\iolog)' 01 adlvelle!S
f
. I '''I 0/ .Movement ("onIlrudl
flll
.
'>Cit .. I
(
. . pi 0/1 P,'OIf Anokhm s tleury
IIII,e , " A .. , lor
of "funclional ,hee
of Adion Result), and A.lexa.nder
ideas of orgarmatWIl
f higher cortical functlOm hee
o . I
Higher Menial Fllnd/Om ,
AClualjsaltoo, retrieval of mate-
. I from short-term or long-Ierm
na "h r'
memory for SUCCCSSI\e uSc: In I e cou '>C
of recof.:nition: recail, reco/lecf/flll.
or direct reproduction .. The extent to
A. is easy or dlfftcuh depenili.
on the degree of memOrbmg. or for-
elling of the slOred matenal (ot.ee
g ., )
ForSellill.!: .. '
Adapt:ation. SellSOC). adapti\e modifl-
calion of sensitil'ity 10 SUI! the change
in the degree of intensilY of the
slimulU5 acting upon the sense orltan.
It may maniiesl itself in ,anous subJec-
m'e effects (see After-I",ar:e). A.,S.
may be through incre.a.
ses
and de<:reases LO absolute sensu" 1\)
(s uch as adaptation to or
lighl). A.,S. is b)'. the
scale and speed of modlfica-
lion and the selecu,IIY. of. changes
in relation to the adapme mnuen.ce.
Thus, Ihe processes oi visual adaptatIon
are partially selective IOwards
frequency and direction of the.
movement in the fleld of the
processe:; of taste adaptalJon are
,
12
--
toward!; all salts bul not
towards \ariou\ acids, etc.
logical changes whi(h lie 31 the basis
of A.,S. oc..:ur both in Ihe cenlral and
poeripheral unib of The analyser. The
cmnbinalion of neurophysiological and
p!)ychophysical mclh(Xh (:,ee Psyl.'ho-
of major importane!;" for
re.\earch into perception and
Ihe mechanisms of A.,S. in particular.
Adaptation Syndrome. a lotality of
adaptation reactions of a human or
animal organism of a generally defen-
sive character, which develops ill
ponse 10 strong and prolonged pres-
sures (Slrt'SS faclOrs). A functional
slale brought about by a stress factor
is called stress. The concept of A.S.
was introduced in 1936 by the Canadian
phY5iologisl Hans Selye. Three stages
are distinguished in the development
of A,S,: (I) Ihe alarm stage, ranging
from several hours to two davs; it
incorporales the phase of shock and
the phase of counter-shock, the laller
being Ihe process of mobilisation of
Ihe organism's defensive reactions;
(2) Ihe stage of resistance, in which
the organism achieves higher resistance
10 various disturbances; (3) either
the stage of stabilisation and recovery
or rhe stage of exhaustion which may
result in dearh (see Adjustment),
Additiveness. a property of magni-
tudes cOllsisling in that their sum
correspondi ng to an object's
the magnitude corresponding
to the whole object. The size of a
group, for instance, possesses the A,
property, whereas interpersonal Tela-
within it or jOint lI,tit'itin do IIOt.
Adjustmenl, conformation tn the en.
vironment achil'vcd by an organism's
,\Tucture, hlllctions, orgnn .. , and cells.
The aim of A. proces.,e,s is to maintain
A. is onc of tltt central
conl'cpts in biology, widely applieJ as a
theoretical concept in types of
psYl'-hology which, like Ge.\falt
0RY or the psychology of illlel1igence
developed by rhe psychologist
Jean Piaget, see an indil'it/llal"s rela-
tionships with the environment as Ihe
process whereby homeostasis is sus-
tained. The STudy of physiological
regulatory mechanisms of A., increasing
the organism's resistance to changes
in temperature or barometric pressure,
shortage of oxigen, or any other
disturbing factors, is highly relevant
to finding solutions to applied problems
of psychophysiology, medical psychol-
ogy, ergonomics, and olher branches
of psychology. Adaptive reaclions to
unfavourable pressures of high inten-
sity have a number of common fea
tures and are collectively called IIllap-
talion syndrome,- The processes of A,
to extraordinary conditions are some-
times broken down inlo various phases
(such as the phase of initial de-
compensation and the subsequent
phases of partial and total compensa-
tion), A, changes occur tit all levels-
from the molecular struct ure of the
organism to the psychological regula-
tion of actil'ily, Of key importance
for successful A. to extraordinary
conditions are training as well as the
imlh'idua/'s functional, mental, and
moral stales.
Adju\tnlent, Social, (I) thc prn,,-c:
whereby an imhvtdual adaph to a ne:
envirolHnent; (2) the rewlt of a
The
P I of A S I:onvergcnce of XIKlts
ten " .
fwd I'U/UI:' orlrlltutionl of a
and an individual 11\ group,
lion by the individual of the group
norms and .. , Ihe group culture.
the incorporatton III the
01' -I,u'ture In Western
group s r c .. ....' .
lThychology, Ihe problem of A.,S. l5
developed wi thin the framework of a
trend which originated m Ihe. 19305-
1940s on Ihe basis of rreobelrul'IOLIT/:>m
(Neal Miller, John Dollard, Robert
Sears, and others) and branches,- of
psychoanalytic (see Psy,ho-
a/ysis) connected with cultural
(Ruth Benedict, Margaret
Mead) and psychosomatic med1C1I1e
(Franz. Alexander, Thomas French).
The social environment's and th.e. mdl-
vidual's interests are as or.lgmall),
counterposed, and mal.or sLgnlflcance
is anributCd to pathological. phenomena
(neurotic and psychosomalLc. dISorders,
drug-addiction, etc.), 111 Sonet psycho-
logy, the mechanisms of A"S. ar.e
studied in the conlexl of joinl Clcl ll"-
shaped by community of SCl
ais
and value orienlations of a col1ecuve:
the degree of community pro\Ldt!.S
the basis for di stinguishing the leve.ls
or phases of adjustment. The basLc
types of adjustment processes are
determined by rhe strucwre of
and motives of the individual. Two
types are distinguished: (1) the type
characterised by predollll lHlnce of an
active impact upon the social environ-
ment, (2) the type charactensed by
-
. onformLU a"lmilil(ion of the
pa'll>lVC:, c .. 01
0<113 and ,slue OflcnTaUOtu .
g A rdc:vant of A .. S,
group_ II A S is one
a(ceplance of a ':'-h.
of the ...CX:IO_psy..:holog1I:al
ni .. m .. of the of a
nality.
Affecl an intc:nsLve and
'emutional brought.
b a suddcn 111 any urlUnt-
y ,'1 for the and a<:C01l1-
\tances v I " _ .
ed by \ividly mowr
pam d in thc:
changes an A . a re>ponw
of visceral organs. . I'> . .
to the e\'ent which has 01,;-
cd and is somewhat ,>hLfled 10 the
curr , nh an
event's conclusion. repre'><: .
inner conflict e:\penc:nced by the
-> 'Ithu b)' the conflu:t
person. causa.o .
of dril'n, (llpir"'tion\. (lr or
h discrepancy between the demand"
tie ed upon the person (by
and his or her capacity
for meeting demand'>. A,
111 criTical situations when the
is unable 10 find an adequate way out
of the dangerous and, marc often than
not . sudden situation. the
. f dO"lin<lnl A dclaY' mental
traIts 0 a" " .
processes irrde\anl to it amI
some slereOlyped c:mergency way. out
of the situation (frc:c:zmg,
aggression) shaped in the of
b
1 . 1 ,\"olution and therefore
loogLca "'.' d-
only in tYPLcal bLologLl:allon 1
Another illl('lOTlant
. . 'A is the amllSSlllg 01
tunctLOn 0, . .
specifIC trale!
(alT.:ctive comp]e\es) ma.k
I 1
- , .. It ill cOllfntntalLOIt wllh
ttelllse v...... . .
indi\ idual componenls of the StlualiO
n

" -------
whi..:h ha.' 10 A. and whirh
signal Ihe \lIuation's p,,,_\ible
ren..:c. The Slale of A. "
by narrowmg of com .. in whidl
Ihe Cllt/'ntioll of the subject is wholl\'
,,:ollcenlraled upon thl'
Iha,' have produced Ihis Mate and the
which II dictates. Impaired
may resull in the inn-
bllu), 10 recall. individllal cQmporlt::111S
of the e\'e111 which ha\ given rise 10 A.:
cxtrernely :.Irong A. can resuh
111 of and complete
A. limits in the extreme the
of spontaneous regulation
of behaviour; hence the purpose of
A.-preventmg measures employed in
and psychOlherapeutical
prao.:lices IS to A. b)' avoiding
A.-produ<.:mg SlIuallons through
f?rmance_ of distracting aCIS.
lion of liS undesirable consequences
elc. The degree of resistance 10
men I of A. depends on the level of
the personality\ moral
Afferent Synthesis. in the theory of
functional system (Pyolr Anokhin) -
!he of the malerial imprinted
111 lIIemory, moth'ation, and informa-
lion on the environment and the
sllm.ulus that sets the mind in aClion
achIeved for the p"'pore of .
,
. d}IOIl-
1110 lIIg .. Memory is seen as an aggre-
gaee o.f mterrelaled funClional systems
at various. levels, in the course
of evolulioll and 1n individual life
motivation is seen as con-
crellsatlOn of one of the needs of Ihe
organiSm. In A.S., due 10 motivation
a.1l syslems whose operalion has al
tIme or another resulted in satisfaction
- .
of Ihi\ \\al1l ,.
. ' l' ;!clll;! l\l'd. Inl"ormll
lion 011 111(' l'll\irllllllll'nt h"lp, ,
tl - - .l1am
II.' rl'qulrl'd rl,\ .. lh. Till' fllltil " , ..
. , _, ... l\lOl1
IS mill l' whl'1I ,0111(' , .
. - \ l'1II thl'
IlIlpubl' add, pn'SMlrl' to Olll' of I -
s\'stems ehoSl"1l 1II1f;!('r lhe ,. ,n ",
j _ I uenee of
11(' glYl'lI motivatioll and ,itua!"
us the hierarchy of
reflects the cvolu-
Idual history of the orga_
nl sl'.1 s ddaptlvc correlations with the
CII\ Ironment, there ex,","" , .
I . "., .. cer am
lIerarchy of A.S. As a systems process
A.S: dol'S not occur in sOlile discree;
s.t([l(ture but is a p'rocess of
II1teraCII01l of impulses of
vartous. morphological origins (central
or afferent or efferent)
embracll1g the entire brain and
organism.
Affiliation. a desire to be in
other company. A tendency
IOwards A. II1creases with the subjeCl"s
lII\'olvement in the potemially danger.
ous, stressful (sec Siren) situation.
The company of other people
the person to test the chosen mode
of behaviour and Ihe nature of
in a complex and dangerous
To a cerIa in extent. the
proxllntly to others directly decreases
worry, mitigating the effect of both
and physiological stresses. The
of A. causes a sense of lone-
Imess and ulienalioll and gi\'es rise to
{r IIsl ro t i 011.
Arter-Image, a visual .\ellsutiol1 con-
tinuing for . some (normally short)
penod of tIme after a visual stimu-
lation. There are and negarive
A'\. A A, hued Ii"-!." the
irritant, and remain'l Inr vcry
time. A negative A. (tlr a
longer time ilnd i\ tillted With all
additional colour a,> cumparl'd ttl that
of the irriwIIL For ill\tatKe. In
POIlSC to rcd colollr, a green negativeA.
would arbe. At prolollged or mh::n\lVC
stimulation, one may ob\crve wvcral
challgeovers of pmcitive and ncgativl'
A's, which dO/.l'n\ of \cco1l(h or
even millutcs (sec
Eillelism) .
Age (ill psychology), a specifIC rela-
tively time-limited of Ihe jndi-
dduufs mental development and the
moulding of his perIOllu/il}'. characte-
rised by a torality of objective physio-
logical and psychological change-s
unrelated to idiosyncrasy. Transition
from one A. stage to another is marked
by restructuring and change of psychic
development (see Mefllal
1711'111; Persol/ulity). The psycholl,!!i..::al
characteristics of A. are deterlllllled
by concrete hislOrical in
which the individual develops. by Ihe
nature of his upbringing, and by his
specifiC actil'i lies and comtt1l1tricaliol1
(I). Each A. is characterised by il'>
specifiC "social situat ion of develop-
ment'" (Lev Vygolsky), and by specifiC
correlation bctYlcen the social envlron-
ml'nt and the intrinsic conditions 'lint
determine the individual's develop-
ment as a personality. Objel"ti\'cly,
,he sallle dements of social environ-
ment innuence people of different A.
in different ways, depending 011 what
previously develoi"Ied psychologi..::al
they are ml"uiatl'd with. The
inter3t.tio-n of external and 111.... 1'n.1
faclurs typical !l'"y.
hoh
,ska1
f('atufe'i 10 [M.'oplt' of the
A, 10 Jctermilll: tts I:hitllgl"S
I" corrciatiOin belweell ,hew
cllndition ill th('lr turn the IranSllll'lI
to the nexr A. !>tage (1)a\'id h:llhtem).
A. \tago:s ar(' by relati\-
ity and conv('ntionall)' 8\'eragcu
chara..::terl\tic,c; howe-vcr, thi .. tItleS lint
exclude IYSyt:hologi"::lIl \urielY I.f indi-
viduals. The A_ characteri,ti.:: of the
per\onalit)' rene-ctt ;l
certain system of demands madl!' by
sociel), on the indi\'idual al I:erlain
stages of life, and also rhe naturc (>1 hi ..
relarions .",.ith other people. i.e-. his
social status. Speo:ifl":: A_ l"haralleri\lil\
are determined by how a l"hiid join,
groups with ditTerent le\ds of de\'ci{lp-
ment (see un'l o{ Group D"I'dop'
menf) and edu..::ational in\litution';
by changes in the nature of family
upbringing; by forming of new lyre'
of aelh-ity Ihat help the ..::hilt! inh:r
nalise . '>OCial e'perien..::e, a sy .. tem of
existing knowledge. norms anu rule\
of human acti\,jty: and by 'he 'p"iflc\
of his de,e-lormcllt.
The nOtion of A. and age
boundaries i!. not an aiterion,
since age boundarie\ are vanable anll
depend on the hislOri..::al perioo III
question, and are differenr in different
socio-cconomi..:: eonditiom. The fol-
lowing A. classification is a(ccpted
in the USSR: infancy (from birth
to age I): pre-pres..::hool childhooo
(age I 10 J); preschool ..::hildhooJ
(age", 10 0); Junior s.::hool age (age n
to 10); teenagc peTiod (age 10 to 15);
youth: first period (senior s..:hllol 3!!C,
16
age 15 10 17) and second period
(age 17 10 21); malure age: first
period (age 21 to 35) and second
period (age 35 to 60); elderly age
(age 60 10 75); old age (age 75 10 90);
and longevity (age 90 and more).
AgnOliia. impairment of perception
associated with cerla;n brai" lesions.
Several forms of A. are di:'linguished:
(I) optical or visual A. -failure to
re(ognise the of
objlo'c\\ despite the re!elllLO,1l of ,VIsual
powers: (2) tactile A.--- inability to
recognise an object by louch (3S-
or impairment of the
ability 10 identify parts of one's own
body or the of its ;odi,vidual
!,arh. i.e. a defeci 111 apprecl311on, of
the body \Cherne (somaloagnmlal ;
e\) acm;,!ic or auditory A.- impair-
melll of phonemic hearing, i.e. the
ahility to di .. tingui\h sound ... re.<,ulttng
in a .. peech (see Apll!Hia)
or impairment of the ability torc,,;og-
\\)ice'" etc (dc"p'te the
retention of elementary form.. of
hearing)
Agraphia. inability to communi,,;ate
in writing ao.:ompanying "ariou .... pee..:h
It manifc. .. ts ihelf either
in a IOlal 10\\ of the ability to write
or HI IlH .. reading or of
wnrd.\. {)n\l .. of letters and
inahihlY to integrate written
etf. In children. A. a form of "leech
retardatmn due 10 innate brain
fUI1\:tion .. ; it is abo seen in 're
e
..:
h
manlrest 111 Ihe impaIred
aOlhty tn sounds as a re..ult
of poor hearing or deafness. tn adults,
A. i\ a form of aphasia.
Alexia., loss of the ability to read
resulting from damage (0 a specific
area of the left cerebral cOrlex (in
right-handers), to acquire
any reading ablhty. Vartous forms of
A. are recognised as associated with
the 10000alisation of the 'esion.
Algorithm, a procedure based on a
system of !u]e\ a
of operations are executed 1Il a certam
.. equence; a .. Irict adherence to
prOl.:edure allows all /asks of a certam
cla.',s 10 be solved. A key to malhe-
matic' and mathematical logic. the
com:ept is abo applied in
(engint'erillR psychology. pedagogl;;
p.\ycllOlogy 0/ ma,,'!ge-
ment. etc.), though not in a stnctl y
mathematical in the study of
managerial proces:o.e.<, and of
for executing 111 certam
types of A. indudes mdlc.a-
tion of certain initial data essen!131
for the of a ta.',k, Ihe
(or rule) whereby the process IS
recogm,>ed a\ completed up on the
achievement of a certain result.
ability to .. olye a problem "in general.
i.e. mastery of ,,;ertain methods of
solving a .. peciflc of problems.
signifies ma,>tery of a cerlam A.
Alienalion (in psychology), the
of such life rclatiomhips of a wbJecl
with the surrounding world in
the produus of the subject's acuyny.
tht' himself. as well as other
indi\iduais and social groupS. are
conceived as!oPPoSite!to the subject.
this oppositlOT rangmgfrorn difference
\0 rejection and hOStility. Thj.,c is
in corresponding emotional
experience:., viz. feeling.', of
solitude. rejection, loss of ego.
etc. The notion of A. should not be
confused with the alienation of the
personality in an antagonistic class
society. As a social I)rocess. A. is
characleriseJ by the transformation of
man's activity and also of man's prop
erties and capabilities into. somelhing
y
independent of and dommant over \
the persoll in question. In soc ial
psychology, A. i., to charac teri se
intl'rpl'rwlIlll rl'laliuns in which the
individual i, set off against other
individuals, groups. alld the whole of
to come to expe ru:nce a certain
degree of iloolation. Such conni ct
relalion' within a group are
hy the fad that the values conditioning
joint activities are violated, and also
by 10\' of the feeling of :o.olidar ity.
when an individual in the given group
perceiH:,> the group members
a., Ollien and hostile to himself. rejecting
their norms. law:>. and pre-
Social psychologists in the
West explain .. uch A. primarily by
Uldividually typical trait.', of per:o.onality.
Slgmunu Freud the concept 10
explain the pllthological development
ot a rcrl>ona!ity in culture alien and
to IIU1n\ nalural character.
showing in the neurotic of
tht: feeling of reality. or in the los:
of one .... ;lIdilit!lIlllity (dl'pefw)lwlisa.
Ilfm). In this Freud thought
Ihe. IInCOII.\doIlS i:o. the deci:o.ive factor
III Individual behaviour. which, in his
n'"
17
YICW. leads to antagoni .. m between
that individual and the social environ
menl (see Freudiunism). In child
psychology, the nOlion of A. applied
to the essential factor in the
establishment of the child's self-con-
sc iousncss, in the development of his
reflexive ability. In early age. the
child feels merged with the surround-
ing world, unable to distinguish him
self from his vital activity. In the later
stages of ontogl'nesis. the notion of A.
is associ ated with the child's allitudes
towards himself. adults, equals, norms
of beha\ iour and social demands that
are expressed in rejection. disagree-
ment, lIega/iIism. Basing on joint aCliv-
ily and communication, the individual
develops an ability to look upon him-
sel f through the eyes of other people
and to accept their attitudes.
Altruism, the system of a person's
\'allie orienta/ions whereby mterests
of other persons or a social community
are the central moti\e and criterion
for moral evaluation. The term was
coined by the French philo..opher
Auguste Comte as Ihe opposite notion
of I'/:oislll. Freud saw the
,
TIle mecha-
can be
of diiTerent nature: A. may expressed
in the subject's actions taken in some
concrete dangerous -"itumion (e.g.
savillg a child al the cost of one's own
life) or be a conscious value orienta-
tion determining the s ubject's general
behaviour, in which case it
the subject's of liying. hkahsa-
)(
l'
mill (If A. errolleous (I, lh
The real ,ignifK;JIlCC
of ahruisl;c behaliour is tlelcnn;nl'd
by IIII' nature of \a1ul!'> underlying
Ihe wilh
A. in forg;,,:nc',. 101l!ram:c
of blind sa"riflcc fliT
the sake of Olher persons. induding
those who \ iotat o.: the norms of rom-
munist Illorality. is a negatIVe \'leT,O
n3lily trait. A. may be exhibited as a
expression of
(see Idf.'11Iijicaliml, Col-
kd;I'iSr) in comillunicalion (I) and
a(li\'ily.
Ambition. Ihe prominence of achieve-
ment matil'alion. the aspiralion for
. ..Ilory. awards. and _ in som"';:
sodal sphere. baggefaIed X. is
intensifled by vainglory. i.e. by arrogant
altitudes towards Olhen.. As a desirot
for social rotCognition, A. may objec-
tively playa relath'e!y positive role by
stimulating social acti\ities. Howotver,
being individualistic In nature, A.
acts as a hindrance 10 foslo:ring
colleclivism, 10 combining public and
potrsonal interests.
Ambivalence of Sent iments. coexistence
of several contradicting emotions
toward.., a given objec!. A typical case
of A. of S. is when individual traits
of a complex object impre;.:; a person's
needs and I'aiues differently (thus,
il is possible \0 respect the person's
industry and disapprove of his, her hot
temper), A spednc case of A. of S.
is the antithesis of stable
towards a certain object and situational
enlo/iolls deriving from it (thus,
J IlI!r,,:n1 i.\ hurt if .....l1ll1 pcr;on or
t" wh()ln ho:she aIl3(h ... " ro:<.i-
value ,Ire illatterlliH' to hUll /her).
Amncsill, 10\.\ of memor}, due to \pt'cifl t
IOC31 (II the hruin. twO most
com mOil form, arc ro:trograde A. and
IIll terogrmk A. Rdrogradc A. rders
to inability 10 recaU events antcdaling
Ihe onset of the dborder (trauma, ottc.):
it extenJs backwards to include events
Ihat occurred several hours, days, or,
years prior to Ihc cause
of memory disturbance. Anterograde A.
rders to inability \0 fOflll memories
of event:; subsequent \0 the onset of
the disorder. It may encompass potriods
of \arious length. The most severe
forms of A. wt'rc described by the
Russian neurologbt S .... rgei Korsako\',
and are \-..nown as Korsakov's syndrome.
There are forms of A. relaled to
funct ional memory disturbances: post-
hypnolic A. - Io;,.:; of m .... mory for events
that occurred during a hypnotic Slage;
defensive A. - loss of memory (repres-
sio/l) for unpleasant (traumatic)
experience.
Anal ges ia, or tOlal absence of the
pain sensation. A. may be achieved
by taking an or by fIxing
utll'lI/jlllr on ob'cch unrelated to the
cause 0 pam {music, etc. , as well
'as by
hYPll mis. A. may abo be achieved by
massage (general or puncl ural) and
by application of heat or cold 10 specifIC
points on t he body.
An alogy, si milari ty of certain aspects
of di;.:;imilar objects. Use of A. in
CH/lllili.url..Q.rnyi.lk-r for n,!.&.hh
'1I.ld 1)I'JlIlllon10y.,:A.
Ire<luclltly fell III uientifte <h>;<:ovcries.
1) ... by A. are ba\ed on tile
forrnation and lI,fllu/ilulimr II/ uISI"iu
/iom. II I)(>"\"hlc to make a purpf)'jt'ful
search for A. The la\k of an A.
IS a component of
examination. i
sjmjljH
abstract property
devclopmen l or imrairment
i
Analyser, a neural thai
forn,s the function of
I
by Ihe Soviel I han
A. consists (I) lTan..,-
fornlrng a certain type of energy mto d
neural proct'ss (the pt'ripheral unitt;
(2) afferent paths transmitting impubes
from the receptor into the central
nerv.ous sySlem and efferent paths lrans-
mmmg Ilene impulses away from
Ihe central neo'ous system (espe.:ially
from the cerebral cortex) 10 the lower
levels ',>f A., !nc1uding receptors. and
r.egulallng therr operation; (3) projec-
"?n. fibers of the corte:>.. Each A.
dls!lnguishes an irritant of a c(,rtain
type, providing for ils subsequent sepa
ration. into individual deml'nh.
Visual A. a certain
\lnrt. of. electromagnetic oscillations,
rt possible to differentiate Ihe
colour, shape, and other prop-
erties of .obJccts. AI Ihe lime A
and tcmporal
of elementary stimuli . T y[lCs
, .
of A aro; I' (<lrdll'. 10
Iho: types of vlsIlal. aulJrtorv.
olfactory, ta.-lile. 11I010r, "Il'
Innuellu:d by the envirolll1lenl III the
proct"'\S .)f phy/""rnni" arual)"1efS
developed and diffefenliate" IhrOlr,h
cvnslant lophislilali"n of tht' ("(',lIral
and n.'ceptor syMem>;, Dcvt'lnpmenl
lind differential ion of Ihe <"t'rd"lral
corte.x fnr Ihe de\cll'pnwnt
of hIgher and Dut'
to receptor differentiation, the flr\t
of the of 5t'nsurv
is achincd. when a given A
dlstlllgU1She<> of a deflrlite tyre
fr.om .Ihe ma\:S of In
the light (If current dala on neural
mechanisms... A, may be deftned a" a
totalily (If r.:ceptors and Iht' dr-trc (JI'
connected wilh th.:ln whie'" art'
hierarchi.:aUy ordered: do:le..lors of
more compie:\. propertie"i lire lonsli
luted by dete.:rors oi a more elel1"k'ntary
order. A number of parallt"! .Io:1,or
systerJl.'> buill up fr"nl a cer\.lln
limited amount of re.:eplors, A. 1$ a
component of rell .... , me.:ha.usrn irl_
corporating alSOlhe etTerent mc(hJrllsm
(an aggregate (If
motorneurons, and mOlor Units) and
special neurons--modulato("\ -challg-
rnS Ihe degree of excitalion <,r othl'r
neuronS.
the seraration of
,
pracli.:al and cogniti\e itt lIOilh
en\ironment. On the of rrac-
tteal a.-Ill'lt.\', marl dc\clop-o.'d till'
abrlny 10 perform A. 81 Ihe le\d of
con.'epl.l_ As an e-.,\erllial rha"e of

:w
(01;11111"11, A. i\ inc:>"lricably lin\..t'J \0
Iytllllnj,\, and one uf Ih,'
ItI Ih,' pro.:e,' \\1'
Ihinking.
Anal)tical Psycholog). the 0'-
\-r..ychology rJcH!lop<:d by the Swi"
ps)chologL)' Carl Jung. who glne it
Ihis name 10 difTeretlliale it fn)111
Freudian U\..c Freud.
J ung belien!d Ihal Ihe
a role_ .Ju_ the .re.ulalion
01 behaviour. In addi,ion 10 the indi-
vidual di\'ision of the UII,'OnSCLQU\,
Jung Ihe collective un-
conscious, the (onlenlS of which cannot
be made consc1OUS. The colkcliv('
unconscious forms an autonomous
merllal fund which imprints [i1e
experience inheriled from preceding
generations through Ihe brain structure.
The b;uic mental elements-arche-
types- (representations of what is
fundamental and typical to all humau-
ity) constiluting this area of the mind
are portrayed in the symbols of er('ulil'e
aclil'ily. rima Is. dreams, and complexes.
As a means of revealing hidden mOlil'es,
Jung suggested inducing associations
by stimulus-words Associafion
Experiment): inadequate or delayed
reply to the stimulus-word
the existence of a complex, A.P. sees
the goal of mental development in
individuation-the development of ind i-
vidual penonalilY from the collective
unconscious. Although A.P.
some principles of Freudian psychology
(libido, for example, is
not a,> sexual but as any
psychic energy), in the light of material-
ist methodology this approach to
lIi1lity .\lld lh ,k\l'h\jllll,'ll1 I' "'
I,'" ,I' tllll'l' Ul oth,'r hrauch,', of
ilhl\UlUdl ," 1\ (kn;e,
thc wh\1I1nu' uf the
motil,' force' 1.1 m,II1" hdli\liour (111,1
thc In'i,iH' role or
in bl'ili\,iour rl'gulat ion. A.P.
hi\10ry, til,' .arh, and reli-
giOI1 in ;1 fube ligh t, Heating them
u\ products of \Ol1le eternal collective
human p,ychl'. The of
IYpc, suggeMcd by Jung
the recognised tWO gencral typC,!,:
eXITlllcrt -or iented towards the exter-
nal world, ;lnd introvert- -one whose
mental ellergy turned inward) was
developl"J imkpendelllly of A.P. in
cOllcrele l>-'>ychological of perso-
nalil), hee ExlrOI'('rsiOlI IlIlr(ll'",sioll)
Anancasms. see
Animal Psychology, the 01 the
animal psyche, of the manifestations
and of psychIC rel1ection
at this level. A.P. studies the forma tion
of psychic processes in animals in
onlugl'ne:;i:;, the origius of the psyche
anu ib development in the process
of evolution, the biological requisites
for and the origin of human con-
S,iOIl.II/I'IS, T he thi nk.ers of long ago
paid alienI ion to the abilities of animab.
The birth of :.cientiflt: A. P. at the turn
of the 19th CCIi\lJry is connected with
the names of George BulTon and J ean
Lamar ck lalcr on, Charles Darwin.
In Ru::.sia, the founders of the scientiftC
study of animal behaviour were Karl
Ruli er and V.A. Wagner, who laid
the founJation for a evolu-
tionary trend in A.P. in the 191h and
2\11h ,:.\lturlt'\. Thl\ ITt'nt! wa, furtllt'r
,It-vd'\pl"d Snvid (">y. hul()i\l">.
refute antrnpCl111t1rph;t,;. ideal;,l;.:
:"Iml IIf the
fl'>ychit: .a.livily of aIHl11ah, ha'ing
(In tilt: l.e!lll1i\1 tlu:nry flf
rd/I'(lioll. They ,tudy the animal
p'ydlC ill dialecllull Uluty with Iheir
eXlernal, Ilrinwrily muwr, adi";ly hee
/1II/inc/il'I' 1I1'/WI'wur of Allimuk
Terriloriu/ 1I1'lew'iour of AII/mu"',
lhrough which they e\tabli\h all
necessary w;lh Ihe environment.
and regard
the complication of aClivity as the
primary factor leading to the
flCation, enrichmenl and perfection
of the mOlor activity (Kurdt Fabri) .
Empiric study of Ihe f"iychic activity
of animals, their pcn:eplual processes,
orienlalillg exploratory reactions.
memory. emotions, and other
types of karning (see by
Allimub), inlelle,l, el<:.. carried oul
on che basis of an objective analysis
of the Slructure of animal
and requires an all-round account
of Ihe ecological panicularilie:s of the
specimen, SLllce, as distinct from man,
the psychic aClhity of animals is totally
determined by biological factors. That
is Ihe for the close link. of A.P,
with /'lle%gy and other biological
sciences. The achievements of Soviet
A.P. are parlicularly signifICant In
studies dealing with the psychic regula-
tiOn of the behaviour of supreme
mammals (works by Nikolai VOllonis,
Natalia Ladygina-Kots, el. a1.).
Anthropogenesis. the evolulion of man
(Homo sapiens). 1I\an emerged 111 the
%1
-
early Quaternary, milhtHl )Til"
The Pfll1"::lpal rnr an-
thrnpngene,,' wer,' .h\I;lh:t;nllt f'l','I'
liar til anthropoid apt.""l. \uth a hll/It
level of of b"th prmripal
typt:1 nf mllwr adivit y (/0':""1111/'111
and maniplilufiflll); nHP,imum l1e:"lhll
ity (among animal\) of Ihl' furelln1tw.
particularly flll!!,er. of Ihe foreMIU, and
adaptation of limb<. for perforrning
fairly complex gra..\ping opcr<ltillll\; hi-
nocular predominating (lver
sense of and funOiolling in cml-
junction wilh the movemerm of fore
arms and their ta,l1le and mu'><.:ular
senSlllVlly, thus a beller
knowledge of the proper
ties of the obj:IS of malllpulation:
highly deH'lopeJ forms of group be-
haviour (see Group 8ehul'iour of AIII-
mats) and rommunication (\ee Com
muni.:afion OJ. Animu/). The prj
mata. (man's ancestor;) a\loumed the ful
ly erect attitude in walk.ing. A\ a re-
sult. the forearm w&\ from
the walking function to adapt \0
principal function of manipulation.
That ensured de\elopment of
in$lrumental actions Imtrllmen-
tal A.-lions of Anima/I) and a fur-
ther rise- in the level of mental ac-
The laller ""as the foundation
for the first speciflCall)' human. albeit
primitive. labour operations. charac-
terised by the use of specially prf;':-
pared implements of labour. Joint la-
bour ga\e rise 10 social relationships,
followed by articulate speech and ,'o/!-
S,'iOIlSfll'.IS, which, in turn. had a sub-
sta ncia] reciprocal effect upon the
des(ent of modern man. As a whole,
A. IS character ised not so much

" --
by morphological
(changes in the structure of man's
Jinxl as by profound qual.
,hange:. in behal'iour and
fl)o)'Cht' and of funda-
menlali) nellt allitude<; to [he
ing ..... orld. In nalural history, A. is an
unprecedemed leap forward from
a hiologl<.:al [0 a \ocial form of develop-
mell1 hee Animal P,lydlOloKY).
Anthropomorphism, 311ribuling :;pe-
eifl<.: human characteristics and abil-
ities 10 animah. The anthropomorphic
inlerpre1alinn of animal behaviour in
terms of human motives and al:IS
I rt'IentiaJly reJet:\s differences be-
tween man and animal. and con:;e-
quem])', disreganh [he quali!ie:; pe-
e liar \0 human myche
from labour a,lilli/y, life, and
articulate and the
role of ehe )O(;ial faclor in man's life
and and in
III general. The idea
b.nc:d lin Ihe sociologisalion of animal
and. a rule, on Ihe bio
IUgi'atioli of man's beha\'iour. and Ihe
subslilulinn, of hiological for
SOCial fac 0(\ and reo
gulullin.
Anticipaling Reflection, Sl"C .. '('plOr
II/ Adion Re.\llIl,
Anticipation, the (Ihilily of higher
Ing creature' (men and animah)
to forest ... the results of udil1ll5, Ihe
appot'aranl'e of objects or of phe
noml'na ("anticipatory refle..:tion").
The A ability from the cen
Iral nervou system\ for "mo--
outcome of
of past ex
Anxiety, an emotional state arcseng III
\ituations of i danger and
mallife:;ted I or unfa
vourable events. feur as are
spon'e 10 a threat, A. repre
sents generalised, diffuse or pointless
frighL In man. A. usually associat
ed with expectation of failures in so
dal interaction. and is often caused
by the fact that the source of dan
ger is unknown. Fundionally, A. not
only forewarns the individual of a
danger, but al\o compeb him
10 and ,pecify that danger, and to
actively examine Ihe envir,lIImene so
as 10 _single out Ihe threatening
object. A. ma-y ilself as a feel
Ing of uncertainty of
oneself, lack of slrength in
Ihe face of eXlernal and ('xag'
geration of Iheir !"'Olency and Ihreal.
Behaviourall), A. il..elf in
generally aclivity. As a
mechani\m of fIt'IIr().H'.\ (neurotk anx
iety) formlllg on the of internal
contradiction\ in the development and
of (for e)t
ample, of exaggerated level
of in,ufflcienll),.grounded
moral mOlive.'), etc.). A. may lead 10
inadequate conviulon thai one is
threatened by other people. own
body, the of his own
elc. Empirical dislinguish sil'
u81iollal A., rharaclerisillg the indio
\Iate at a moment. from
A. a penonality trail (worry). which
in a lendency 10 feel
A. about real and imaginary dangef\.
A. may be attenuated by defence nlel'h
anisms, e.g.
rationalisation. {If'ojediml. etc.
Aphasia, systems dISturbance of spe('cil
due 10 damage of a speCifIC area of
Ihe left hembphere of thc hruin (m
right.handers). A. ilself in
Jalion of phonemall(, tl1orphologlC"al,
and spcc.'ch and
inability 10 comprc.'hcnd speech in the
absem;e (If faully innervlllion of
speech (t'nsuring articulate
speech) and while retaining t'lernen
lary forms of hearing. The followlllg
seven types of A. are recognbed, each
resulting from impairment of one of
the fadon; of and allributable
10 a area of the pathologi
cal proces.: (I) \cl1sory A. -disturban-
ce of phoncmatic hearing. i.c. inabilit),
10 \oumh in diffl
culties in undef\tandiug
(::.ec Spee(iI. Uru/) or writ;ug to dic
talion; (2) tlUdiloryamnesic A.dis
turbing of aural verbal memory. show
111& it!>Clf III ;n com
prehending in complicalcd con
ditions \\>eecll. two simultllncous
oral communications, etc.) and also
in dirrlcul1ies in speech (dif
flculties in evoking pa.
ropilosiu.l') and in writing 10 dictation;
(3) visualamnesic A., which t's
sentially dbturballce of visual memory
bee Memory, Sellsory) , it
self in in namil1g objects
and their
of the retclliion of the power to name
actrons; (4) semonlic A.- defective
of ccrtall1 logical and
--
grammatical as
thers brother", "brother s father,
before summer", combincd
with impaired ability to calculate and
defective (5) affer
ent molOry A._impaired abililY to
uller substitution of
due to disturbed differenlialion of
ilar articulatory movemenlS
tilll 10 produce the word. accompanied
with disturbed spontaneous writing and
wriling 10 dictation; (6) efferelu mo
tor A._dislUrbed kinetic organisation
of speech. diffICulties in passing from
011e word (or syllable) to another due
10 of speech stereotypes; (7)
dynamic A.-failure to arrange words
in a proper sequence. manifesting 11-
self in defeclive speech planning and
characterised by dlslUrbed unered
speech and wriling and
difficulties 111 of words
denoting odious.
Appercept ion. the dependence of PI."r
cepliol/ on the antecedent e}"perience,
on the general conlelll of human men
tal u,,/it'in and on man\ per..onal
traits. The 'term was coined b)' the Ger
man philosopher Gottfried Leibnil. _ III
denote dear (conscious) apprehenSion
of a certain content by the IOU/. Ac
cording to Wilhelm Wundt. A. is a
universal principle of c}"planation. an
"inner spiritual force" determining the
coursc of mental proce!>!>cs. In
10 Ihese to A. an in
ner spoluaneous activity of conscious
ness. contemporary scientifK
chology Ireats A. as a of tin
individual's life e)(perience that
him or her to form hypolhe'es 011 the

-------------------------
of what is percei\ed. pro-
\'iJing for ils con\cious apprehen!>ion.
Two of A. are recognised: long-
tenn A., which is a dependence of
pen:eplioll on the stable qualities of
the perwmulily (world olillook. COT/-
\'j,:lic)tl.\, education, etc.) and tem-
porary A. innuenced by situational
(J.I)'chic Slaies (emotions, expeclurifm,\,
ClUi/llde\', etc.).
Apraxia, impairment of vOluntary pur-
po.o;eful mov!'menl and actions. in spite
of the ab,clKc of paral)'s] ...,
or allY other elemelllary mOlOr disor-
der. A. is atlrihulablc 10 mOlOr im-
pairment of a higher order. The form
of A. depend, on Ihe localisation of
the brain Ie.ion. The following ba')ic
Iypes of A. afe recognised: (I) kin-
A. " inability to carry out a
'>t't of movemenl:'; (parlic-
ularly in the absence of a vi!>ual aid)
to impairmenl of kinestheti c (re-
lated to perception of one'S own move-
ment and I{)(;ation) analysis and
\ynlhe\l\: (2) comtrUClional A.- im-
pairment of the 'tIiwal-<.:onlotructional
organi\alion of Ihe motor aCI (ma"l-
mal impairment of ability to carry out
at differenl phYloica]
and in reproducing geometrical pat-
eJ) kinetic (dynamic) A. -: im
paired ability TO carry out a lo.mes
nf purpo\cful motor ach lying al the
ba\i\ of motor powen, mOlor pl'r\('-
w'rul;ofll; (4) "frontal" regulation
A. impaired abililY to accord-
mg 10 a prl,,>et programme, di.,Iur-
bance.' of 'peech regulation of ,pon-
and the
appearance of complex
echolalial>, el'hopraxia:,;: (5) aprac.
loagnosia .. a combination of v .... ual
spalial bee and
motor impairment in the form of a
lopatial (comlruclional) A.: (6) ora)
A.-impairmenl of the kinesthetic ba-
lois of the lopeech apparatUl>, ofTen com-
bined wilh afferent mOlor aphasia.
Art ificia l Inl ell cct, (1) a convention-
al designation of the cyberne!ic sys-
!ems and their logic-mathematic supply
de\igned \0 solve some tasks usually
requiring the appli.:alion of man's in-
telle(tu31 (lhOilip.l; (2) the tOlality of
the functional abilities or the computer
TO solv(' whit-h previously re-
quired man\ obligatory participation.
The term "A.I." \hould be regarded as
a metaphor. The theori ..... of program-
ming, whi.:h \Ometirnl"'\ indude lhe
theory of computers are
fonning the actual <.:onlent of the the-
ory of A.1. At presel1l, of major im-
portan(c IS organi\alion of knowledge
within A.1. organisation of
a tiitlloJ.:lIl' between man and machine,
and creatil.ln of hybrid intellect
l"I)mbining the mental abilities of hu-
man being .. \eparated in lime and
providing for the of information
lind computcr lechnology adOI)led to
each actin' parlit-ipanl in sys-
tem:,;. a field where the
idea .. of A.1. arc apl)lied. In ils lurn,
Ihe knowledge of psychology b u .. ed
in the theory of A.1. deals
wilh lhe problem of The exis!ing or
lacking analogy between man'S psyche
and A.1. Although A.1. rests on model-
ling individual and proJX,rties
of human IhillJ..illl!., the <.:onf1uence of
-
data ohTained renel,;ting the rum:lioning
of the computer and the computer way
of thinking doe.:; nOI make it pO\"ihle
to condude that there a ,imilar
ity between thl' compar.ed ',uucture-,.
The emergence and of
system\ prove\ the histOrical evolution
of human cogniti\e activity. the ap-
of n..:w method .. re(le.:cing
rrality whirh are irKorporared III A.!.
and of Ilrw (If corrdac-
ion brcweerr individual and con
sciou\rH!'i\ anu deler-
minatiol1 of human accivitit!S. Applied
rewardt in psychology in the fldd
of A.!, elaboration of
chological u\ed in cOlnpu.cer
programme wpply and the appllcallon
of A.1. The
il1lo man\ intdlectual actlvny
and tlioloi.:al commUllication
a., a 1:Ia\i, for tIll' for new
of fun her imprming .:01J1plller 'ySh!lI1\
and pooling the aelltive abilitil" of
man and the formalised
carried out by the computer.
Aspiration, lIlI initially mOlivated. '>CII-
sually e\perien<.:ed 1I{'('l1 for or .at -
trllction IOwardlo an object. Dependmg
on the degree of the wbject's aware-
ne&;, A. a dynamic tendency wkes
the form of a (/ril'(' or (/('\ire hct::
Will).
a ba\ic way of acquiring
experience. In Ihe
course of A .. an individual the
of objects and their
utili\alioll technique" and also the
moral foundations of behaviour and
forml> of ("IlI/m/ill/i ....alion (I) with other
25
peol)le. All subJ.tantial of hu-
man heJwl'iO/lr, both motivatIOnal hee
,\.IOlil'(llioll) and operational (\ceO{Jt'r-
a/i,m) , are subje':1 10 A. The basic
substance of the proce,,-s of
learning is in A. of the meanings of
objeCTS of material and irllelleltua.' cul-
ture and thcir UTilisatIon Technique,.
The piVOT of educalioll is A. of the
1lI0rai nOfms of behaviour. The effectIve-
ne:,;s of A. (its qualily, durability
and speed) depends on Ihe comple.,e-
ness of the orielllu/illg oj ucllOn
10 be performed; on the objeclivt::, log-
ical and psychological variety of the
subject-mailer involving the content to
be mastered: and 011 measures 10 coo-
trol the action-forming process. Along
with A. of a new meaning (the forma
Tion of a <.:oncept). actuali\ation of the
above-mentioned elements would lead
to the forming of a full-value al,tion
for applying that meaning. T.he future
resulls of A .. i.e. of new actIOnS, con-
cepts. and forms behaviour.
largdy depend on th .. lr place
the structure of the types of (l,;/f\'lty
meaningful fOf the subject of A.
Association, a relationship between
psychic phenomena whereby th..:, ac
tualisation (perceptioll.
of one phenomenon clluse .. the recur-
rence of another. The concept was
developed in the philosophical doc-
trines of the ancient world. From the
simple statement of the or A.
(the perceplion of some object brmgs
10 mind the illluge of lIS owner), psy-
chology went over 10 t':..plaining. A.
through organic oc<.:urrmg
within the human orgatH\m. ThaI Icnd
eJ Ihe cOIll:epl of A. a Jeterminislic
character (see De-termini,\m): the re-
currence of an objed in the absence
of any uwitl external irritallt was
attribuleJ to the relatiom between or-
ganic flxeJ in the antecedenl
experience, the processes which. accord-
ing to Ari:.lOtle, connect and form
sl8ble combination:. by virtue of their
similarity, contra:.t. or contiguity.
When one member of the combinalion
in the :.oul, it "automatically"
revives other:., inherent in the organ-
ism. The term "association of ideas"
was introduced by John Locke, who
A's with relations formed on
the ba:.is of reasoning. The concept of
A. became fundamental to many JX!iy-
chological systems of the ISth-19th
centurie!> (see Associationism). A con-
ditifml!d ref/ex is the psychophysio-
logical basis of A.
Association (in social psychology), a
Rroup chara..::terc.ed by Ihe absence of
joilll organisation, and lead-
er:.hip, while vailit' orientations me-
diating interpenonal relutions manifest
themselves in the conditions of group
('ommllnication (1). Depending on the
social character of the mediate factors,
following types of A. are recog-
nised: (I) the pro-social A., to which
pmitiYe moral va/lle,\ have been im-
parted by a broad social environment.
and not shaped and fixed in the pro-
Ce\\ .:If labour; when included in joint
activities conditioned by objectives of a
socially character and ap-
propriate organisation and leadership,
type of A. develops by way of
"lAlectjl'e forma/ion; (2) the asocial A.,
-
in which \'alue orientatIons arc of a
negati\c or eYl'n character:
in the selling of antisocial
and leadership, it easily grows into a
corpora/ i (In.
Association Experiment, a projective
test (see Projective) introduced
by Carl J lIlig as a means of revealing
hidden affective COll1pll'Xl'S. A.E. was
fIrst applied to the problems of psy-
chiatry. Later it carne to be used for
research and psychodiagnostic pur-
poses (see Psyc!wdiaRllostics). The test
involves supplying stll11ulus-words to
which the \ubject must react in the
qukkest pos\ible way with the 1H;'xt as-
sociation that comes into his mind. A
delayed reactions, inadequate under-
standing of the stimulusword, its auto-
matic repetition, the general behaviour
of the subject (unmotiyated laughter,
complaints, blushing, etc.) are seen as
indicating the presence of emot ionally
coloured notions which the subject is
reluctant to repeat. The speciflc char-
acter of the complex may be revealed
through interpreting the amwers
content; thIS purpose may be served,
among other things, by preliminary
grouping of the more symptomatic
reactions and of their con-
tent by the use of the "free asso-
ciation" method. A.E. is often em-
ployed as a group test. Any type of
A.E. requires that the nature of the
more general and recurrent responses
to every word on the list is reveakd.
thai is to say, that the test be con-
ducted on an adequately representative
group of subjects speaking the given
language. Apart from word stimuli,
olher .. timuli are employed: nou\ell\e
syllables, 11llkuown word .. ,
and picture:., I:olour ,>ouml\, etc
Associationism, one of the ba .. ic trend ..
in psychological thought, explaining the
dynamics of mental proce,>\Cs through
the principle of Thc pos-
tulates of A. were flr'>t formulated by
Aristotle, who put forth the idea that
images recurring in the absellce of
any external stimulus are produced by
association. III the 17th I:entury, the
idea was e1aborateJ by the mechani -
cal-determinist teaching of psy('he. The
organism was set.!rl as a madline im-
printing the Iraces of stimu-
li. therefore the recurrence of ono:: trace
automatically causes the recurrence
of another. In the 18th century, the
principle of association of ideas ex-
tended 10 the enlire area of the psy-
chic. but was treated dilTerently in
various doctrines. On the one hand,
there were George Berkeky anJ
Hume who interpreted association as
the relation of phenomena in the sub-
jel'(s on the other, there
was David Hartley's system of mate-
rialist association. In the early 19th
century, there appeared theories de-
taching association from ii' orgallic
substratum and interpreting it ill term,>
of the immanent principle of con-
sciousncss (Thomas Brown. James Mill,
John Stuart Mill). A view wok hold
that: (1) psyche (identiflt.!d with in-
trospectiyely understood consciousness)
consists of mental
tions, elementary feelings; (2) elements
are primary while mental combinations
(re presen (ati OilS. though b. i me
27
arc !>I!condary, produced by ass0-
ciation: en the condition for a..wcia-
tion formation is contiguity of tWIl
mental proce,,<;es; (4) the flxatinn of
is conditioned by the mo-
bility of the assembled clements and
by the frequency of a,>-sO\:iation recur-
rence in the cour\e of experience. A.
undergone a fundamental trans-
formation thanks to the
of biology and neurophysiology. Her-
mann Helmholtz applied tho:: new in-
terpretation of association 10 rt:-
search into the Charles
Darwin used it to explain emo/jom;
the Russian physiologist Ivan Sel:he-
nov, in his teaching of of
the braill. Herbert Spencer":. evolu-
tionary approach added to A. the prob-
lem of the mental in phy-
Spencer arrived at an im-
portant conclusion of the adaptive
function of psyche in behaviour. Nu-
merous allempts at research into the
field of asso.::iation formation and ac-
tualisation were made in Ihe 1880s-
1890s (Hermann Ebbinghaus. Georg
Mii11er, and olhers). At the same time.
the narrow character of the mechanis-
ti..:: approal:h to association was de-
monstrated. The determinist
of A. were. in a new interpretation,
absorbed and transformed by Ivan Pay-
lov's theory of conditioned reflexes, and.
albeit on a diffcrerH methodological
fOOling, by American behm'iourbm.
Modern psychology also usso
cjations in order to darify various men-
tal processes, in particular, the problem
of semantic associations and their role
in education (see also As,wldatioll
Experimell/) .
,
-
Msocialion Ps},chology. sec AHO.:iu-

Asthenia. nervous or rm:rllal weaitneS!>
manifesllng itself 111 tiredness (see
Tirec/m'\.\) and quick loss of strength,
low sensuli(>f1 Ihre.\l!old. ",,,[remely UlI-
stable mOO(k and sleep disturbance.
A. may be (;3used by diseru.e a:; well as
by menial or physical strain,
prolonged nega1ive emotional f'XPC'-
fien,{' or ('ollf/h'/.
Atrophy. degcnenl1ioll of organic
tures. In psych%!;)'. Ihe term is used in
the sense of degeneration of some men-
Ial function due 10 lack of e.'H'rcise
or \0 unfavourable or traumatic pres-
sures (prolonged elllotional SlreS$, COII-
jlkt. frlls/ralion. drugs, intoxication,
elc.).
AUenlion. a.:tidty of a subject cOlleen-
Irall at a gi\ien moment on some real
or ideal object (lhing. event. ;maMe.
etc.). A. also characterises
coordination of various links in the
functional structure of an action which
determine!> the of its execu-
lion, e.g. speed and accuracy of
a tU$k solutIOn. The range of problems
mvolved in the !:otudy of A. has been
outlined through differentiation of the
broader. philosophical concepT of ap-
(Gottfried Leibniz, Im-
manuel Kant , Johann Herbart). In
Wilhelm Wundl's works, this term was
relaled 10 processes through which one
becomes distinctly aware of the con-
Tent of the perceived object and it
becomes integrated in Ihe struct ure of
pa\t experience ("creative lOynthesis).
Nikolai Lange. a Ru\.\ian
who dl'\'elopl'd the thenr)' of volilional
A . c('llitrihuted to the
further dC\I:loprncnt of idcas about A.
Like the French
Ribot. he linked A. with regulation of
ideomotor motions bee Ideomotor Act)
achieved in perceiving and conceiving
objects. In contemporary f,\ydl0/0gy.
studies of A. arc performed within
the framework of fJS)'chology.
and al!:oo
chology of la/Jullr. 1Il'lIrOf)syclw/ogy,
medical dl'I'e/O{JIl1elltal
psychology. ami p.5)'cI/Ology.
Three forms of A. are distinguished.
The simplel>l and genetically initial
form is involullIary A., which is passive
in character. since il is impO!.ed on
the subject by events ('xtraneous to
the goals of his activity. Physiologically.
lhis form of A. manifests itself through
orielltalillg reacl;oll. If activity is
achieved within the framework of the
subject's conscious ;IIlell/;olls and re-
quires volitional efforts on his part,
one would speak of voluntary A., dis-
tinguished by an active nature, a com-
plex structure mediated by socially de-
veloped organisation of behOl'iour and
comlllllll ; catiOIl (2), and emerging in
the process of practical activities. So-
called post-voluntary A. may appear in
the course of development of the oper-
ational-technical aspects of activity in
connection with its automaTion and due
to the transi lion of actions intO ope-
ratiolls, and also owing to changed mo-
til'aliol/, e.g. shift of the molive 10
the goal. In lhilO case, the trend of
activity would continue to correspond
to consciously accepted goals; however,
-
its aClLlali,aooll would .w longer re-
quire \pcl.:ial mental elfnrt and would
be re ...tricted in time ,>olelv by fin'd
I/es.\ and exhau.,tion (If body resource.,
(Nikolai Dobrynin) . Selectivity.
span, stabilit y, di.,tribution and pOten-
tial switch-over of A. arc among the
characteristics determined experimen-
tally. SelectivilY of A. is due to the
subject's ability to succes,>fully adju'>t
himself (in case of hindrances) 10 per-
ceiving information relating to some
conscious goal. 'The number of objects
that are distinctly comprehended si-
mullaneously IS taken for the spa n of
A .. which virtually docs not differ from
that of direct memorisillg. or from
that of short-term memory (see Me-
mor)'. Shari-Term). 'This indicator
would largely depend on the orgalllsa-
tion and nature of The memorised ma-
terial. and is usually taken to equal
5-7 objects. 'The span of A. is assessed
by means of pre-
sentation (see TClc"ystos,'ope) of many
objects (lellers. words, figures. flo-
wers, etc.). To determine the subject's
ability to switch over and maintain
stable A .. researchers use in\e.stigation
methodS which allow them to describe
the dynamics of cognitive and ext'cu-
tive aclions in time. for instance, with
changed goals. Distribution of A. is
examined when thl! subject simulta-
neously performs twO or more actions
which cannot be fulfIlled through rap-
id consecutive of A. So-
viet psychology has developed a theory
in which A. is regarded as a function
of the internal control of cor-
respondence of mental actions to pre-
devised programmes (Pyotr Galpcrin).
19
-
UevdopmenT of such cuntrol nnpruvl..'3
the or .. n)' acti\it)". <'pc':lrll"dlly
it., regularity (-.ee Stt'pwis('" f'Of/IIII1/t
of ;\fenluI A.-tillll\. II/), .. ml
allows to O\'ercome cerwin \hortcnm
ing .. of A .. di\truclimL for
Soviet ncurop<;ychnlogi.,ts .. re dning
re\earch illto the brain
of A. (Yelena Kholmk .. .,.a).
AnilUde. a subjecl''> or pre-
disposition in anticipation of a defl1l;te
obje
c1
-(or 'situallon): -a \latc Ihat
ensures l11e- stahre and purpo<;eful cha-
racter of subsequent (1("lil'il)" in rela-
tion to that object. The notion "A,"'
was initially introduced into f!xperi
mel/lu/ psycholoJO' by German p\}'cho-
10 designate factor con-
ditioned by palOt experience (like readi-
ness to act in a given way). a fac-
tor determining the speed of reaction
I
\'
to a perceived situation and certain
ilIllsions of (Georg \liil-
ler). and also 10 describe an un-
conscious STate of readiness ..... hen a task -.....;
is set. a state Ihat conditions the Trend f"..
of \'arious menta! proce""C!> (Narzis
Ach). Later. The notion of A. intro-
duced into social and socio-
logy to designate subjecti"o'e indivi-
dual orientations of both group (or
society) member:. to different
that prescribe specifiC socially-accept,'d
ways of behaviour (William 'Thomas
and Florian Znaniecki). The basic
shortcoming of various interpretations
of A. is that they actually limi t the area \..
of social regulation of human beha
v
- t
iour by certain abSTract conditions. As
an explanatory principle in studying
mental phenomena. A. mosl ext en-
x

10
si\'ely by Dmitri U2.nadze and
his \..:h(\oJ (sec Set, Theory of). In
eral A. is u.')ed to study
purposerul animal beha\iour: rn;ycho-
physiologi..:al mechanil>nls of body
adaptation to anticipated silualions; se-
le..:livily and orienTaTion of mental pro-
cesses: mechanisms of uncol1sciou:> re-
gulation of individual 3l'tivilY; and for-
ming of individual daractcr. In so-
cial p.\ydlOlogy, A. is used to study the
of 3n indi\'idual as a group
member 10 various social objects: sel/-
regula/ion mechanisms: stability and
coordination of social beha\'iour; and
the process of socialisulioll and varia-
lion of A., say. under the inl1uence of
propaganda (sec Psychology of Pro-
fJU;:ullda) , and aho to forecast pos-
Sible of individual behaviour in
"peei"c The futluion, elfecl!>
and of A. are revealed in study-
mg It!> role III aelivity regulation.
The ba .. ic functions of A. in aClivity
are as (a) A. determines Ihe
stable, and na-
of activity, and aels a!> its
bllisation allowing to pre-
'>t'rve . II!> orientation in continually
changmg silUations; (b) A. frees the
\ubJect from thl! need to lake deci-
SIOlh and voluntarily control his aetiv-
lIy 111. standard, previously encoun-
tered \lIuations; (c) A. may abo aet as
a that inert activity and
makes II difficult for dn individual to
to new The effects
01 A. are only dirl!ctly revealed when
Ihe condlllom of activity change. Hence,
th!! adlvny "lI1terrupting" lechnique
IS commonly to \tudy the phenom-
!!n(," of A.. For in'.tance, the subject
asked to compare two differl'nt "crit_
ical" after rl!peluedly being
shown twO dlffNent "attitudinal" ob-
jects (Uznadze\ fixation method).
The content of A. would dl!pend on the
place of the objective factor inducing
that A. within the stnll.: ture of activity.
Depending on the objective factor of
activity (motive, goal, conditi on) A.
is directed at , psychologists distinguish
threl! hierarchic levels of activity regu-
lation, namely, meaning-related, goal-
related, and operational A's. Meaning-
related A's express an individual's at-
titude, manifest in his activity, to the
objects that have acquired . aper,wllu/-
ised meaf}.illg. In their origin, meaning-
related A's are derivative from social
A's. Meaning-related A's contain the
informational component (individual's
world oUllook and Ihe image of the
Object to which he aspires), the com-
ponent of affective assessment <anti-
pathies and sympathies towards mean-
ingful and the behavioural
component to act in rela-
tion 10 an object that a perso-
nalised meaning for the individual in
question). By means of meaning-relat-
ed A's, the individual joins the system
norms and values of a given so-
Cial medium (instrumental function):
they in
tense snuatlons (fuilctlon of self-de-
fence) and promote individual self-
(value-expressive function).
also take lhe form of his de-
sire to structure the personalised mea-
ning of knowledge, norms, and values
contained in given A'lj (cognitive func-
Hon). Having appeared in activi-
ty, A\ may manifest when
-
a per.-.on cncountcn
objects ami determinl! hi\ behaViour
in numerous similar Such
meaning-related become gl!neral-
iSl!d A's, and then turn into
ality traits. Unlike goal-related and
operational A's, which change in the
course of training under the influence
of and imtructions, change in
meaning-related A's is alway,> cau ...ed by
change in individual activity per se.
Goal-related A's are determined by the
action's goal, and themselves determine
the stable nature of that action. When
an action is interrupted, goal-related A's
manifest themselves as dynamic ten-
dencies to complete lhe interrupted ac-
tion (see Unaccomplished Action
Effect). Operational A. occurs in solv-
ing a problem by accounting for con-
ditions that characterise the existing si-
tuation and for the probability forecaS1
of those conditions, said forl!cast being
based on past behavioural experience
in similar siluations. These conditions
are seen in stereotyped thinking, con-
formity, and so on. The psychophysiolo-
gical mechanisms that actualise various
operational A's manifest themselves in
the body's overall tone, which expresses
the subject's overall posture and certain
preparation in the sensory and mOlQr
areas prior to initiating various action
techniques.
Anilude Scale, a device used 10 com-
pare individuals by the exten!. strength
and stability of their attitude to a given
phenomenon. In applied sociology and
social psychology, A.S. are used as a
principal tec hnique (If data gathering,
since here they are used to measure
31
-
primarily personality tra"s. A.S. eun
is connel.:ted with a ,election
of judgement!> that the whok
of of the
subject to a given so..:io-rsy..:hlliogil.:dl
phenomenon. Every judgement
timatcd by a group of experts using
a ralillH h'ale to obtain an averagl!
score. ASs would include judgements
that have the highest score; normally,
not more than 25 of 300 judgements
would be included in a ready A.S.
These judgements are told to pl!rsons
whose atlitudes are to be studied and,
depending on which judgemenh
the subjeci chooses, he is given a sum-
mated score which is his position on
the attitude scale.
Atlitude, Social. see Attiwdl'.
Attraction, a feeling arising in imef
personal perception, rendering one
person pleasant in Ihe eyes of the other.
The formation of A. in the slIhject is
a result of the latter's specifiC emotional
attitude, whose evaluation produces an
array of emotions (ranging from hO'>lil-
ity to sympathy and even 100'e) and
manifest itself in a special social ut-
till/de towards the other person. ExpE'-
rimental research is conducted into the
mechanisms of affection and friendly
feeling formation (see Frielld!ihip; LOt'e)
in person perception:
tive emotional attifudes, III particular,
the pan played by si milarity of the
subject'S and object's characteristics
and by the situation in which they ftnd
themselves (e.g. the degree to which at-
lraction formation between the partners
in commllnication (I) is influenced by
the ties between them, of
their meetlllg ... distan..:e betwt'l'n them.
etc.. a)' well as the resultant ..:on-
ditiOlls of nlleracllon: "helping be-
ha\;t.lur". 10/111 etc.).
The e'planation of the phenomenon of
A. in terms of (holding
that A. in conditions of "ro;::in-
for(cmcnt') and p\ydlOlo1!Y
the part played by so-
..:ial, and functional condi-
lions of ih developmel1t.
Attribution, Causal. interpretation by
the .Iubjed of the illlerflersonu/ percep-
lion of and mol;I'(O\ 01 other
per\on .. ' h('/wl';flllr. The of A., e.
proceeds from the following postulates:
(\) when cognising each Olh('r, people
go farther than acquiring externally
perceived information and strile to es-
tablish thlO'(au .. of Ihe .. ubjl!,l.:t\ behav-
Iour and 10 draw c ondusioll'> on per-
sonality charaderi .. tic,>: (2) inasmuch
a\ information on a per\oll acquired b,
OhWfI'<Jlifl/l is lIlore often than not
rnSllffu:ient to draw reliable conclu-
$IOns., the for possible
heha\i\lur cauSl.:s and per .. onality cha-
ra.:teri,tiv'l and allrilmte .. thel11 to the
observed SlIhJCl't; (3) thl .. cau ..al inter-
pfl:tatinn exert., a .. ut'l'>talltial influence
on the nh,ervcr\ behaviour. The study
nf A .. C .. which originally penained
purely tn .1O ..:iul (/'oydlOlog v. has current-
ly extendt'{1 to other of psy-
(hnlngilal , .. iell(t:: g{'m'rul
' ....d<Jgf " (1\ ydwl f II! Y , de I'df 1(1111('111ul
of \flOrl. Fritz
IlclJer lai.j the foundation., for the
Study \If and deflllcd 11\ funda-
[1(,ltal catet"ril'\ and ' The
C lid area, )i !.tudy are ill1er!X'r\onal
per..:cption, st'lf-pt'n:eption. and per-
ception of a broad class of other social
objects. The more c<;.<;enlial results of
experimt'ntal re.,earch 111 thi ... fIeld boil
down to defining: (I) ,ystt'l11alic di -
stinctions ill a person'<; ell.planatiolls of
his own behaviour and that of other
people; (2) deviation'> of the process
of A.,e. from the norms of logic under
the influence of l;ubJcctive (mOl ivai ion-
al and informational) factors; (3) a
stimulating elTect excrted on a pcr-
mOl;I'alioll and aelil'i/}, by the ex-
planation of unfavourable resul\!; through
external l'a"10r<" and of favourable re-
wits, through internal ones. Methodo; of
practical application of A.,e. for the
purpo.,c of controlling (OI1Iolion\ . ul/illl -
de.\. nHltivation<;. and efficiency of hu-
man a(tivity are worked out on the ba-
.,is of defHlcd regularitie.,. The de\'elop-
ment of thio; problem ill Soviet '>Ucial
psychology cond uc led on the ba .. is of
the methodologi cal principle of work-
mediated proce .. s of A.,e. (Galina And-
reyeva). A.,C. i., a1<;o approached ..... a
phenomenon of group member .. ' adop-
tion of pcr<,onal for
and failures in the course of
joinl uclll'ilit'.\. It been <,hown that
for groups of a higher development !ev-
e) (collectives) this phenomenon il;
ade4uate 10 all actual contribution by
colle":li\'\. member .. 10 the of
group activity. (Sec abo Trum/efI'IIce).
a
cal l'haraderislic nf a of manage-
ment (/eudrnhip). ill con-
(CTllratlon of complete powcr over
in Ihc hand.\ of one persoll,
in removal 01' other .. frOIll decision-
making on all major aspects of joint
activities. in suppres:;ion of their ini-
tiative, and in pressures exerled upon
them by predominantly coercive mea-
sures (see Leadership; Style 0/
Leadership) ,
AUlhority, (I) command over olhers
wielded by a grOllp or 3n individual,
based on recognition of their efflcien-
cy, knowledge, moral virtues, etc.; (2)
recognition of an individual's right 10
make decisions in situatiolll; significant
for individuals or the group. 111 the form-
er case, A, is sometimes identifIed
with the notion of power. The second
definition does not necessarily refer
10 power, for A. may be vested in a per-
son who, though no legal pow-
er, has a high degree of rderential-
ity in the eyes of others.
AUiogenic Training, a psychotherapeu-
tic method of treatmelll consisti ng in
teachillg patients to achieve muscular
relaxalion aTld sdf-,wggeslioll, con
centrate alieni ion, develop imagination,
be able to control involuntary mental
processes for the purpose of raising
Ihe efficiency of the subject's activity.
Two stages of A.T. are distinguished:
(I) training in relaxation, self -indu-
ced sensations of weight, heat, and
cold, showing that the patient is capable
of regulating vegelative funct ions; (2)
achievement of hypnotic states of va-
rious levels (Johann Schultz). A.T. is
employed in Ihe fIelds of medicine,
education, production, and
educaliOIl.
AUlohypnosis (self -hypnosis), hypl/o_Iis
caused by in COlltradis-
\0915
-
tinction to heterohypnosis induced by
another person. Purposeful sclf-indu-
cement of a hypnolic state is achieved
through certain methods ,ee HyplIOli-
so.tioll). Propensity for A. depend., on
the physical and emotional state,
personal characteristics, ability for
self-regulation of physiological and
mental functions. Currently A. is em-
ployed as a method of all/ogenic train-
IIIg.
Automatism (in psychology), perfor-
mancc of actio/l in which
is not directly involved. We distinguish
between "primary" A. and "secondary"
A. The first category includes innat e
reflex actions, Ihe second-those A's
which develop in the course of individ-
ual life. The latter is the type of A.
whereby a uniform rigid relation de-
velops between certain aspects of the
given situation and a series of ':011-
sistelll operations which have previous-
ly required conscious orientation. Con-
sequently, there is no tonger a need to
orient oneself in the silUation and in the
actual execulioll of certain operations
(by virtue of their standard nalOre).
The rise of a significant situation (or
the presence of a significant aspect of
the situation) immediately launche<, the
entire series of operations. If, in the case
of "secondary" A., a need arises to
return to conscious orientating (due to
mistakes in or barriers 10 A.), "deau-
tomalisation" may occur. Normally,
automatism is a component of .:l con-
regulaled action: isolated A.
signiflcs pathology. Motor. speech, and
intellectual A's are recognised. are
studied both by 1!elll'ral ps)\'lw/()gy
.I'
-
(skill development) and in applied psy-
chology (see Medical Psychology: 11-
gineerinR Ps)' ..
Aviation Psychology, the branch of psy-
chology that deals with psychological
characterbtks peculiar to various areas
of aviation and their dependence on a
number of factors: aviation technolo-
gies. personality traits, flight missions,
night conditions, training methods. A.P.
is concerned with the study of psy-
chological principles regulating various
types of activities involved in aviation
and their application in the training
and education of air pilots. Research
in this fIeld is oriented !awards im-
provements in the organisation of flight::;,
routine of air pilots' work and leisure,
practice of flight expert analysis. The
rise of A.P. in the USSR laid the ba-
sis for the development of space psy-
chology. playing a major part in the
exploration of outer space.
Barrier, Semantic, an
incongruity of mean-
ings in the demands,
requests, orders, etc.,
as understood by
partners in communi-
cution (I), resulting in hindrance to
their muwal understanding and inter-
action. For instance, B.,S. in adult-
child relationShips arises because a
child, though finding the adultss de-
mands ju<,tifled, would not accept them
because they are alien to his experience
. . '
Views, atlltudes, and system of per,<;on-
meaning,'.
Barricr.!>, PsychologiCltl, mental .. tate ..
manife .. ted in the .. ubJect\ illadcqlHllc
pas..<;;\ ity which pn.!vl'nh hlln from per-
forming certain action ... The emotional
mechanism of B.,P. con .. i.,t<; in illt clI..,i-
fied negative emotional c:-"p(ricnce., Dud
attitudes- shame, fecling of guitt,
fear, anxiety, and low self-appraisal,
ctc. -atl associated with a given task
(e.g. stage fright). In an individual'S
social behaviour. B.,P. arc represent-
ed by communicative barrier Ibar-
riers in commullication (I) I , which
arc manifested in the absence of
empathy. regidity of interpersonal so-
cial allitudes, and also in semantic
barriers (see Barrier, Semantic).
Behaviour, interaction with the am-
bient environment, inherent in living
creatures and mediated by their exter-
nal (molor) and inner (psychic) ac-
tiveness. The term " B." is applicable
both to individual species and their ag-
gregations (8. of a biological species
and B. of a social group). Initial at-
temps to scientifically comprehend B.
were based on mechanis ti c determin-
ism. whose categories interpreted B.
as analogous to interaction of phys-
ical bodies. The evolutionary teach-
ing m biology (Charles Darwin) al-
lowed to explain Ihe purposeful
nawre of B. of living creature!>
by intensely developing objective meth-
ods of B. examination in unity with its
external and internal manifestations.
The teaching on the higher nervouS ac-
tivity of animals (the Russian physi-
ologist Ivan Pavlov considered it to be
synonymous to S.) developed on the ba-
sis of biological determinism. Belwl'-
-
iOllri_v" contra<,t('d B. tn
g" n:dw.:t'd 10 a set of motor
respon .. c .. tn extental .\timuli, to be
only subje..: t of p .. y..:hology.
quently, the proponellts of behav,
iourism introdm,:ed amendment .. into
this "heme (sec
In Soviet p .. y..:hoJogy, human B. i ..
interpreted actil'ily with nalUral
premises, but ba .. icalJy conditioned
socially by (anl;lIal;e and other
symbol and semantic systems, labour bc-
ing the typical form of that activity,
and communication (I) its attribute.
The peculiarity of personal B. would de-
pend on the nature of the individual's
relationships with groups of which he
is member, and on group norms, va-
lue orientations, and role prescriptions.
Inadequate 8. (manifesting itself,
among other things, in overestimation
by the individual of his potentials,
splitting of I'erbal and real plans,
and weakened criticalability in con-
trolling the implementation of the
B. programme) negatively affects in-
lerpersollal relaliolls. B. is studied not
only by psychology. but also by other
biological and social sciences, and in
some aspects hy cybernetics as well.
Behaviour, a specifIC form
of human action characterised by dis-
play of superiority in or use of st rength
towards another person or group of
persons to whom tlte subject in ques-
tion seeks to do damage. B .. A. may
vary in intensity and form. ranging
from di splay of hostility to offensive
language ("verbal Dggression") and
use of brute physical force ("physical
aggression"). In socio-psychological
-
terms. summation of mdiyidual B . A .
i.e. tran.,formatitln of
agl!res.lOn InlO IIItcrgroup aggre5.'>lon
within the framework of ..ullt!'J
muu phenomenu. i') es.,cntially
nificant. We!>t European and US p.,y-
chologi,st., give Ilumerou<, explanations
of B.,A. For imtann!', p\y..:hoanaly"t\
..ee it as a manife.,tatinrl uf the AediplI.\'
<:omp/ex, the re'Sult uf in-
stinctive libidinal (see Libido) drive.,
in early childhood (Sigmund Freud).
Neobeha\'iourism believe'S B . A. to be
caused by IrllstratiOt"f experienced by
the individual in the course of .... 0-
cial learning" (John DolJard, Neal
Miller, Albert Bandura, and Leonard
Berkowitz). /nlera(tionism, asserts
that it is the result of an objective
"connict of interests", "incompatibility
of goals" of indi\'iduals and social
groups (Donald Campbell and \fuzafer
Sherif). Cognitivism it as the
resuh of "dissonances" and "in-
congruencies" in the subject's cognitiye
sphere (Leon Feslinger) (see Cognili-
l'e Balance. Theories 01). There are
also open allempts to e:-..plain B.,A. as
biologically-conditioned and purely in-
stinctive (Konrad Lorenz). Despite the
explanations of B.,A. proposed by West-
ern psychologists. they prove unsatis-
factory because they tend 10 ignore the
distinctions between the social nature of
man and biologically-conditioned ani-
mal behaviour, and to often inlerpret
behaviour motivations in an o\'ertly
idealistic way. To understand the ori-
gin of specifIC B.,A. manifestations.
one must establish the place of B .. A.
within the overall structure of indi\-id-
ual and collecti\'e activity, e.g. to
.\6 _____________________ __ _
show whether an aggres.ive act is either
a'l inadequate defence reaction, or has
an indcrendent purpose and meaning
\0 turn into a specillc individual or col-
le..:ti\e activity (ill cases of so-called
de\'iunt hehal"iollr).
Behaviour, Field, a subject's preva-
lent orientation to situat ;onall y mean-
ingful objects of perceived surround-
ings, in (ontrast to orientation to a
chosen Roof of activity: a set of im-
pulsive responses to environmental stim-
uli. B.,F. is observed in early child-
hood, and also in certain disorders of
self-control in adults.
Behaviourism. an onentation in 20th-
cenlUry US psychology that rejects
consl'ioll$ness as a subject of research
and reduces psyche to various forms of
bchal'iollr understood as a set of body
reactions to environmental stimuli. In
the late 19th and early 20th century
the previously dominant introspective
"psychology of the mind" (see In-
trospel.:ti\'e PsydzofoRY) was found to
be unsound, particularly in solving
problems related to thillking and 1110-
tivutiO/z. The existence of mental pro-
cesses un realised by man and inacces-
sible to introspection was experimen-
tally proved. In studying animal re-
sponses by means of labyrinths, prob-
lem cages, devices for examining dis-
criminating power, (see Methods of
Animal psyclwloJ:Y) , Edward Thorn-
dike established that the problem could
be wived by the trial und error meth-
od, which he interpreted as a
blind .. election of random move-
ments. He also applied this conclu-
sion to man's lenrning and
denied that in thb case
human behaviour dift'ered qualiwtively
from animal behaviour, At the same
time, the Russian Ivan
Pavlov and Vladimir Bekhterev furth-
er developed Ivan Sechenov's ideas
and elaborated experimental methods
for objective examination of animal
and human behaviour. Their works
significantly influenced the Behavi ou r-
ists, but the latter interpreted Ihem in
the spiri t of extreme mechanicism. The
fIrst behaviourist programme, formu-
lated by the US psychologist John Wat-
son, appeared in 191 3. Subsequently,
B. came to involve the "physical mo-
nism" of Albert Weiss, the "anthro-
ponomy" of Walter Hunter, the views
of Karl Lashley, etc. Proceeding from
Ihe facl that consciousness is alleged-
ly inaccessible to objective study, B. re-
jects its role as a regulator of human
activity. B. reduces all psychic phenom-
ena to ch iefl y locomotor responses of
the organism, while identifying think-
ing with speech articulation, emotiolls
with visceral changes, etc. In this case,
the stimulus-response relationship is ta-
ken for a behavioural unit. According
to B., the laws of behaviour fIxate rela-
tions between what is happening at the
"input" (stimulus) and "output"
(locomotor response) of an organism.
In line with the positivist methodology,
B. regards both mental and physiolog-
ical processes in that system as scien-
tillcally non-analysable, since they can-
not be directly observed. B:s principal
method is observation and
tal study of body responses to enVI-
ronmental effects so as to reveal mathe-
--
matically describable correlation,; be
tween the twO variable>;. Behaviouri.,t ...
performed most of their experiments
on animals (chiefly on white rats) to
subsequently apply all e..<;tablished reg-
ularities to human beings, At the same
time, they ignored body ac(ivenes'i and
the role of its psychological organisa-
tion in transforming the environment,
and also man's social nature. Behav-
iourist ideas influenced linguistics, an-
thropology, sociology, and semiotics
and became a source of cybernetics.
Behaviourists made a substantial cont-
ribution to the development of empiri-
cal and mathematical methods for study-
ing behaviour, and to posing a num-
ber of psychological problems, espe-
cially those relating to learning, where-
by the organism acquires new forms
of behaviour. B.'s main contribution to
the development of conceptual system
of psychology (see Categorisation) was
in elaborating the category of action
previously regarded only as an internal
act or process, whereas B. expanded the
sphere of psychology by also including
outward bodily responses in that cat-
egory. Yet, due to methodological
drawbacks in the initial B. postulates,
already in the 1920s it began to break
up into a number of trends combi ning
the mainstream doctrine with elements
of other theories, e.g. Gestalt psychol-
ogy and psychoanalysis and this gave
rise to Tleobehal'iourism. B:s evolution
showed that its initial principles cannot
stimulate progress of scientifIC know-
ledge about behaviour. Even psychol-
ogists educated on Ihese principles are
coming to the conclusion Ihat they are
unsound, and that there is a need to
37
-
include the concept., uf imu1(f', Inner
("mental") aspect of behaviuur, etc"
in the main explanatory I..."onl"erts of
psychology, and to al\o refer to till'
phy.,iological nf behaviour,
At present, only few US
(Burrhu5 Skinner and his school beillg
most consistent and irreconc ilal1le)
continue to defcnd Ihe pO"llIlates of or
thodox 8.
Behaviour Therapy, a method of
psychotherapy based on the prinriples
of (widespread in the
United States). B.T. regards mental
and emotional disorders as
individual adjustment to existing con-
ditions. B.T. is designed to form habiis
that would facilitate conforming human
adjustment to reality. The difference
between normal and abnormal behav-
iour is determined merely by the
degree of individual adjustment. Henl..."c,
any disagreement with social condi-
ti ons and any action against them are
also interpreted as "anomalies" Which,
like neuroses, need to be corrected
therapeutically. In equating psycho-
pathologic phenomena and actions
against the injustices of capitalist
society, B.T. is an ideologically reaction-
ary theory. At present, the notion
"behaviour modillcation" is quite often
substituted for the concept of B.T.
Belief. a realised personal need prompt-
ing the individual to act in accord
with his value or ientation. The need's
content expressed in the form of B.
essentially reflects a defmile under-
standing of nature and society. Forming
a structured system of political,

philosophical. aesthetic.
and other "iews. the totality of S'S,
takes the form "of individual lI'orld
outlook. The presence of stable S's
with elemen!:,: of communist world
outlook is indicative of the individual's
high level of activeness under the social
ist system. the measure of this active-
ness being the organic unity of know-
ledge, B's and practical actiol1s.
Bias. all altitude that prevents adequate
perception of a given communication
or action. As a rule, people either
do not realise that they are biased,
or ,are r.eluctant to do so, and regard
theIr atllludes towards an object of B.
the result of objective and inde-
Jlt!ndent 3S!;e:ssments of certain facts.
B. may result from hru;(y and unfounded
based on personal expe-
rience (see Stereotype, Social), and
also from uncritical assimilation of
standardised judgements that have
been accepted in a given social group
People often use B
f
. <.
JUSIL y unseemly actions.
Biogenetic. Law (in psychology),
extrapolatIon to child's mental develop-
ment of the correlations between
(individual development of
organisms) and phylogenesis (historical
development of organisms) established
by the German naturalists Fritl. Mliller
Ernst Haeckel. This approach
that the ontogenesis
of child s mmd reproduces the b .
sla - f b' . aslC
ges 0 lologlcal evolution and the
stages of human cultural development
(James .Baldwin. Karl Blihler, Stanley
Hall , WIlham Stern et a1.). As a r ]
<he pCO f esu t.
ponents 0 this view maintain
that child's PS).'chological develop_
ment IS predeternllncd. and ignore <]
h
. , Ie
concrete Istortcal nature of <] .
d
. liS
process an Its dependence on the forms
and. ways ii,' which the child com.
mun .. WIth the environmerll (pri-
manly wuh adults), and on the Tlature
and substance of his own aClit'ity (see
Del'e/oplllenta/ Psychology),
B<><?merang Effect, a socio-psycho.
phenomenon manifesting itself
fact that. in receiving and asses-
.lI1formation aimed to change an
social attitudes, judgements
and opllllons, the said individual not
only sticks to his original views. but
also becomes even more convinced in
their correctness. B.E. occurs most
when persons to whom
mformation is addressed show manifest
tow.ardi Its source or towards
Ine person who transmits ir. and also
when are forcibly compelled
to lengtlnly perceive information in
which they are totally disinterested.
Bouguer-Weber Law (sometimes called
Weber's Law), a directly proportional
dependence of differential threshold
(s.ee Sensation Threshold) j,/ on
stImulus intensity I, to which a given
sensory system is adapted (see Adapta-
tion, Sensory): V= k (consl.). The
dependence serves 10 distinguiSh be-
tween univariate sensory irritants,
The coefflcient k, which has been
the Weber factor, differs for
vanous sensory irritants: 0.003 for
sound pitch; 0.02 for visible clarity
0.09 . for sound loudness, etc. I;
estabhshes the level the stimulus should
be increased or del.:rea,ed to in order
to obtain a hardly discernable change
in sensation, Thi, dependence was
established in the 18th century by the
French scientist Pierre Bouguer, and
studied subsequently in detail by the
German physiologist Ernst Weber.
The Fechner Law (see Weher-Fechllcr
Law) developed and to a certain extent
interpreted B.-W.L.
Brain, the central part of the nervous
system of men and animals, the main
orga n of psyche. In vertebrate animals
and man, distinction is made between
the spi nal cord (si tuated in the spinal
canal) and cerebrum (in the cranium).
B. is covered by three membranes-
hard. arachnoid and vascular. The B.
tissue consists of grey (accumulation
of nerve cell s) and white (accumula-
tion primarily of nerve-cell append-
ages) matter. The spinal cord is divid-
ed into four pans: cervical. thoracic.
lumbar and sacral, and also into seg-
ments (al!ogether 31 to 33), The contin-
uation of the spi nal cord in the cra-
nium is a medulla. The cerebrum
consists of a stem and the fore-
brain. The latter is divided into
IWO hemispheres- right and left-by
a central fissure. The main mass
of the -Jlemispheres of the big
(fore) B. is comprised of subcortical
(or basal) nUclei, and also of
cortical white mailer. The hemispheres
of big B. are covered with a layer
of grey maller - the cortex, From the
viewpoint of psychology we cannot
speak of "Iocalisation" of a separate
psychological function in one or
another area of S, Psychological fUllc-

39
Itons repre<.ent functional syslems
operating through joint work of
the en'>Cmble of the B. l.0nes. More-
over, Alexander Luria distinguished
three main blocks in the B. of man:
(I) tonus block of the cortex (energy
block of the brain); the sources of
tonus are both the inflow of informa-
tion from the outside world and
impulses from the internal medium;
(2) the block of the reception, proces-
sing and storage of information
prising the mechanisms situated in the
back parts of the brain cortex, and.
as distinct from the mechanisms of the
first block, possessing modatspecif.1c
characteristics (visual. audio or tactile
information): each ?One of Ihe cortex
included in this block, which is built
on an hierarchical pattern. consists
of three levels: Ihe primary l.ones carry
out the function of dividing (anufysis)
of incoming information: the secondary
zones carry OUI the function of uniting
(sYfithesis) or complex processing of
the information received by the subject;
the tertiary zones serve for combining
the information recei,' ed from indi-
vidual arfalysers: (3) the block of
programming, regulating and control-
ling activity. which includes mechanisms
situated in the front lobes of the big
hemispheres, in which the leading
place is occupied by the forehead parts
of big B. This block is also buill on the
hierarchical principle: the primary
mOlQr areas carry impulses 10 defmite
lIluscle groups; the secondary (pre-
motor) areas prepare the release of
motor impulses and ensure perfor-
mance of complex motor (kinetic)
"melodies" (motor skills); the tertiary
40
pans of the frontal (well-devel-
ored only in man) play a decisive
role ill creating intentions and form-
ing aClion programmes which imple-
ment these intentions, and in activity
control (see also Fllnctional Asymmetry
of the Brain).
Brain Biorhythms, a form of back-
ground or spontaneous electrical acti-
vity of the brain. A biorhythm repre-
sents a regular or rhythmic activity
characterised by prolonged recurrence
of a given wave with insigniflcant
frequency variation. AI a given body
state (mental strain, emOlional stress,
sleep, CIC.) one would record 8.8.
of deflnite frequency and character.
Apart from 8.8. distinguished are
irregular or arhythmic type of brain
activity, which involves waves of diffe-
rent lengths and amplitudes, and
paroxysmal activity in the form of
groups of waves and complexes whose
amplitudes would suddenly rise and
fall.
Brain-Storming, a method of stimulat-
ing creative activeness and productiv-
ity, based on the assumption that
during the usual methods of discussion
and solution of problems the appear-
rance of innovative ideas is obstructed
by control mechanisms of cOf1Scious-
which feller the flow of these
ideas under the pressure of customary,
of decision-making.
An lOhlblllve mfluence is also exerted
by the fear of failure. fear of lOOking
funny, and others. To remove the effect
of these factors a meeting of a group
IS held, where each member states any
thought on the prorosed subject with_
out controlling thl'ir flow. or asses_
sing them as genuine or falsc. senseless
or strange, etc., endeavouring at the
same time to indUl'e others to similar
free associations of ideas. After the
ftrst round of B.S. the gencral mass
of expressed idea.!i is analysed in the
hope that among them there will be
at leaST a few that contain the most
propiTious solutions. The method of
B.S. was widely lIsed in the 1950s
in such counTries as the USA and
France primarily when di scussing the
Technological problems of planning
and forecasTing. The practical use of
the method led TO a sceptical alii-
tude TO ils efficacy, and experimental
psychological testing failed to confirm
iTS superiority in solving creative
problems.
Capability, an action
method mastered by
an individual and
ensured by the lotal-
ity of knowledge
and skills acquired
by the laller. C. is
developed through exercise. making il
possible to perform actions not only
in habitual conditions. but also in
changed environment.
Catalepsy, a sleep-I ike condit ion charac-
terised by a lack of reliponse to extern-
al and internal stimuli, a "waxy
flexibility", in which the limbs
hold any position they are placed in.
C. may occur in hypnotic slep
(see Hypnosis), and also in some

menial diseases, such " .... chiz.ophrc-
Ilia and hysteria.
Categorial Analysis (in psychology).
a method of studying the development
of psychological cognition as an
actil,jfY (Mikhail Yaroshevsky), ele-
ments of which are concrete scientific
categories, which reproduce different
aspects of psychological reality (jma!:e.
actio", motive, etc.). Two levels are
distinguished in psychological cognition;
empirico-theoretical and categorial.
The first level is represented in the
consciousness of scientists who deal
with facts, hypotheses. c.onc.eptions. e:
tc
.
As for the categorial apparatus
which direCTS this Iype of conscious-
ness, its role can be revealed only
through a special C.A. as a specific
variety of historico-theoretical research.
The use of C.A. permitted, specifically,
to understand the object.logical factors
of transforming into an
independent science. distinguished from
philosophy and physiology (this was
determined by the appearance of ilS
own scientiflc-categorial
A C.A. of different scientific sc hools
reveals the dependence of their rise
and fall. apart from other factors.
on the logic of development of
psychological knowledge (e.g. the
appearance of be/Wl'iOllrism was linked
with the introduction into the category
of psychological action of such indi-
cations as objective obser vation in the
system of an orga ni sm's connection
with the environment. and the dis-
integration of this school-with the
interpretation of the category of a
psychological image in the spirit of
41
----
former a form of
of !-ol'iencc, C.A. SC'rvc's
to .. tudy the of i" devtlllp-
ment with the aim of effective organl\8-
tion of ne ..... re,>earch.
Calegorial System of Psychology.
a general. deep-going, and historically
developing cognitive structure which
reflects both the psychic reality a!> a
whole and its speciflc inherenl (;harac-
teristics. C.S. of P. delermines the
construction of concrete and
empiric knowledge. A special catef(orial
analysis is required to bring to light
the components of C.s. of P . the level
of their development and forms of inter-
connection. C.S. of P. is formed under
the impact of social practice. including
the practice of scientific research.
Categorisation. a psychic process of
attributing a single obje't, event,
emotional experience to a certalll
class, which may be represented in
the form of l'erbal and non-verbal
meanings. symbols, sensory and per-
ceptual standards.
behavioural stereotypes, etc. The C.
process is included directly in the
processes of perceptioll. fllillkim:.
imaginatioll. the object of which is
perceived and thought of not as a
single. immediate entity. but as a
representative of some generalised
class, and the peculiarities and charac-
teristic properties of this class of
phenomena being transferred to this
objet !. The content of the notion of C.
in cogllitil'l! psycllology corresponds
to the postulate on the mediation of
menIal processes by socially evolved
sI8ndard:;, or generaiis3lions. (hal bear
in themselves the sum 10lal of social
experience-Ihe postulate adopted in
the framework of Ihe theory of actil'-
it)'. The vehicles of Ihis experience
are primarily the semantic struclures
of a natural language (verbal mean-
ings): symbols. expressi I'e mm'ements.
rituals, and also formulas. schemes.
drawings, elc. may be a form of fixation
of experience. In individual experience.
C. is a form of its classification by way
of developing and changing categories
and standards of social consciousness.
The differential-psychological aspects
of C. characlerise the specifics of the
subject's reflection of the world. Being
a means of cognising the world, cale-
gorial of individual con-
sciousne:;s as such may not be realised
by the subject. C. forms possess a com-
plex hierarchical organisation, whose
structure and functioning are studied by
genet ic and general psychology.
Catharsis, initially: the emotional shock,
a state of inner purification experi-
enced by a viewer of ancient tragedy
as a result of a special feeling of
concern for the fate of the hero, which,
as a rule, concluded in his death.
In psychoanalysis, a special therapeutic
procedure, consisti ng in the release of
tension, "reaction" to an affect, which
\ I had been into the subcon-
"\. scious and is the cause of a neurotic
conflict.
Causal Scheme, a notion used in social
psychology to indicate: (a) the prin-
cLples for analys ing causality in the
"phere of SOcial perception (see Social
P('rceptioll); (b) stable perceptions of
speciflC causal chains. Thb 1I 00ion
became with the develop_
ment of the study of causal attribution
(see Attributioll, Callml). Ac cording
to George KeJJy's social psychology
theory (1972). one of the most wide_
spread in the West, the three basic
principles of C.S. are: (I) the discount -
ing principle- perception of the role
of a given cause in the determination
of events as the lesser in view of the
presence of other causes, which poten-
tially facilitate its appearance; (2) the
augmentation principle- perception of
the role of a given cause in the deter-
mination of events as the greater as a
result of the presence of faclOrs ob-
structing its appearance; (3) the prin-
ciple of allributional errors-a system-
atic deviation of the causal explana-
tion of people's behaviour from the
rules of formal logic. The main trend
in these errors is an overestimation
of the subjective causes of behaviour
and an underestimation of its objective
causes. The general principles of C.S.
are seen as the most general and stable
regularities of the functioning of the
more concrete schemes of causality.
The more particular C.S's, which
represent a stable perception of a
concrete causality of phenomena, are
distinguished by degree of complexi ty,
generalisation and consistency of in-
clusion in the analysis. The main fac-
tors determining the level of C.S. used
in the analysis of causality on the level
of "everyday psychology" is the degree
of complexity of the perceived
objecls and Iheir correspondence to
an individual's expectations.
-------- -
Centration, an elTect revealed by the
German Wolfgang Ki;hler
and Max Wenhcimcr in Ihe study of
visual illu')ions whereby the clemenI')
on which the subject's gaze h fixed
appear more salient than others.
Gestalt psycl!olo1:Y explained this
eiTect, caused by several objective
factors, by the presence of "bad" and
"good" structures in perception. In the
concept of the Swiss psychologist Jean
Piaget, C. is a process involving subjec
live expansion of the "attention focus"
zone and distortion and compression
of the peripheral perceptual fteld:
hence C. causes the object to deform
. .. .
and leads to a "systemallc error JO
operating and manipulating its image.
To overcome Ihat error. the subject
mUSI develop deceflfration skills. Piaget
substantiat ed the qualitative distinction
of C. forms in perception and in intel-
lect, and also singled out other pheno-
mena, e.g. egocentrism. religious and
political stereotypes of public conscious
ness. etc. The C. elTect was revealed in
studies on interpersonal perception by
the US psychologist Solomon Asch.
who established that when one indi-
vidual creates an integral idea about
the personality of another, some of
the latter's perceived qualities come
out as central ones, around which
other characteristics and qualities
would group.
Character, a set of stable personality
traits which are established and mani-
fest themselves in aCliI'ilY and com-
mlillicatioll (I), condition ing belwl'iOllr
typical of the given personality. Know-
ledge of an individual's C. allows to
fore .. ee with ..:,m .. iderable probability
his behaviour and thu':i antic-
ipated actions. C. is conditioned by
the being and "(Kial
expcriem;e, which engender rypir.::al
traits of C. determined by typkal
circumstances In ':iper.::iflC
conditions. C:s illdi\idual uniquelle,,,.
engendered by diver'Oe ami unique
situations involving the wci"l-
isation, education, and nature-depen-
dent development (see
temperament, hixher nervous actll'ity),
shows in unity with its socially typll:al
factors. Among numerous individual
traits, some are main and others second-
arv. The lalter may both match and
contrast with the main traits
to form either integral or contra-
dictory C's. Manifesting itself in activ-
ity. C. forms therein and reveals II'
dependence both on activity such
and on its personalised meantllR for
fhe inividual. on the one hand. and
on the actual, objectively
success of that activity and on the
individual's subjective attitude towards
his own successes and failures (see
Lel'el of Aspirations ), on the other.
C. manifests itself within a system of
man-environment relations: in the
individual's altiTUde to other people
reflected either in sociable or reserved
disposition (see
version). truthfulness or mendaclly,
tacl or rudeness. etc.; to one's work
(responsibility or carelessness. dili-
gence or laziness, etc.): to oneself
(modesty or self-love, or
self-assurance. pride or humIILty):
and to property (generosity or greed.
frugality or wastefulness. accuracy or
I
1\

slovenliness). C. is dependem on
one's ..... orld outlook. convIctions and
moral principles. through which the
mdividual his social essence.
For instance. honeslY, a principled
approach. and humaneness are intrinsi-
c,ally link,ed with communi!>1 convic-
tIOns. whIle hypocrisy. lack of prin-
CIples, and callousncs:; are incompat-
ible with them. And yet, personal
trans thermelvcs not unambiguously
determme Ihe IIIdlvldual's social stance
for cheerfulness w?rry may typif;
people wllh diameTrically opposite
COn\lCllons. Relatively stable individual
[ralls ,do not the possibility
of a nex,lble c. Social education
and IIldlVldual's involvement in
have decisive signifIcance in
formmg, C. (loee Characterology; Ac-
centualwn of Character).
Characterology, (I) in a broad sense
study of (-haraders; (2) a trend
20th.-cenlury German psychology
whll;h human individuality
a unity characterised
) _ pnmac.:y to the environment in
which II and determined be-
haViourally by lllo primordial] ,
p
ro..... ' y mnate
.",(1le\, Ludwig Klages h' f
of C, believed Ihat t'he
0: character _ ,hould rely on observa-
lion. Je\\.:nptlon and systematic inter-
of expressive individual move-
mems, rather than s b .
\tates h - - u Jectlve
e.g. andwriting and
so on Thi, - -" .
d . - ' emplflco-psychological
bihed on Ihe meta h -
thai th " ,_ _ p YSlcal
opponent' ' e 'plrll IS the psyche's
_ ,a conn'pt that goes b k
to FrJe-dri('h Nletl.\I.-he\ vi" "
- w , accord-
.
IIlg to which a cOluradiction bctw
h
. dd ' een
t e III IVI lIal s spontaneous lif
bod' d - . e em-
.Ie III unique integral perso-
nality and Impersonal universal s ..
h d
.. pint
t al estroys hiS umqueness ar .
h - ,em-
erenl 111 C. deals mainly wilh:
(I) establlshmg, the basic Iypes of
character: (2) "I?entifying" the type
of by ItS manifestations in
ever specIfic case so as to allow f
an IIltegra.lly
and Jorecasl of human
111 defirute situations, The
hlst.ory of psychology knows of two
baSIC approaches to the problem of
character. In line with the first
approach, a "static" character is regard- "
ed to comprise an invariable set 1\
(structure) of basic traits irrespctive
of how that characler was found 10
formed and developed. This
view was finalised by the German
psychopathologist Ernst Kretschmer
who '
, exammed character in connection
wllh Slruclure, as man's mental
corresponding 10 his somat-
IC '.
_ constltullon, explaining character
111 the final account by innate. primari-
ly end.ocrine factors. In the psycho-
analYSIS of Sigmund Freud and his
students (Carl Jung, Alfred Adler,
others). the forming of individual
traits and types of character is believed
10 ,result from man's intense work
deSigned ,to conflicting situations.
From tillS Viewpoint. character is the ..;
of human struggle
Implementing man's largelv uncon-
SCIOUS life project. With regard to this
II1terpretation, C. shares the methodo-
logICal vices of Freudianism, Soviet
psychology recognises that character

is above all conditioned by socio-

Jrislqricoil -lictors and by edw:utiorl.
Some Soviet re<;earchers accentuate
the "natural" foundation of character
by linking with it primarily the
dynamic features in human behaviour
(see Temperament). whereas others
note its role in forming general person-
ality "orientation" and its relation to
various spheres of social being.
Chiromancy, a variety of pseudoscien-
tific fortune-telling by the conflgura-
tion of lines. folds and bumps on a
person's palms. C. originated in ancient
times (dating back to Pythagoras,
Galen, Ibn Sina et a1.); il is closely
associated with astrology and other
occult ideas, and is still practiced in
some countries. The underlying prin-
ciple of C" or is Ihat man's
future is predetermined. and hence his
psychology and future life are predes-
tim:d by the constitutional features
imprinted in his palm. Under the
currently increased public interest for
mysticism in capitalist countries. the
book market there is literally piled
with all kinds of fortuntt-telling
manuals, including those dealing
C.
Choleric Person, a person with Oll e
of the four basic types of tempera-
men( "'tl'iaracteriscd by a high level
of psychic activity, vigorous acti ons,
and dashingly forceful. fast, and
impetuous movements. c.P:s lend to
abruptly change their mood, are hot-
tempered, impatient.loubjectlo emotion-
al derangements, and sometimes ag-
gressive (see /Jehal'iOllr. Aggressive).
The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov
assigned c.P's to the highly unbal-
anced type of personality. In Ihe
absence of proper education, insuffi
cient emotional balance may lead to
inability to control one's emotions in
difficult situations,
Climate, Socio_Psychological. the
qualitative of inler{X'fsonul
relations which is manifested as the
sum total of psychological conditions
that facilitate or obstruct productive
joint activities and the
development of the individual in a
group. Key indicators of a favourable
c..S.P. are: trust and highly demanding
altitudes of a group's members towards
each other: benevolent and businesslike
CritiCism; free expreSSIon of one's
opinion in the discussion of questions
that concern fhe whole collective:
no pressure on the pari of the leaders
on their and acknowl-
edgement of the leaders' right to make
important deci.sll.lns concernmg the
group; the members' adequate informa
tion about the collective's goals and
their solution; satisfaction with
tion to the collective; high level of
emotional involvement and mutual
assistance in situalions causing frustra-
tion in any member of the collective;
each member's sense of responsibility
for the stale of aITairs in Ihe group,
Thus, the character of C"S,P. depends
as a whole on the lel'e! of group
development. It has been cstablished
that there existS a positive conm::ction
between the stale of the c..S,P. of a
well-developed collective and the
efficacy of its members' joint activity.
The optimal supen'!.\lon of irs 3cll\'II\'
and C:,S.P. in. any (irH:luding wod,)
l'ollecu ....e knowledge
and ,I)klll of liS leading members.
Special !l1ea.'Jures are used: .<;cientiflCally
selection, training and
periodical alleSlation of leading
personnel; reauiunent of I)tatT of
prir.l1ary collectives bearing in mind
their compatibility: use
of sOCio-psychological methods which
help cultivate effective mutual under-
standing and interaction in the members
of a .c?lIective (I)ee Socio-Psychological
Trullllng: Gume, Business). C.,S.P.
depel.ld.'J on the style of leadership.
In hl.'J 10 optimise C.,S.P.
an .executl ... e should rely on the most
actIve, conscious and respected
members of a collective. The synonyms
of Ihe nOlion c.,S.P. are a moral-
psychological cJimale, psychological
and psychological atmosphere
III a colleclive.
Cluster Analysis, a malhematical
pro.cedure of .a multivariale analysis
wt
lch
makes It. on the basis
IndIces characterising
of objects (for exam Ie
under study), to group
In classel) (clusters) in such
that th b' a way
e 0 Jects comprising one class
wou.ld be more homogeneous approxi-
mat 109 each othe '
. r, as compared to
comprising other classes. The
objects is calculated
whO he aSIS of numerical parameters
IC. may be in
metrles (the most widely used) .
Other. metrics. The method of
IS Widely used in IXy,:holinguistfcs:

Cognitiw Bnl:rnce. TheGrie.\ of. II cia .

of thtllflt ... l'Inhorated in th" I"' S\
, I" ... r lIllc_
wor ... tl the \'ogllitih' orictltuti
W ' 'I ., .. 1 on of
t."rrt III the 1950 .
(.scc. PS.l','!wI08Y) and
to c:\plalll, the l'orrl'latioll of Ihe
logICal nnd Iltt' Illogil'ul in a person's
The main idea of all C.B. T
consists 111 that man\ cogl1itive
lUre Call1101 be unbalanced disl" /
. 'f' ,urrno_
mous; I tillS occurs, there immediately
a tendency to change this
condillon and to re-establish an internal
of tbe cogl1itive system. This
IS repre:;ented in different ways
1/1 dIverse CB. theories. Fritz Heider's
balance theory. based on the
I?ea of balance and the idea of attribu-
!lOn (see Aflribuliofl, Causa!), exam-
Illes the of a person's
eogllltive structure in a silua-
lion of of another person
and .the conslructlon of two types of
to this person and to all
object th.at is common for the two
partners In commuflicafiofl (I). Theo-
Newcomb's theory of communica-
tive aCls propounds the idea thai
development of communication (2) be-
tween partners, in the course of which
1 h . .
e pOSH Ion of one of them changes
thereby re-establishing balance, is a
means of overcoming the discomfort
engendered by lack of correspondence
between a person's altitude towards
another person and his attitude to a
common object. The basic thesis of
Charles Osgood's and Percy Tannen-
baum's congruence theory consists in
that for the achievement of congruence
of ..
cogn.1Ilve structure a perceiving
person simultaneously changes his alli -
IUtIt.' to tIll' pt.'r ...on and hi till:
object of comnlOIl allitutie. Thu\, if
the subjcU's altitudc to the othcr
person is positive, but negative with
respect to rhe objct:t they are a\sl!sslng
and in ca ....e of a po.'Jitive auitude of the
second .... ubjc(i to the object, the flfSt
minimi .... lng the "negativiIY"
of his altitude to thi.., object, also
minimises the "positivity" of his alti-
tude to the second .... ubject. Here the
correspondence (congruence) is re-
established by the !;imulianeous change
of these twO types of relations, and,
in certain cases by changing the alti-
tude's valency. C.B.,T. suffer from a
number of methodological errors,
which are linked with the general
methodological limitations of Ihe
cognitive orientation in social psychol-
ogy. A loose definition of basic terms
("congruence". ';incongruence"), the
limited possibilities of the models of
behaviour interpretation, built on the
absolulisalion of the "need for
correspondence" and excluding the
motivalioll of a search for novelty,
as well as failure to take into considera-
tion the real contradictions of the
social envIronment al) a source of
"cognitive dissonance" substantially
lessen The value of C.B.,T. However,
the rich empirical malerial accumulated
in them can be cOllsidered in the
framework of another philosophical
and methodological approach, which
in fact is being implemented in a
number of investigations by Soviet
psychologists.
Cognitive Complexity. Ihe psycho-
logical characterisation of man's cogni-
4
live sphere. C.L rencels the Jl!'grl'('
of cattgorial tIllftrt'ntiallon of an
Individual's I,.OIl\(;UU\nI'H, whil"h facili-
tate" the \elective .. orting uul uf impre-s
sion<;. of reality. whirh mcdlate hl'i
activity (\ce (;ult'l(or;\ulionl. Cc..... I
determined by the 4uantity (If ba ...cs (ur
da'i.\iflcation, which arc u\ed t111l
scioll.\ly by the in tlifTerenuaTlIIg
the objects of a certain \l'mantir sphere.
A person's C(lnsciouslII .. is not
geneous and in dilTcrellt ... entanllt
spheres may be characteri\ed by a
different C.C. (for instantc. a high
C.c. in the sphere of sport and a low
one in the sphere of
perception). An operational critcriOITI
for determining c.e. may be thc di-
mension (number of independent fact
ors) of subjecl;\'e semuntiL\pr;a.
Cognitive Dissonance, Theory of, a
concept of Western social psychology
advanced by the US Leon
Feslinger (1957) which explains the
influence of man's behaviour on the
system of congitive elements (beliefs.
opinions, values, intention<;., etc.). This V
theory's point of departure is as follows: '"
dissonance is a negative motivating
condition appearing in 8ituations when
the subject is simultaneously in po.<.ses-
_sion _of tw,o psychologically countcr-
posei:l "trllths" (opinions, notions)
. concenling an object. The condition
of dissonance is subjectively experi-
enced as a feeling of discomfort which
the subject endeavours to get rid of
either by changing one of
truths or by introducing a new one.
Later Festinger de.scribed dissonann'
al) the result of insuffrcient
48
---------------------

lion of choice. Seeking 10 enhance

the jw.tifh:ation of a deed, a person
either changes his beha\'iour or changes
I,i, allilude towards Ihe objects wilh
which the deed is or mini-
mises Ihe deed's signiflcam:e for him-
self and others. In the 1 970s, "dissonant
effects" were reconsidered by a number
of investigators in terms of informa-
tion and represented as a particular
case in the functioning of causal
schemes (see Allribulion. CUI/sal).
The main shortcoming of C.O.,T. that
b inherent in the enlire cognitive
orientation i:s the concentration of
research on Ihe subject, his conscious-
ness, and the underestimation of
object-oriented activity in which lhe
subject is engaged and which mediates
hi., relationships with surrounding
reality (see Cognitil'e Psychology).
Cognitive Map, an image of the familiar
spatial environment. CMs are crealed
and modified as a result of a subject's
acti\'e interaction with the world
around him. C.Ms of different degree
of similarity, "scale" and organisation
may be constructed (for instance,
a or a road-map, depending
on the completenes.<. of represemalion
of spatial relations and the presence
of a definite point of departure).
Various methods are employed in the
study of CM's- from simple sketches
to multivariate ,\culing, making it pos-
sible to restore the 'itructure of an
imagt:: using the results of metric or
ordinal evaluation of distances between
on a map. These studies show
a tendency to overestimate familiar
and unfamiliar
-
ones, straigh',,"11 slight Olrv,,"s. and
appro).imatc the lIlh,'r .. eClLons to the
perpendiculnn;. Distortions may also
result if the map poin... belong to
different la).unomic tlllits. Specifically,
the distanc,," between cities in one
country seems than the distance
between cities in difTcrclll countries,
even when they are actually equal.
Cognitive Psychology. a leading orien-
tation in modern WeSTern psychology.
CP. appeared in the late 1950s and
early 1960s as a reaction to the denial
of !be role of internal or,ganbaliotl
in psycholo.aica.l proceyses characteris-
Tic of the hehaviOllrism holding sway
in the USA. Initially, c.P. was designed
primarily to study transformations in
sensory information from the momenT
when a reaches the receptor
surface to the moment of response
(Donald Broadbent, Saul Sternberg).
Researchers proceeded from the simi-
larilY between the processing of
information by man and by computer.
Singled out were numerous Siruciural
composites (blocks) of cogniTive and
executive processes, including short- and
long-term memory (John Alkinson).
This line of research, coming up
against serious difficulties in connec-
tion with growing number of
structural models of particular psychic
processes, led to an understanding
of c.P. as an orientation designed
TO prove The decisive role of knowledge y....
in;l behuviour (Ulric Neisser).
Within this broader approach, c.P.
comprises all trends which criticise
hehaviollrism and frOIll
illlellectualistic and mentalistic posi-
J
-
tion .. (Jean Plagct, Jerome Hrllner).
The organ;,atiol\ of knowledge in the
subject's memory, including the cor
relation of v('rhal and image compo-
nents in the proce-.se' of memorisinK
and thi"l.:illg (Gordon Bower, Roger
Shepard) beJ.:ornes the central question.
Cognitive thcories of (Stanley
SchaJ.:hter). individual difTcrem.:e ..
(Hans Eyscnck) and personality
(George Kelly) arc also being intcll-
sively evolved. As an attempt at over-
coming the crisis of behaviourism,
Gestalt psychology and other CP.
trends failed to justify the hopes
placed on ii, for its representatives
were unable to unite separate lines
of research on a single conceptual
basis. From the positions of Soviet
psychology. an analysis of the formation
and actual functioning of knowledge
as a menial reflection of reality
essentially presupposes a study of the
subject's practical and tlleorelical
actil'ity, including its highest socialised
forms.
Cognitive Style, (I) relatively stable
individual peculiarities of a subjec t"s
cognitive processes, which flOd expres-
sion in their use of cognitive stra tegies;
(2) the sum tOlal of individual cogni-
tive strategies or types of control
established by a choke of specially
selected Other types of C.S ..
such as. cognitive complexity, can
also serve as an indicaTor of indh'idual
differences in cognitive activity. By
stressing exclusively The formal aspects
of individual differences in cognitive
aCTivity. some Western theorie .. ignore
the content of an individual's l1Iolil{'S.


.-.
vullle orif!nlutiflllS, which III fad
engender and determine thi'i or that
C.S. bee CORnitil'e
CoUeclivc, a group mo .. t charaJ.:leri\ljJ.:
of the of socialist ,ocial
relationships. with a high level or
development. where inlerperwmal re/a-
/ion.5 are mediated by a socially
valuable and personally signiflJ.:ant
content of jOifll aclh'ilie.\ (!tee Leve/
of Group Delelopmenl). The elabora-
tion of the socio-psychological problems
of C . based on the works of Marx.
Engels, and Lenin, the work!,. of
Nadezhda Krupskaya. Anton Maka-
renko and Vassili Sukhomlinsky was
begun in the 1960s (Konstantin Plato-
nov, Jevgeny Kuzmin, Lev Umansky,
Yekaterina Shorokhova. and others).
Tile formation of a C. is linked with
the inclusion of its member.. in joint
socially importanl activity, which is
organised and guided in a <;pecial way,
whose goals are subordinated to the
objectives of socialist society, and
who:;e I'alues are the values of the
socialist way of life. C. creates condi-
tions for the all-round development
of persollality, who:;e education is
implemented in C. and through C.
The specific socio-psychological
characteristics of a C. were experi-
mentally investigated on The basis of
The theory of ,,orl.:-II/l'c/iated inler-
persollal These are:
group ,ohesiofl as a l'o.llIe-oriellwtiollal
IInit)', col/ectil'isl self-determination.
collectivist idenTification (see Identi-
ficatioll. Collectil'is/), socially "aluable
characler of the 1110ti\ation of inter-
personal choices (see Interper.wflu!

Motil',,/iarr o/), a high refer
('ntialil.V ('If a C. for ils
in o.:hargins and acceptmg
responsibility for the resuhs of joint
activity (see Attribution. Causal).
These invesTigations show that .the
regularities of interpersonal relattoliS
in small groups (see Group.
discovered bv the woup dynamics
trend and other trends of Western
social psychology are not applicabl.e
to C. The socio.psychological regulan
tie:'> of a C. differ in quality from the
regularities operating in group with a
low level of development. Thus, the
degree of effective emotional group
identification (see Idl'ntifica/ion, Col4
lec/;I'is/l in a diffuse group (see Group.
DifJu.tel is dependent in inverse pro
portion on its size, and in a C. the
salience of this phenomenon does not
decrease with the increase of a C.
In groups with a low level of de\'elop
ment an inver\e dependency has been
discovered between efficiency of a
1:roup and the intensity of positive
emotional tie.\> within it. while in a C.
it is a direct dependency. In incidental
social aggregation the likelihood of
help being rendered to a victim is
minimi""ed wilh an increase in the
number of eyewitne>ses (Bibb Latane),
while in a C. there is no such effect.
The group processes are hierarchicised
in a C. and form a multilevel (stralo-
metric) <;truclure. the core of which
is joint activities. determined by socially
important goals. The nrst level
btr8tum) Qf a C:s structure is formed
bv its ml!mbers' anitudes to the con-

Itnt and valu; of collective activities.
whi<:h. ensure it cohesion as a value-
C'lltity. The \e(ond !lovel
is interper<;Qnal relatioll>; mt'diated by
joint activities \df-deler4
minati('I/\. (ollectlV1st rndenufH:atlon,
etc.). The thi('d level is interpersonal
mediated by I'aiue
Ihal are not linked with joint activ
4
ities. The regularitic.'s operating at the
third level of a C.'s structure do not
manifest themselves on the second,
and vice versa, and hence the assess-
ments pertaining. for example, to facts
experimentally obtained within the
framework of the third level, cannot
be transferred 10 the second level or
\0 a C. as a whole. This drives the
psychologist who is studying a C:s
level of development to parameters
which bring to light its essential, and
not incidental (superfIcial) qualities
(see Collective Formation).
Collective Formation. the process of
turning of into a coflectil'e;
a specific type of group formation.
The key factor in CF. is the group
members' active participation in socially
significant joint actil'ities, on the basis
of which specifIC illterpersonal rela-
tions are formed in the group. C.F.
presupposes group cohesion on the
basis of goals of socially significant
activity accepted by individuals. the
vollies, norms (see Group Norms),
anitudes. etc. linked with it, and also the
formation of l'alue-orh'lItational ullity
and other collectivist relations.
"Collective Representations", a ter.m
suggested by the French sociologist
Emile Durkheim to designate the
components of a system of knowledge,
I
51
---

---------------------
opinion .. and hchavillural f1orm\ origi-
nalcd in \UCial experience. The term
was used by Durkhtllll and his follow-
ers to cxplain the <;ociai origin of
human p\yche, which, however. ac
Quired with them a dual interpretation:
the social in the structure of con
sclousness was counterposcd to the
individual.
Collective. Scientific (in social psychol-
ogy), a cohesive social unit engaged
in joint scientifIC research in accor-
dance with a common programme.
A c.,S. has a complex internal role4
functional structure, which includes
scientiflc. scientifIc-organisational and
scientific-administrative roles. The
indicators of a c.,S. include: existence
of a common research programme:
group cohesion and internal motivation
of the behaviour of its members who
fulfil different in research work:
presence of an authoritative leader.
capable of organising joint activities
to implement a given programme.
Research of the problems of C.S.
in Soviet social psychology is carried
out on the bas is of the pro!{ramme-
role theory o[ a scientific collective
(see also Collective).
Collectivist Self 4delermination, the
.selective attitude of indjl'iduais 10 the
influence of a particular social unit
under which they accept some of it!>
influences and reject others, depending
on Ihe mediating factors: ideals. ac-
tivity goo/s, accepted social l'a/ues.
norms. etc. (see Group Norms).
C.S. is an ahernative 10 both COIl-
forming (see COflformily) , and non-
conforming or negativi.\t hl'hUl'iour
(see NeKatil'iml). In a developed
col/eclive, CS. operalt:s a.'> an indicator
of the formation of a collective (see
Level of Group Development). An
experimental investigation of C.S.
presupposes: (I) searching for persons
who express agreement with the 1l'oup's
opinion; (2) applying 10 them .,lIeged
group pres.:ure, whkh runs counter
10 the group's actual opinion, i.e. does
not correspond to the norms and
values it adheres to. This makes i\
possible to single out conforming indi4
viduals and individuals to whom C.S.
. .
IS IIltrrnSlC.
Common Emotional Experience.
"tuning:" one's own emotional state to
that of another person or social group,
when the subjec!'s individual con-
sciousness reflects the altitude of
another person or social group to the
events happening to him or her. There
are IWO classes of C.E.E.: (I) that
which arises from an involuntary
emotional contagion and overwhelms
the subject in case of direct. generally
accidental contact with people expe-
riencing certain emotions (for instance.
fear or joy that momentarily spreads
among an associated group of people).
Such C.E.E. is sometimes called direct
responsive emOlions (see Empathy);
(2) that which represents III the
subject's individual consciousness a
corresponding level of interpersonal
relatiOfls. medialed by joint actil,jties,
common goals. norms (see Group
and lU/lles of a given social
group (for example, the feeling of joy
about the success of a member of the

52
collective. and the feeling of
sion about his failure). C.E.E. IS based
on emotional identification, in which
the individual pUIS himself "in
person's shoes" in of
activities (see ldenll/i,allOn, Coflcelll'-
C.E.E. is particularly salient in the
individual's humane attitude towards
other people (see Humaneness).
Common Sense, the totality of generally
accepted and frequently unrealised
methods used to explain and appraise
observed phenomena of Ihe outside
and inner world. C.S. summarises the
meaningful fragments of historically
accessible experience needed by every
person in daily life. The notions rele-
vant 10 personal illterac/ions play a
considerable role in C.S., as does
information on nature and social rela-
tions. In the natural language expres-
sing Ihe content of C.S., there are
thousands of WOlds to describe person-
ality traits, mans psychic states,
mOlives, etc. It is natural for modern
psychology to display a legitimate
interest in C.S., its content and
mechanisms, particularly in such flelds
of socio-p!.iychological research
the attribution theory (see Altrihll/iOll,
Cau.\al), Ihe implicit theory of persoll-
ality, the study of social stereotypes,
!!tc. The science of psychology uses
the po!.ilive elements of experience
common to all humanity, and at the
same time critically analyses ordinary,
spontaneous notions about human
personality and behaviour.
Communication (I), a complex proc!!,>s
of establishing and developing COlli acts
between I)("ople by the
need for joint lIctil'i(;e\ and involving
exchange of information, elaboration
of a ,>ingll' sirategy of interaction,
and fu'n'('fJtiOll and 11I1c/erM(IIulillg of
another persoll. Correspondingly. three
aspt!cts of C. are distinguished, namely.
communicative, inleractive, and per-
ceplive. Soviet psychologiSlS proceed
from the principle Ihat C. and activity
form an ins!!parable unity, whereas
Western socio-psychological theories
usually describe some single aspect
of C, and reduce coni acts between
people either 10 exchange of informa-
tion, or 10 interaclion, or to the process
of interpersonal perception (see Per-
ceptioll, Interpersonal), the relationship
of these aspects with joint activities
is virtually ignored. Research into the
communicative of C. involves
revealing the specincs of information
exchange processes between people as
aClive subjects, i.e. taking account
of relalions between the partners.
specifically their atlillldes, goals and
intentions, Ihis leading not merel y
\0 a "flow" of information, but also
to and enhancement of
the knowledge, data. and opinions Ihat
peopk ex-chang!!. Means of the com-
mWIl,alive process are various systems
of primarily speech, and also
the oplico-kinetic system of signs
(gestur!!s, mimicry, pantomimicry),
para- and extralingubtic (into-
nation, non-verbal insertions, e.g.
pauses). a syslem for organising the
space and time of communication and.
(mally, a of "eye conlact".
An impOrliHlt feature of the communi-
cative the intention of its

participant'> to lIltlucllce each others

IJI'llliviour !oo a .. to en'>ure one\ own
ideal reprC'lcntation in another'" mind
(perwnali.\Uli(}fI) , the for
thi'> being not '>imply the use of one
language, but similar understanding
of Ihe communicative\itualion. The
interactive aspect of C. involves elabo-
ratmg a common Interaction strategy.
Several types of interaction between
people, primarily cooperallon and
competi tion. are distinguished. Yel,
Iheir abstract definition in terms
"agreement" or "conflict" results in a
schematic description of this process,
as is Iypical of Western social psycho-
logy. And though certain results have
been achieved along this way of
reasoning, which is exemplifled by
studiesc of predicting partners behav-
ioural strategies where elements of
the mathematical theory of games
were used, the formal nature of the
description of the strategies studied,
and the faci Ihat it involves mainly
analysis of the interaction of dyads.
diminishes external validity of the
obtained data. One feature of Marxist
social psychology is attention to the
content of various types of interaction
due to its interpretation as a deflnite
method of combining individual efforts
in concr ete forms of joint activities.
The perceptual aspect of C. involves
a process wherein an image of another
person is formed; this is achieved by
"deciphering" psychological properties
of a person encoded in his physical
characteristics and his details of
behaviour. The main mechanisms
whereby one gels to know another
person are identificalion (judging by
-
analogy) anti fefll'xir", (under!>13nding
how other people perct!ivt! the subJt!lt
of cognition). In the course of inter-
personal perce pilon and cogllltl{)n,
a number of "'f/ecl.\" ari .. e, namely,
those of primacy-recency (novelIY),
and halo. StereotypillJ,: and causal
attributions (see Allriblltion, Cau_\aO
also play an important role. Knowledge
of these allows one to
reveal the psychological content of tht!
process of mutual understanding
achieved during C. The correlation
of C. with a definite kind of
between people also shows in the
emotional regulation of the perceptive
process, speciflcally in the phenomenon
of auraetiot!. Examination of the
three aspects of C. in unilY is an
important condition for optimising
people's joint activities and relalions.
To elaborate means of correcting and
optimising C, and to develop com-
municative abililies and skills, which
are of particular importance for those
who are professionally involved in the
process of c., e.g. executives. teachers,
physicians, etc., are important tasks
of social psychology. Among various
forms of teaching the art of C., socio-
psychological training, i.e. the master-
ing of various forms of C. with the
aid of special courses (programmes),
plays a significant role.
Communication (2), the semantic
aspect of social interaction. Inasmuch
as any individual aClioll takes place
in direct or indirect relations with
other people. it includes (along with
the physical) a communicative aspect.
Ar1ions deliberately designed for their

54
semantic perception by other people
are sometimes called communicative
actions. Singled out are a C. process
and the acts comprising il. The main
functions kf the C. process consist in
achieving social unity while preserving
the individuality of each of its elemeniS.
Realised in separate C. acts are
regulatory, informative. emotive and
phatic (associated with the establish
ment of contaCIS) functions, the fIrst
being genetically and structurally
the initial one. In the correlation
of these functions nominally distin-
guished are messages: inducing (belie/.
suggestion, order, request); informative
(transfer of real or fictitious informa-
tion); expressive (inducement of
emotional experience); phatic (estab-
lishment and mailllenance of contact).
Moreover, communicative processes
and acts may also be qualified on the
basis of other factors. Thus, according
to the type of relations between parli.
cipanlS distinguished are: inlerpersonal,
public, and mass C.; according to C.
means: language (wriHen and oral),
paralinguistic (gesture, mimicry,
melody), objectified C. (products of
industry, fine art, etc.). Study of C.
reveals the role of communicative
barriers-psychological obstacles on
the way of spreading and receiving
information that arise for various
reasons (bias, social, political, moral,
professional and other differences
between the source of information and
its recipient, etc.).
Communk.ation (2), Animal, the trans
mission of information from one animal
to another ("animal language"). C.,A.
(as distinct from human) is a closed
innate system of signals (sounds,
expressive postures, body movements,
smells), emilled by one animal and
adequately interpreted by another.
By its origin and action mechanism
(z.oopragmatics) methods of C., A. are
distinguished according to channels
of information transmission (optical,
chemical, acoustic, tactile, and ahers)
and degree of rituaiisation. The ritu
alised behavioural
genetically fIxed signals typical of a
species that are executed with exagger
aled demonstrativeness (sometimes
in the form of a "dialogue"), in a
defmite sequence in the form of
"rituals" ("ceremonies") with a clear
cut informative content. The informa
live content of commun icative actions
(z.oosemanlics) may be related to Ihe
sphere of identifIcation (identification
of an animal's belonging to a definite
species, community, sex, identification
of an individual among one's kin, etc.),
beha\ ioural motivation (information
on the physiological condition of an
animal, for instance, hunger, sexual
excitation, etc.), relations with the
environment (warning of danger or
signalling the fmding of food, a place
for rest, etc.).
Comparative Psychology, a branch
of psychology Ihat studies problems
relating to anthropogenesis, the devel
opment of man's consciollsne.u and the
study of the general and specific ele
ments of human and animal psycho
logical activity (problem of the social
and the biological in human behaviour).
Materialist c.P. developed against

the ba(;kground of both again')l

ideaJi<;t view') '')ubjectivl\m, p\YI.:lw
paralleliHlI} and vul!-iJrn1iJIC4
riali.\t allcmpts to biologi'oe hUman
behaviour from the of
commonplace evolutionism. c.P. anal
yse:; data of ullimal psycJW/(JHY (parti.
cularly studies of monkeys) and human
psychology 10 reveal :,imil<lr psy(;ho
logical elements and common bio
logical facts conditioning animal and
hUman behaviour, their common
origin and qualities inherited by man
from his animal ance'itors. c.P. also
studies the fundamental qualitative
distinctions of man's and
psyche, which developed under the
influence of sociohistorical factont.
In this cOlmection, it particular
atlemion to premises that gave rise
to work activity, human society and
articulate speech. The results of C.P.
are important for solving problems
of psychology, philosophy, allthropol
ogy, and olher branches of knowledge.
A comparativeontogenetic study of
psyche is essential for learning the
regularities of child's mental develop
ment. The results of c.P. are also
used in medicine (neuropathology.
psychiatry, and simulation of patho-
logical conditions on animals).
Comparison. a logical operation in
filiI/king. Tasks to compare objects,
images or notions are widely used
in the psychological studies of the
development and impairment of think
ing. These studies analyse the mecha
nisms of comparison used. Ihe process
of transition from one frame of refer
ellce to another.
- --------
Compensation of MentaJ FunctiOl'l5o
a ....ompemiJtion of underdcvelopt'd or
impaired ps:ychi<.: functions by the
UM! of functiOns or thl! rl!cOllslruc
rion of partially impaired ones. C. of
\t.F. makt:,., it po5siblc to involve in its
rl!albation new nervI! structures, which
previolli>ly had not panicipatl:d 10
accomplishing the functions.
The.e structures are united functionally
on the ba')is of fulfilling a common
task. According 10 Pyolr Anokhin's
concept, the decisive momenr in the
creation of a new functional system
with C. of M.F. is the I:valualion of
the remits of an organi.\m's (animal's
or man's) attempts to remove a defect.
which is accomplished thanks tu
"reverse afferentation". There exist tWO
type!> of C. of M.F.: intrasystemic,
which is accomplished by involving
the safe nerve ell!ments of affected
structures, and intersystemic, which
is a.s:;ociated with the reconstruction
of the functional system and the linking
up of new nerve elements from other
nerve structures. Both types of C. of
M.F. are observed in man. They are
very important in cases of overcoming
innate or early defects of development.
Thus C. of M.F. of the visual analyser
in a child that is born blind occurs
primarily through the development
of Ihe sense of louch (i.e. due to the
complex activity of the motor and
dermo.kinesthetic analysers). which
requires a special training.
Complex. a combination of separate
psychic processes into a whole fhat
differs from a sum of irs elements
(see Systems Prillciple). In this sense
s. -
-
the Icnll "c." heen u<.;cd by many
(see
Theon). A .,pedf\(.: inlt.'rpretallo
n
of C.
is gin'n ill p.ndwullul,\'\;S: where C.
is .. cell a\ a gr{lup of p\ychlC processes
united by a single uffed, formed o,n
the b3"t\ of deeply-rooled phylogenetic
slrucHlrC!:i bee In
p\ychoanalysis, C. is all unconsCiOUS
formation, determining the structure
and direction of L'(m\l'iowi/lI'Ss: Olle of
the tusks of fJ.\vcllOlllerapy is seen ;n
bringing C. \0 the consciousness of
the palit!lu bee Iliferiority Complex:
conaete hi.')toril..'ul conditions of man's
.')ocial life, when the strucwre of social
relationships which are reali.')ed 10
joi/ll adi\i/it'.\ with other people and
in (1) pa ....') into the
inll'rnal structure of the personality.
C.A. to M. as to an integral formation,
represented in the unity of his natural
and social conditions. makes it poS.')ible
\0 sllldy his psychology in two direc-
tions: subordinational. or hierarchical,
according to which the more complex
and general special fealUres of a
personality subordinate [0 themselves
the more elementary and particular
social and psychophysiological features;
coordinational. according to which the
interaction of diverse psychological
features and functiolls allows their
relative autonomy. C.A. to M. has
shown the complex but stable inter-
relatioll of the characteristics of man
as an individual and a personality,
re\ealed the regularity of the stages
of their appearance and development ,
determined the age and sex differences
in their functioning, and established
an interconnection between sensory,
intellectual. mnemonic and other
functions and their dependence on
man's indhiduallife. CA. to M. was de-
veloped further in the works of Boris
pupils and followers.
OcciiplI.' COI1If'/(':d.
Complex Approach 10 Man. a systematic
study of the integral individual-psycho-
l('1gical formation of ma" at all stages
of his life. According \0 CA. to
prindplc\ formulated by Ananye\,
the indi\idual de\'elopment of man
take'l place on three plane:;: ontopsycho-
logical evolution of
of man
an illdi\'idllllfl: formation of the
and of develop-
ment a'l a of labour (characteri-
sation of man a'l a of activity);
biography (characterisation of
man a perwlrlulity). Consolidation
of the characteri.')tics of an individual,
per'lonality and wbJect of aClLvilY
produce'l the psychological
of man, hi!) individuality. In thi<:.
connection man's development b
examined primarily from the \iewpoint
of hi.') formation a.') an indi\'idual whole.
a.') the end re.')ult of .')uch interaction
of "natural" and "cull ural" influenCe!),
nntogene.\is and biography who:.e
nature ;'1 determined above all by the
Comprehension, ability 10 grasp the
mealling of something, and the result
achieved thereby. e. is !)Iudied by a
wide range of viz.., psychol-
ogy, philo.')ophy, history, sociology.
history of literature (literary criticism),
CIC. Hermeneutic!-' (the art and theory
of text interpretation) IS the special
,.
science on C. One should not identify
C. with knowledge, i.e. with a person's
ability to master and reproduce the
su m of certain evidence who.')e cor-
rectness he does not doubt, silH:e there
can be knowledge without C. and C.
without knowledge (insight). C. IS
characterised by a sensation of clear
intrin.')ic coherence and organisation of
the examined phenomena. This may
be logical ordering of "seeing" cause-
and-effect relationships, when facts
previously listed mechanically are
combined in a single logical system
(C. of a proof of a mathematical
theorem; C. of some formula or natural
law; etc.). A person may also clearly
sense the coherence and intelligibility
of events without perceiving their
logical framework. In this case. the
event or phenomenon would come out
as something directed at a certain
objective, comparable with the given
subject's aims: the person in question
would understand the beha\'iOllr,
thoughts. and moril'es of another man:
in the same way. C. could involve
socio-cultural events. including histor-
ical ones, and al so literary monu-
ments; again. C. of animal behaviour
and natural events could take place
in connection with their anthro-
pomorphisation. I.e. when they are
judged by analogies from human
behaviour. Finally. C. could occur
on the basis of commoll ('IIIoliollal
experience or idelllijica/ioll (C. of
other person' s ('IIIo/ioIlS: undifferentia-
ted "e. of man": e. of ethical and
aesthetical phenomena; etc.). The
result of e. would be a meatllllg
\ubjectively unique, but not arbitrary
for the individual. sinle C. in the
final count, is determined bv socio-
cultural or that
individual. The role of lun,I!II<.1I!t" in C
(c. of texts and oral t1l1l1l11un1l.:atillns
natural and artifKial languages.. for
lnstance has been studied 1110,1
thoroughly. Identification, projection,
social perception (see P('rn'ption.
Soda/) , empalhy, imighl. illlllili(Jn,
and causal attribution hee Allrihillirlfl,
CUlisa/) are the psychological mechan-
isms of human C.
Concentration. a phenomenon op\XNte
to irradiation; the ability of nen'ous
processes to limit the sphere or their
spread 10 the initial seat of their
appearance. According 10 han Pavlo\,
C. is a mechanism for diiTerentialing
conditioned Slinwli and
conditioned reactions.
Concept, a logical form of
the highest level of generali.')ation
characteristic of \erhal-loci.ul IhinJ.;,
ing. e. may be concrele and abstralt.
The most abstraci C's are calkd
categories, Psychology studies
de-velopment. The assimilation of C.')
developed by Olher people should be
distinguished from independently de\eI-
oped new Cs. In empirical
of thinking, investigators widely
the following methods; (a) C. defmi-
tion: (b) C. comparison: (c) C. clas-
sification; and (tI) e. artificial forma-
tion (see Gent'ralis,lIi(IIIL Psychology
also .')tudies Ihe of e. sY\tema-
- .
tisalion (semantic nets). Special field!)
of psychology irwnhe
of C's about the material world. other
I
58
people, and oneself. Distinction is
made between commonsensical and
scientific C's, and between spontaneous
and controlled C. development. Soviet
psychologists (Vassili Davydov and
Daniil Elkonin) ha\e proved the pos-
sibility of conceptual structures form-
ing earlier in children subjected to
specialised training than in those who
develop them spontaneously.
Conditioned ReHex. a reflex that forms
with the convergence in time of any
initially indifferenl irritant wilh the
subsequent aclion of an irritant thai
causes an III/conditioned reflex, The
term C.R. was suggested by the Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov. As a result
of C.R., the irritant thaI previously
failed to cause a corresponding reac-
tion, begins to induce it 10 turn into a
signalling (conditioned, i.e. showing
in specific conditions) irritant.
logists distinguish twO forms of C.R's,
viz. classical, i.e. those obtained by
the technique, and
instrumental (operationa!), whose
development is unconditionally rein-
forced only after the arisal of a
specinc locomotor reaction by the
animal in question (see Operant COn-
ditioning). The C.RAorming
ism was initially understood as making
a way between two centres, namely,
between conditioned and unconditioned
reflexes. At present, scieOlists accept
the idea that the C.R. mechanism is a
complex functional system with
back, i.e. one organised by the
principle of a circle, rather than an
arc. Animal C.R's form a signalling
"ystem, wherein their habitat agents
are their signalling irrilnnl!). In man
. . ,
the first stgnallmg system, engendered
by environmental etTcct,s, i,S
mented by the second signalling
in which the word (which Pavlov
called the "signal of signals"). acts as
a conditioned irrilant (see Sig;-;-m
Systems). ' .
Conflict, the collision of counterposed,
incompatible tendencies in the con-
sciousness of an indil'idual, ill illler -
personal if/feraetion or interpersonal
relations of individuals or groups of
people, associated with sharply nega-
tive emotional experiences. Distin-
guished in psychology are the follow-
ing types of C.: 1. intrapersonal C.-the
collision of motil'es, needs, imerests,
drives, etc. of approximately equal
force in one person. 2. Interpersonal
C.-a situation of interaction of people
when they either pursue incompatible
goals, or uphold incompatible values
and norms, endeavouring to realise
them in relations with each other,
or simultaneously in an acute competi-
tive struggle seek to attain the same
goal, which can be achieved by only
one of the conflicting sides. 3. Inter-
group C., where the conflicting sides
are social groups which pursue in-
compatible goals and by their practical
actions obstruct each other. The
problem of intrapersonal C. is being
investigated in general and pedagogic
psychology. in pathopsychology and
psychoanalysis. One of its first experi-
mental studies was conducted by
Alexander Luria. Basing himself on
the propositions of Kurr Lewin's "field
theory" (see Topological Psychology),

he suggested the cJassiflcation of C's.
which consisL" of three main types:
1. C. a situa-
tion when a person has to choose one
of two equally attractive alternative<>.
2. C.-one and
the same goal is equally attractive
and unattractive for the individual
making a choice and engenders both
positive and negative emotions. This
kind of C. is sometimes called
alent. 3. C.-
here an individual is forced to choose
one of two equally unallractive
alternatives. A special case of an
intrapersonal type of C. is the so-called
C. of roles-social situations in which
role actions incompatible with each
other are expected from one individual.
As for interpersonal Cs, two concepts
are represented in Western social
psychology: motivational and cognitive.
In the fIrst, C. is defined as a conscious
incompatibility of an individual's
intentions and interests, while putting
the stress on the role of subjective
factors in C. The proponents of this
concept assert that C. is an
able part of social existence, of interac-
tion of individuals and groups. The
cognitive approach sees C's bases in the
incompatibility of knowledge. notions,
cognitive strategies of opposed sides
(see Cognitive Psychology; Cognitive
Dissonance, Theory of). 11 is assened
that C. becomes a reality only if it,
as such, is accepted and perceived
by the participants (Felix Deutsch).
Dominant in both these approaches is
an individualistic and pragmatic
pretation of C's nature. Contrary to
this, Marxist-oriented social psychology
'studies C. by relating it to determina.
tion of individual behaviour by
historical factors and and
treating C. as a kind of reflel:tion
of contradictions in the jOint
of a group. It h&,S been experimentally
established that the presence and
nature of C. depends on the ICI'e/ of
group development. The higher thi's
level is, the lower the degree to which
individualistic interests become the
cause of intra.::;roup C. Goal-oriented
contradictions in the course of join!
activities much le;s often than
oriented ones lead to a breach of
normal interpersonal relations.
psychological phenomena which cha-
racterise C. can be grasped only in
close interconnection with the socio-
psychological features of a group 3.!0
a system of joint activities.
Conformity, a person's tendency to
change his behaviour under the
influence of other people so that it
would correspond to the opinion of
one's associates, 8 striving to adapt
it to their demands. C. is recorded
where there is a conflict between an
individual's own opinion and that of
the grollp he belongs to, if this conflict
is resolved through accord with the
group's opinion. The investigation of C.
was begun in the works of Solomon
Asch, where C. appeared as an
vidual's tendency to change his
opinion under the influence of a group,
to adopt the viewpoint expressed by
the majority. Experiments were con-
ducted primarily in diffuse groups
(see Group, Diffuse), in which rhe
subjects jointly solved simple, insigni-
,
0
--------------------------
-
[Kant problclll!-.. Subsequently. C.
dedan:d a uni\'t!rsal regularity of a
person's behaviour in diver.',;e :iocial
situations. The inlerprela
lions and traditional c:\.perimen!al
diagram of pinpointing C. dearly
reveal an essentially mechanistic inter-
pretation of the mutual relations of
people ill society. Critically assessing
lhe results of corresponding studies,
Soviet social psychology rejects the
theses of C.'s universality and gene-
rality as a form of an individuai\
reaction to tile influence of a social
community. The fact is thaI in Asch\
and his followers' experiments the
value and goal faciors acting as a
mediator in relations between people
were deliberately neutralbed. The
introduction into a programme of
experimenlal research of a group's
l'alue.\ and ROIl/S as a mediating variable
revealed an to both con-
formity and non-conformity
lil'ism) of a spedal in-
herent in interpersonal relations in
groups with a high level of develop-
ment (see Lel'e/ of Group Del'elop-
ment) -col/eclil'iS! self-determination
. '
Interpreted as a conscious solidarity
of an indil'idllal with a col/ecti l'e ,
acceptance and active support of it s
goals, values and norms. Collectivist
self-determination may coincide with
the majority opinion but, if this opinion
runs counter to the goals and values
of the collective in whkh social norms
have been accumulated, an individual
may his independence of such
an Opinion.
Conscience. an individual's ability to
c'\crn,>e moral inde-
pendently formulatc moral duties for
himself: and demand of himself ful-
ftlment of those dutie.s anti sclf_
appraisal of rc'>uitant action!). C. is a
manifestation of <In individual's moral
self-consciollsllc-'>S. and m<lnifests itself
both as r<ltional awareness of the moral
signiftcance of one's actions and as
emotional experience. e.g. pangs of
remorse.
Consciousness. the supreme level of
mental reflection of objective reality,
inherent in man exclusively by virtue
of his socio-historical essence. Empiri-
cally, C. is a continually changing
totality of sensory images and thoughts
that arise directly before the subject
in his "inner experience", and anti-
cipate his practical activity. C. is studied
by several sciences. such as philosophy
(the main question of philosophy is
that of the relation of C. to being),
logic, linguistics, neurophysiology.
anthrOpology, sociology, and ethno-
graphy. Psychology studies the origin,
structure and functioning of individual
C. C. is character ised by activeness;
intentionality (orientation to some
object: general C.-specific c.,
see Int enlion); power of rejlexio
ll
,
self-observation (awareness of C.
itself); and motivational and value
a!)pects; and different degrees (levels)
of clarity. The C. of any individual
is unique, but not arbitrary. being
conditioned by ex.ternal factors inde-
pendent of C. (primarily by the struC-
tures of the social system in which
the individual ex.isls). The study of C.
involves two bask difficulties. First.
-
-
all J)!>ychoiogiclli phenomena appear
bdore the individual to an eXlent to
which they are (omprchended (in-
cluding lire whidl I'>
comprehended either as a rc\ult of a
special procedure for "bringing
thing to c. ... or, indirectly. in the form
of dislOrted C,). According to evidence
obtained in C. la(;ks
its own psychological specifu:s; its only
feature is Ihat it confronts the indi-
vidual (with varying degree of clarity)
with different phenomena constituling
the essence of speciflt psy(hological
functions. Hence. C. was either regarded
as a general condition (with no quality)
for the existence of psyche and desig-
nated metaphorically ("the light of c. ...
"the field of C.", "c. is the general
master of psychological functions",
etc.). or equally improperly identified
with some mental function (most often
with allention or Ihinking). In the
first case. concrete study of C. (in-
cluding experimental study) was abso-
lutely out of the question, and in the
second case it was substituted for the
study of its corresponding function.
All this engendered the view that for
scientifIc psy(hology C. is complete
fiction (William James). The second
difficulty stems from the fIrst one:
C. (like individual menial functions)
cannot be localised in space; bul. unlike
mental functions, C. (becau\c of its
"lack of quality") can neither bl! "split"
in lime. Researchers failed to ftnt! C.
characteristics, by which it could be
studied by methods familiar to psychol-
ogy. such as lllca\uring C. in speciflC
time unit\ or comparing C. nu.'as-
lIred. Kant's idea about the
61
-
of !:>table. invariant C. f.tru(turcs lind
supcrimp()';ed on a cnnt1!lually
changing !:>tream of .. en,>ory information
(oming from the H'nst' orNIlII'; IIml
organi,>ing it in a ddlllite way was
important for a constructive analysis
of C. For ages, the problem of C.
has been the subject of acute ideo-
logical and theoretical debate,>, 11l
which the materialist approach based
on the natural sciences opposed idealist-
religious theories. Marx, Engels, and
Lenin. who radically revised Hegel's
ideas, had a decisive impact on the
solution of the problem of C. They
stated that C. structures are of socio-
(ultural nature and had formed phylo-
genetically (see Phylogenesis). in the
course of man's history. under the
influence of supra-indi\'idual social
structures (see The
that appeared in the cour<;e of joint
activities (primarily in material pro-
duction). So\iet psychology developed
a general concept about the onto-
genetic nature of C. The structures
of the individual'S C. form in early
Olltogenesis owing to assimilation (sec
Interioris/J.lioll) by Ihe child of the
elements of activity. such as COIl1I1H1l1i-
cation (I) with adults. The basic
possibility of ;;uch assimilation forms
in the course of phylogenetic (histo-
rical) development. Object-related
acti"'it)' and its attribute. communica-
tion, possess the following main prop-
erties reflected in its structure: social
Origin and composition (which is
expressed in its social regia mentation
and ab;o in ;tS mediation by various
implements and sign .. ); invol\"\!merll of
twO subjects: and obje ..:t orientation.
62
The structure of joint activities engen-
ders the slruclun: of C .. correspond-
ingly determining ils following main
sodal nature (including
mediation by sign, as well as verbal
and symbolic structures): capacity for
reflex ion and inner dialogue: and
object-related character.
Constancy (in psychology), relative
independence of the perceived charac-
teristics of objects from (he dimen-
sions of stimulation of receptor
surfaces of se1lS organs. Thus, C.
of the perceived size of an object is
expressed in the faci that it is perceived
as approximately equal in size despite
a change of distance from the observer.
Similarly, the form of the perceived
object remains the same with the
change of the visual angle al which
it is observed, while the visible colour
of. the surface is relatively i,\variable
with respect to the spectral composi-
tion of light. though it changes the
chromatic characteristics of the light
reflected by this surface.
Contagion (in social psychology), the
process of lransmilling an emotional
st ate from one indil'idua/ \0 another
on a psycho-physiological level apart
from or supplementary to the semantic
impact as such. This may contain a
distinctive degree of spontaneity. With
feedback. C. is capable of growth due
to reciprocal induction, acquiring the
semblance of a circular reaction (see
Mass Pani c). Such a reaction
accompanie) spectal.:ular mass actior\s,
public perception of speeches, works
of art, etc., and serves as an additional
rallying faclor; unless it exceeds a
certain optimal intensity. Reciprocal C.
which is beyond control leads to the
disintegration of the formal and
informal normative- role structures
and the organised interacting
degenerates into a mob.
Contamination (in psychologyo), in- 1
correct reproduction of words by
combining syllables forming parts of
different words into one word (for
instance, instead of the words "winkle" "v
and "twinkle" the word ;'trinkle" is I-
pronounced). Such . may
appear not only withm a word, but
also in reproducing lists of words;
when words from one list are repro-
duced in another. C. is facilitated by a
word's semantic and phonetic pro-
ximity. C. is based on proactive and
retroactive jnter/ererrce phenomena.
In pathology, C. is observed in cases of V
diverse disturbances of memory (see /'
Amnesia). The organisation of
material subject to memorising, as a ru-
le. obstructs the appearance of C.
Content Analysis (in psychology),
a method of revealing and assessing
speciflC characteristics of texts by
registering certain units of content,
and also the systematic measurement ' I'
of the frequency and volume of the
mention of these units in individual
fragments of Ihe text or in the sum
lotal of texts under investigation. CA.
is used primarily for analysing the
conten! of mass communication mate-
rials, as well as texts of interviews,
replies 10 open questions of question-
naires, etc. C.A. makes it possible to
b.l
-
-------.-. - ----
.-
reveal the individual p'Sy(hol.ogical
chara(terl'Stll':S of a commumcator,
audience, message and their inter-
relation. C.A., as a scientific method
of psychology, is used to obtain in-
formation which meets certain criteria
of quality (such as objectivity, relia-
bility and l'aJi{/ity). A notable role
in enhancing the quality of C.A. is
played by methods ,?f
analysis of C.A. data. Factor analysls,
which helps reveal hidden factors that
determine the content of texts, is used
especially widely.
Contiguous-Motor Technique. a method
for examining affective human reactions
originally developed by Sov.iet
psychologist Alexander l:.una. Unlike
the methods of recording symptoms
of affective reactions via changed
vegetative functions (respiration, arte-
rial pressure, pulse rate, elc.), C.-M:T.
makes it possible to study the refiecllon
of those reactions in speech and molar
processes. The subject is successively
offered several verbal irritants, and to
each word in a row he must give a
free association with another word,
simultaneously pressing a pneumatic
wrench with his right - and left-hand
digits. The emotional stale caused by
the word is regi::>tered by verbal reac-
tions and impaired motor reactions
(changed duration, forms, etc.).
Combined verbal and motor symptoms
reflect variations in emotional states
more amply than the traditionally used
vegetative indices.
Control. Social. forms and methods
of influence used by society and social
to regulate the bt'havlour or
people included in them. C.,S. methods
in dude reward if the behaviour of an
individual to the ac.:epted
norms and 'Standard.'>. and punishmenl,
if it deviates from them. C .. S. subjects
are the Sl ate, social institutions and
organisations. and social groups to
which the individual belongs. Realisa-
tion of c.,S. is implemented through
sanctions-measures influencing an
individual. They may be
(encouragement. reward. approval.
support, etc.) and negative (diver;e
forms of punishment), official, formal
(based on law, and
legal acts) and unofficial, informal
(based on public opinion). Sodal
psychologists investigate primarily c.,S.
forms realised by social groups. Each
group or collecth'e works out a set
of influencing its members.
methods of persuasion and sU.fu:estion,
encouragement. punishment and .;oer-
cion exerted on them in the course
of joint aclivitit's. Prio;'aril), I.hose
individuals whose behaViour, either
in the posith'e or negative sense.
deviales significantly from group norm'>
are subjecled to c.,S.
interaction and interpersonal reiallons
are simplified and regulated with the
help of C.,S., and the group gets an
opportunity successfully .to fulfil
fun(tiom il is charged With (see also.
Norms, Group).
Conversion, formation of a new
mt'anillR of a word when it passe'J.
a new paradigm of word-changing
(for instance. to bake>. or
its use in a non_tradlllonal con-
,,'

lex!. C. is sometimes Ihe cause of
sem3mic in communication
(IJ. The mechanism of C. is used
8.s a lIleans of inventing humorous
saylllg:;.
Conviction, a special personality Irail
which determines the general lille of
all individual f1clil'ify and \'a/ue
orienlations and regulates individual
comdowi/less and bellmjour. C. lakes
Ihe form of an individual's aniludc
lowards lib actions and belie/s,
this allilude being due to profound
and well-grounded certitude in (he
truth of the knowledge, principles and
ideals that govern the individual.
Personal needs, value orientations and
social norms realised on the basis of C.
are included in the objective forms \
of activity and determine the indi-
vidual's behaviour. C. depends on
personal experience and the individual's
rdationships with society, and is based
on knowledge, above all ideological
knowledge (see World Outlook),
which. closely interwoven with the
wiff. constitute the substance of action
motivf'.\ and individual allitlldes. C.
represents the ideological and psycho-
logical foundation for fostering in the
individual volitional qualities like
COllrclf{f', resoluteness, tenacity, and
loyally to one's ideals. C. may take
the form of profound penetration into
the socia-historical processes, and
social and moral demands, Such is
communist c., the generalised trait of
an individual enriched with 'Profound
knowledge of Marxist-Leninist theory
and with certitude in the truth of its
tenets and communist ideals, an indi-
vidual go\'erned by those ideals in his
everyday 3cti\'itie.,. C. may take ]>er_
\'trted form'. when an individual
uncritically a'i..")imilates ideas and
dogmatically aCt'epts certain principle.\,
someone'!:; im'ontestable authority (see
Bias) ,
Corporation, un organised group
characterised by seclusion. maximum
centralisation and authoritarianism
of Icadership, which counterposes it-
self to other social cOllllllunities on
the basis of its narrow individualistic
interests. Interpersonal relations in C.
are mediatl!d by asocial. and often
anti-social paille orientatiollS. The
persollalisalion of an individual in C.
is achieved at the cost of the deper-
sonalisatioll of other individuals.
Correcfive Psychology. a fteld of
juridical psychology dealing with
conditiolls and peculiarities of reha-
bilitating and re-educating law-break-
ers, primarily in corrective-labour
establishments (the inlellectual and
personal !raits of these persons. the
process of their adaplalioll to fmding
themselves in correctional eSlablish-
me.o.t.s. tl)e Il/e/l/al . s{aw.... eV9kea by
imprisonment. the methods pf shaping
a positive altitude to labour, the
moulding of the attilude to reform),
CP. both the psychology
of individual law-breakers and the
structure of formal and informal
groups in places of confll1ement, the
psychological mechanism of their
origins and functioning. The results
of research into c.P. are used 10
elaborate practical psychological and
I
,
educational recomll1cndation\ aimed
al rcsociali,ing law-brcake" and
crenting III thelll a psycholugical
readines' for normal. free life. well
as recidivism preventill,
Correlation Analysis (in
a statistical method of evaluating the
form, sign and strength of
between cxamined or
factors. Whell detcflninillg the forms
of a relationship, its linearity or non-
linearity art! examillcd (i,t!, how y
changes depending on the changes
in x, and x - on those in y ) . Also
broadly used in psychological investi-
gations is the relation coefficient II.
which is calculated in case of the
simplest classifIcation. For instance.
if the subject possesses certain prop-
erties attributed to him it is I. if he
lacks Ihem- 0. Essentially II represents
the correlation coefflcient for dicho-
tomous data. AmoAg the widely used
variants of CA, in psychology are the
calculation of rank order, partiaL
multipl e and other coeffIcients of
correlation.
Courage, a personal quality. which
fmds expression in an ability to act
with determination and purpose in a
complex and dangerous situation.
control one's impulses. overcome a pos-
sible feeling of jear and uncertainlY.
in knowing how to mobilise OIlC'S forn,'s
10 achieve a goal. Thc hight:St mani-
festation of C. is heroism.
Creative Activity. act;lit)' in
novel material and \'alues,
Being ('ssl!ntially a cultural and histori-
,
I.:al phenmnl!lIon, CA. invnhl!s
nal and pnxedural
aspects. It tht:: prest=Llle ur illll!
vidual abililit'.\. l/LolIl'I;'\. knowledgl!
and capability instrumental in creaLing
a product di,tinguished by 1U)\;t::lly. {If!
ginality and uniqut::nc\s, A \tudy of
thc\e trait!> revealed the importi.llli nIle
of ami illlllltion, unCOIlS-

cious components of menial ity,
and also of personal in wi/-
aCllIalisatirm. i.c, ill disdosiug and
augmenting olle's p()tclltials,
As a process. CA. was initially
examined jUdging from ,\elj'(Jc
counts by artists and s(ientist!>, in
which a sj)t:cial role was assigned
to illumination, inspiration. insight.
and similar Slates that rt'place prelim-
inary work of thought. Henry Wal-
lace distinguiShed the following rour
slages in CA,: preQar::aticlIl.l.. ilH.:ypal-
ion. illuminatIon. and verifll;a-
-tim,: He regarded illumination \() bl!
Ihe central. spt'ciflcally aealive ele-
ment. whereby the individual intuitively
grasps Ihe sought result, Expc:rimental
investigations demonstrated Ihat an
intuitive solut ion arises in objcct-
directed activity acceSiiblc to objective
analysis, In dislinguishing the spet:iflCS
of the psychological regulalion of C.A ..
Konslantin Stanislavsky, the great
Russian actor, producer and direclOr.
advanced Ihe idea about Ih(' supcc-
_as . the_ ..
I personal splrltual forces
in the product of C.A.
(see SlIpt'rcolls,:ioIlS). With the
development of cybernetics. new at-
lempts were made to simulate C.A. on
computers (heurislic programming) .
--------
AI the same lime, the interest towards
non-formalisable C.A. was sharply
enhalH:cd by assigning formalisabie
mental operations to technical devices.
The dependence thereon of scientific
and technological progress (discoveries,
inventions. etc.) caused psychologists
to com:entrate on developing methods
for diagnosing creative abilities and
stirnulaling C.A. (see, for instance.
The fact that C.A.
is conditioned by the sphere of culture
in which il is actuaJised (production,
technology, the arts, science. politics,
pedagogy, etc.) makes it necessary
to reveal the specificity and essential
correlations of the ps}'\..'hology of C.A.
in each re!.pective sphere.
Creativity Tests, a sel of techniques
for examining and assessing individual
creative abilities. The ability 10 gene-
rate original ideas, to deviate Irdm
("OIIllIlOit thinking- -patterns, and 10
quickly solve problem situations was
distinguished among intellectual abili-
ties as a special aptitude and termed
creativity. The study of creative
achievement faClOrs is performed in
two directions: (I) by analysing the
life experience and individual features
of the creat ive personality (personality
factors), and (2) by analysing creative
thinking and its products (factors of
creativity-- -speed, clarity, nexible
thinking, scn.,itivity towards problems
In hand. originality, inventiveness.
a constructive approach In solving
the.,c problems. etc,). The question
whcther creativity is an intellect-
independent property still remains
Nor have reliable ways of
creativity been found. The
fact thaI the subJcct has solved a C.T.,
i.e. fulftlled Illay
be takeTl as CVll.lCIl{;C of IT1dividual
creative abili ty, whereas the fact that
he hnd failed to do so does not yet )(
prove Ihe absence of such an ability.
Again. the fnct that c reativity changes
with age and is subject to external
eneets gives lillie credibitity to existing
C.T's as reliable foreca.sts of success-
ful future creative activity. Correspon_
dingly, practical application of C.T's
lacks adequate reliability. Creative
accomplishments in all areas of human )
endeavour require a combina-
tion of individual amlities and personal-
ity trailS.
Criminal Psychology, a sphere of
juridical psychology studying the
psychological mechanism of violations
of law and the psychology of criminals,
of formation, structure,
functioning and disintegration of
criminal groups. Soviet c.P. rejects
the "born criminal" doctrine. imple-
melllS the dialectical-materialist prin-
c iple of development, which determines
the study of the entire variety of
phenomelia, above all social, which
innuence the formation of the psycho-
logical peculiarities of cri minals.
Crises. Age, a conventional term for
more or less pronounced states of
connict, emerging during the transition
frOIll one age period to another.
Though not inevitable, C .. A. may take
place in a child's psychological develop-
menl. During these periods cont radic-
tions appearing in the process of deve-
r
r
t
67
. - - ------ --
opment often anluire a panil:ularly
acute form, caw.ing intense emotionul
experiellces, and disturbance of mutual
understanding ill contact., with adults
(sec Barrier, Semantic). The
of C.,A. may be contradictions be-
tween the growing physical and spiritual
potentialities of a child and earlier
formed mutual relations with the
people around him and types of activ-
ity. The C.,A. acuteness is also
innuenced by the ch ild' s individual
characteristics (see Menial Del'eiop-
mell/).
Criterion-Oriented Tests, a technique
of psychodiagnosis, taking account
of the subject's performance in solving
specifiC classes of tasks, viz. educational,
professional, etc., included in the
actions he is to perform. C.O.T. are
designed to establish what classes of
tasks (or individual tasks) are acces-
sible to the subject. Accordingly, in
devising lestS, the investigator would
analyse logical and psychological
aspec ts of the tasks to be solved by
the subjecl. These task.!! comprise the
concepts and terms and their correla-
tions that follow from the test scope,
which is to forecast how the subject
would fulfil a specifiC class of tasks
(Kollstantin Gurevich).
Crowd (mob). an amorphous aggrega-
tion of people devoid of distinctly
consciolls common goals. bul inter-
linked by similar it y of emotional state
and common object of allention. The
basic mechanisms instrumenuil in the
forming of a C. and In the de\elop-
ment of its specifIC qualities are believed
to be a circular .. e (growing
and reciprocally directcd cmotional
contagion) and P'Ivchn
logbts identify four ba\io.: form, C.,
viz. (I) occa')ional c., bound by curios
ity towards an unexpectedly occurred
event (traffic accident, etc); (2) con-
ventional C, bound by interest for
some previously announced ma .... rec-
reation, e.g. some sporting contest, etc.,
and ready (often only temporarily)
to follow quite diffuse behavioural
patterns; (3) expressive C.. which
jointly shows its common altitude
to some event, say, in the form of joy,
enthusiasm, indignation, prottst, etc.:
the extreme form of expressive C.
is an ecstatic C. which owing to
reciprocal rhythmically growing con-
tagion. reaches a state of general
ecstasy (like at some mass religious
rites. carnivals. rock concerts, elc.);
and (4) acting c., which in turn
includes (a) aggressive C. bound with
blind hatred for some object (as in
lynch trials, beating-up of religious or
political opponents, and so on).
(b) panic-stricken C., which spon-
taneously flies from a real or imaginary
source of danger (see Mass Pallid,
(c) grabber c., whose individual ele-
tnenls enter infO a disordered direct
connict over some material values.
e.g. money, vacant seats in departing
municipal transport. etc., and (d) re
belling c., in which people share
common and just indignation over
authorities' a.:tions; not infrequently
this type of C is an attribute of re\o-
lutionary upheavals. and limely organi-
salion may elevate its spontaneous
mass aClion to a conscious act of
political struggle. The most important
property of a c., namely, its easy
comertibllity from one type (subtype)
into another, is virtually due 10 the
absence of dear goals and also to
the absence or diffuse nature of C.
structure. Such transformations are
often spontaneou.s; however, know-
ledge of their regularities and mechan-
isms makes it poS!;ible to either inten-
tionally manipulate C. behaviour for
ad\'enturist purposes (something
characteri::;tic of reactionary political
regimes which often deliberately pro-
voke pogroms, mob law, etc.) or con-
sciously prevent and stop particularly
dangerous C. actions.
Cues, objects of living and non-living
nature biologically significant for
animals (see instinclh'e Bellal,jour
of Animals).
Cullural-Historical Theory, the theory
of a person's psychological develop-
ment evolved in the 1920s-\930s by
the Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky
with the participation of his pupil
Alexei N. Leontiev and Alexander
Luria. In formulating the C.-H.T.
they critically interpreled the expe-
nence of Gestalt psychology, the French
p:.ychological school (primarily that
of Jean Piaget), and also the structural-
semiotic orientation in linguistics and
literary criti(ism 1M ikhail Bakhtin
Edward Sapir, Ferdinand de SauS!iure'
the "formal schOOl" in literary
the .Soviet Society for the Study
01 PoetIC Language (OPOYAZ), and
others!. Primary importance all aches
to Ihe orientation on philo-
sophy. In accordance with the C.-H.T.,
the main regularity of the ontogenesis
of the mind consists in a child's interio-
risation of Ihe structure of his external
socio-symbolic (i.e. performed jointly
with adults and mediated by siglls)
activity. As a result, the former struc-
ture of "natural" psychological func-
tions is changed- it becomes mediated
by interiorised signs- and psychic
functions become "cultural". Overtly
this is manifested in that these functions
become conscious and voluntary.
Thereby interiorisation also acts as
socialisatioll. In the course of interio-
risation the structure of external activ-
ity is transformed and "compressed"
in order to be once again transformed
and to "extend" in the process of
exteriorisation, when "outer" social
activity is construed on the basis of
psychic function. The language sign-
word acts as a universal instrument
which changes psychic functions. Out-
lined here is the possibility of explaining
the verbal and symbolic (see Symbol)
character of cognitive processes in
man. C.-H.T. on the general psycho-
logical level and from other methodo-
logical positions advanced problems
addreS!ied by the symbolic inter-
actiOllists (see interactiollism) and
the supporters of the Sapir and Whorf
hypothesis (see Linguistic Relativity,
Hypothesis of). To check the main
propositions of C.-H.T. Lev Vygotsky
and his colleagues developed a "method
of double stimulation", with the help
of which the process of symbol media-
tion wa.<; modelled, and the mechanism
of 'implantation" of symbols into the
of psychic functions- allell-

tiOIl, memory, thought-was .';Iudied.
A by-product of C.-H.T.,.a proposition
all "ne:ct development :one"-a period
of timc in which there takes place
a restructuring of a child's psychic
functions under the inlluence of
intcriorisation of a structure of a
sign-mediated activity performed
jointly with adults-b important for
the theory of learning. C.-H.T. has
been criticised, by Vygotsky's pupils
included, for its unwarranted counter-
posing of "natural" and "cultural"
psychic functions; for seeing the
mechanism of socialisation as linked
primarily with the mastery of sign-
symbolic (language) forms; for under-
estimating the role of man's object-
oriented practical activity. The latter
argument became a point of departure
for Vygotsky's pupils who elaborated
the theory of activity structure in
psychology. At present C.-H.T. is
addressed to in connection with the
analysis of processe::i of commllnication
(I), the study of the dialogical nature
of a number of cognitive processes
(see Dialogue), with the use in psycho-
logy of the methodology of structural-
semiotic studies.
Dcccntration, a mech-
anIsm for deve-
loping personalily's
(ognitive processes,
moulding his/ her mo-
ral make-up and
perfecting his/her
communicative skills, which functions
on the basis of the subject's ability to
'9
perceive another per50ns point of view
(see Social Perception). D. is the
key notion in genetic epistemology,
in which it is defined as a mechanism
for overcoming egocentrism and
signifies the processes of transforming
the essence of the subject's images,
concepts and representations through
his acceptance of other people's
possible points of view (cognitive
prospects). The source of D. is direct
or interiorised (see illteriorisalion)
communication with other people
(inner dialogue) in the course of which
opposing conceptions clash, impelling
the individual to change his cognitive
position. In their works, Jean Piaget
and his followers viewed D. chiefly
as a factor of the U)("ialisation of a
childs thinking. Later the link be-
tween O. and the successful identifica-
tion with the roll' of another person,
the development level of cognitive
emphalhy and the effectiveness of
communicative interaction was demon-
strated; the inadequetly developed skill
of O. may play a certain role in the
appearance of a number of mental
disorders, schizophrenia in particular.
The level of D. changes noticeably
with age: it increases in the period
from childhood to adulthood and
decreased lowars old age. The ability
to D. also varies depending on the en-
vironment: thus in professional relat-
ionships the level of D. is usually higher
than in family relaTionships.
Decision-Making, a volitional act
resulting in a sequence of actions
leading to achievement of a goal
through transforming initial informa-
70
lion III an uncertain $11U3Iion. D.-M.
is the central process at all leyels of
data and psychological
contr01 within a system of purposeful
lIe/iI'it)'. The main stages of D.-M.
involve informational preparation of a
decision (data analysis and construc-
tion of current images) and D.-M.
procedure per se (forming and
comparing standard and current
images, image corre<:tion, choice and
construction of hypothesis or
action programme). The structure
of D.-M. compri.ses the goal, result.
ways of alt811ling il. assessment criteria
and choi(c rules. The structure and
mC,chanisms D.-M. are not stably
unl\'cnal at different levels of menial
reflection. When transition is made
Irom the perceptual-cognitive level
to the ,speech-and-thought level, the
mechaTllsm . of trying and choosing
replaced by the mechan-
Ism of co,:,structing conceptual
models. The Imk between D.-M. and
thmking i_) not unambiguous. In problem
directly .connected with practice
(wllh production management and
people. and with the system "man
machlrle"), D.-M. comes out as a
speCial form of thinking. However
as a stage ?f intellectual action. D.-M:
IS the CUlml!lating, point in solving any
problem, IIldlldmg cognitive and
The D.-M. concept has
qUIl.e. a broad application range. In
adthuon to Mellera/ psyl'llO/OIU, it covers
fJ!o}'('/1O/0RY 0/ (mana-
D.-M.l, Sf)cia/ (col-
I\lve D.-M.l psychophnioJuMY (whe-
reby afJ/'relll IS
mto an acl10n programme). and also
a number of non psychological dis-
clplmes. nRllu'erfllR re-
gards D.-M. as the main proces:; .
. . III
operator acttvlly. and optimisation of
D.-I\1. for present criteria a.s the prin-
ctpal task.
Deduction, the progression of know_
ledge from the general to the partic-
ular, from the premises to their con-
D. is closely linked to illduc-
Logic views D. as a type of X
Ill/erence. PsycholoM), studies the
deve.lopment impairment of de-
ducllve reasomng. The progression
of knowledge from the general to the
is analysed in connection
With the psychic processes and the
process of thinking in general. The
analr.>ls . of of the premises
and their cor.lcluslOIlS is an example
of an empIrical study of deductive
reasoning.
Deed, a form of manifestation of a
subject aclil'ene:>s determined by its
SOCially signiflcant results, for which
the suhject is responsible even in case
they had not been intended. The
personal responsibility is
established on the basis of concrete
criteria of his potential
abllllX to foresee the consequences
of IllS activity. D. is a concrete form
of .the joint psychological and socio-
description of the subject's
and may be used as a unit
III the psychological analysi.s of the
per.mnaliIY. The {k'rwmali.\alion of the
indil'jl/UU/ within the system of
Interpersonal reitdionsllips is provided
through O.
71

Defeclology. $p(>.ia/ Ply-"lIO/01:Y
Defence, Psychological. a weciflc re-
gul310ry of the per-
sonality \0 remove or minimi.se the
feeling of unxiely by the reali-

of an existing ,01l/li;l. The func-

tion of D.,P. to "Suard" the sphere
f against negative cmo:
lions \1"al11l1a;lc' to -theper.soilahIY. "In
a broad sense, the term "D.,P."' i.s
used to denote any behaviour removing
psychological discomfon which can
form such personality trails "ne-
re.sult in false". substituting
(Sluma Zeigarnik. Boris Sra-
tus) and alter the system of inlerpersonal
relllliom. UnderstOod in a narrow seme.
D .. P. leads to a speciflC alteration of the
content of as a re.sult of
the functioning of a number of defence
mechanisms: negation.
je.'lioll ..
\atiol1, I t
>- 'More than ollce' . ct',on
(Fyodor Dostoyevsky. Leo Tolstoy. et.
al.), D . P. a specifiC
phenomenon was initially examined in
Freudianism, which interpreted it from
a of the priority of the un-
COllscious. instinctive (mainly sexual)
origins which, as a result of a dash
with the "protective med13uism.s" of
the conscious Selj (internal "censor-
ship"). are to various tr311$-
(reprl'wioll. sublimation.
and 1he like). The problem of a
x
c
meaningful of the
'target.s" of D .. P. is differently
by representatives of various schools of
Thus. Neo_Frelidiallism re-
cogni.,ed the of D., P. when
the wbject develops a feeling of infe-
riority. when there a threat to the
value and signifICance of the
The personalist (penmw!is/1IJ
treat D .. P. as a ot' con-
tradiction.s in the Sel/ structure and
the fmal goal of the defenct' proce'>'>
concord between the real of
consciousness and the Sdj.;o,,;epl. etc.
The attitude to various psychological
concepts is determined by the general
critical of the
theories of personality (psy;llOuflu/ph.
fleobelrul>iOlirism.elC.) wilhin which the
concepts of the essence and nature
of D.,P. have taken shape. S(wiet
..:hology tackles D .. P. problems from the
standpoint of the Marxi,>t teaching on
personality. D .. P. is a of
the interaction between the subjed and
the environment in a situation of a
possible or real sel-back in a..:tiv-
11)". and the realisation of the
need to be a full-fledged personality.
\( is customary to subdivide D .. P.
into successful and unsuccessful. Suc-
cessful D .. P. results in the ces!.ation
of anxiety-prol-oking impulse'>. while
unsucces:.ful D.,P. not. there-
by causing a constant repe\1-
tion of these impubes. The specifIC man-
ner in which the defence mcchanbm,>
of both the former and laller cate-
gories are dealt with according
10 different authors.
Delinquent, a subject whose (Iel'iullt
bellal'lour in its e:>..treme form is an ac-
tivity punishable by law.
Delirium. a mental disturban.::e
pallied by /wllu;illuliom. 111(oherent
thought and Usually follow).
Ihe peak of certain infeltious diseases
and traumas affecting menial functions.
Dementia. a defect of intelligence. a
rt'sult of underdevelopment or afro""y
of the ',igller melltal fllll,riom. Primary
D. involves intellectual underdevelop-
men I caused by a hereditary
harmful innate factors, or by early
childhood depril1Won. Secondary D.
results from an atrophy of menIal funcl-
ions caused by lack of emotion-
al support and the constant influence of
harmful factors (social. age, medicinal
disease-related). Depending 011 the
nature of the harmful and degenerative
faclors, D. may be classified as senile, al-
choholic, epileptic, post-Iraumatic. elc.
Depersonalisalion. (I) a change in one's
characlerised by a loss of
idemity and a painful emotional expe-
riell,-e of alienalion from family, col-
leagues, etc. D. follows mental diseases
and marginal states. A mild form of
D. rna)' occur in mentally healthy people
under emotional stress, somatic disor-
ders, 'eic;(2) any loss by an mdlljollal
of the possibility to be ideally repre-
sented in the lives of OIher people, and
of the ability to be a personality (see
Personalisulion) .
Depression (in psychology) an emo-
tIOnal state of despondency characle-
r1sed by negalive emotional attitudes a
in th.e motivation sphere, cog;li-
live l'!1presslon:<:. and generally paS!>ive
behaVIOUr. A person in a Slale om.
expenences painful emoriolls: deep
.. (melancholy), anxiety, despair.
-
motlle." alill 10liti01lal activit)
(see IVil/) Ml' all but I.ll' king. D.
dHlractl'rised hy ,elf blamc for
disasters that oc('urred III the life of
the indil idual or The feel-
ing of guilt for past c.'Ie.'nt:<:. and Ihe rea-
lisation of hi:. inabililY to !.:9QC with
reality arc an"ompaniccl by a of
conftdence in the fu tu re. An individual's
is extremely low, his sense
of time is unre.'alistic and as far as he is
concerned it extremely slow.
Behaviour in a stale of D. is characte-
rised by an overall slow-down. lack of
initiative and fatigability; this leads to
a sharp fall in produclivity. In severe
cases of D., is possible. There
are functional slates of ' D. that may
occur in healthy people within the limits
of normal mental funclioning, and pa-
thological D. which is one of the basic
psychiatric s),,,dromes.
Deprh Psychology, a number of trends
in Western psychology stressing rhe
primary significance in human beha-
viour of the so-called deep-seated forces
of the personality- its drives _!!!leLal-
tiludes lying beneath th-e "surface" of
dmsCiousness. The 6ei' tcr-known trends
within D.P. are Frelldianism. Alfred
Adler's indil'idual psy..:!Jology, Carl
Jung's analytical psychology, William
Mcdougall's approa,'h, Ludwig
Binswanger's analysis. and
lIeo-Frelldianism. Ideas of D.P. exerted
a certain impact on medicine. Rejecting
introspeclionism which the
mind with ils "looks", in the subject's f
consciousness. D.P. took a stand irrecon-
cilable with the scientiflc determinist
approach: in ils interprelation of Ihe
73
-
-
of human bchaviour U.P. a\-
an activt'. dynamic role to ba\ilally
1/11,"01/\.,,01/\ motIvatIOn ,uppo\cdly
inhcrcilt in the whjcl."t\ mcnlal dynamil."
\tructure. Prtll."ccding from Ihe \Iarxi\t
doctrine.', Lev Vygllhky to both
""surface" hludying con-
sc iousnos through thl! 1l1lrO\peuI\"e
method, Ihe ml!\hOd of
and 10 depth psychology ":.ummit .. psy-
chology analysing the correlali on be-
tween the syslem of psychological func-
tions (including afTec ls and the will)
and the historically changeable cultural
forms (see Theory).
Determinism (in psydwlogyJ. a IUlieal
and ine\ltable dc]Xndence 01"
phenomena 1 on fallor'lthat originalc
them. D. include, cau,ality <1\ an ag-
\ u.egation of circunhlalKc1 rrcccliing
the cffect and CaU\l1Ig II. a' well a$
other .. D. (the Jt'pcmlcnl'e
Desire, feeling of want transformed
into an active thought about possessing
or aCe.'omplishing something. Providing
an impulse. a D. helps defl11e the goal
of the future a.'lion and plan ils rea-
lisation. As a motil'e of a,'lil'ity, a D. is
characterised by a fairly clear aware-
ness of Ihe need, including both its
objecl.s and the possible ways of ful-
filling il.
Deleclor, a device for detecting certain
types of sigllals. In physiology, a D.
is an alTl!rent neuron seleclively at-
tuned 10 a certain signal parameter. It is
luned selectively with the parti-
cipation of a fixed system of
links between the neurOllS and the re-
;:eplors or afferent neurons of a lower
level. At an external signal, the maxi-
mum excitation is registerell by a D. D's
of line orientation. depth. (olour. diree.'-
tion. veloci ty of movement. etc. were dis-
covNed during c'(pcrillll!llIS with ani-
mals. D'\ are compOllel1ts oi an UIlU-

of separate components of a ,y'tcm
on Ihe properties of Ihe whole), ret-
roactive D. (the clTect inf1uenle.' ih
cause), stalistil."al D. (similar call'C'
produce effects Ihal vary ill certain lilll-
its and subordinate to statistical la ..... ".
targeted D. (the Rool thaI inveriably
forestalls Ihe result determines the.' pro-
cess of reaching thi:. result), etc. Tht:
development of scientifll.: knowledgt' on
PU,'he is linked wilh the dis"O\ery of \
\'arioUs rorms of D. For a long period
II was orienled mechani\lic D.,
..... hich interpreted p<,ychic phenomena
as dependent on material factor. or
analogously \0 the interaction of objects
in mechanil>m. or to the work of techni-
cal {mach inC'S). Despite the lim- II
iled nature of Ihe conception (psychic
phenomena are only viewed as con-
sequences of external influenl.:e). it pro-
vttred p!>yClioTo-gy with its basic con-
ceptions on reflex. uiJe;l,
etc Biological D .. whie.'h appeared in
the mid-19th century, was devoted to
the belrul'iour of living sysh!ms (Dar-
win's theory of the origin oi species
by natural selecti01i) and
the view on psycholo.i.:!...as. a fuu,"IIOIl
necessary' COL. their Wf-Y-i\lal. While
mechanistic D. regarded psyche al> by-
product (epiphenomenon). it later came
to regard it as an inherent component
oi living systems. When it was estab-
lished that this ingredient was of an
indepC'ndent significance. there
aplleared D .. whid1 fe-
1 cei\cd. however, an inadequate inler-
pretation in the theory of ::opeciflc psy-
(hk allegedly opposed 10 ma-
terialistic causality (Wilhelm Wundt).
A dilTercnt approach 10 psychological
O. can be found in Ihe works of natural
scil;'nlists (Herrnann Helmholtz, Fran-
ciscus Donder::., Iyan Sechcnov, and
others), who demonstrated lhal p:.ychic
phenomena (image. choke reaction,
elc.) condiliol1cd by the influence of
external facton, on the organism. are
formed in accordance wilh laws lha1
diller from physical and biological laws
and. this basis, as S[)I!i.flc
behanQural regulators. The mtroduc-
tion in psychology of the ideas of natural
.!.I.:ientiflc D. led to its
being out as an independent field
of knowledge proces .... s de-
pendent on their own A new
form of D. discovered by
philosophy. according to whio.:h
(
the u:t(l.ene.t.\ of man's consciousness i:.
lr1 hIS way of life. This gave
fise t.o.the appearance of methodological
requl.,lle:. for the realisation of the prin-
Ciple of D. on the level of the psycho-
10gKai organtsation of man's
Sonet psychology put forth the inter-
pretallon of D. a:. the: action of "external
through internal conditions"
Rubinst ein) and as Ihe actIon or
the ".lIernal through the external"
(AlexeI N .. Leontyev). The Marxist-Le-
nlnl.';t provIsIon thai while changing the
surroundlllg world, which is indepen-
dent man's through his
obJecl1\'e activity. the also un.
changes, 10 the basic
princip.le explaining man's psydle from
the palilt of vIew of D. This activity
slllluitancomly produce:. the "external"
(products of the material and "piritual
culture which em?ody man's
the "Itlternal" (man's exis-
tenllal orce. formed in the process f
their objectification in these
Developmental Psychology, a branch of
PSychology that st udie:. the age dynam-
ICS. of human psy.::he. D.P. includes
c1l1ld psychology, junior schoolchildren's
psychology, teenage psychology. early
youl.h psychology, adult psychology. and
old-age psychology (gerontopsycholo-
gy). D.P. examine:; the age specific.
of mental and assimilation
of knowledge. and also the age
of the personality's deve-
lopment. Given that mental develop-
ment. i:. achieved in the course of
{rammg and education, the subject-
mailer of D.P. actually coincides with
of pedagog;;: histor-
both have developed virtual-
ly :;Imul!aneously. The actual unity
?f D.P. and pedagogic psychology
IS due 10 th e fact that both study
the object, namely. the hu-
belllg, who develops and changes
ontogell esis. D.P. studies the dynam-
ICS and I'egularitie:; of man's develop-
ment (:;ee Age); while pedagogic psy-
chology examine:. hoW lliall is oaitied
and educated in the cour:.e of the teach-
er's purposeful influence.
Developmental Sensiliveness, optimal
cour!.!! of development of specifiC mental
properties and processes inherent in a
defInite Mage of a child':; life. Premalll
re
or delayed Irallling with regard to D.S.
may prove inefftcient and produ(e an
unfavourable effect on mental devel-
opment.
Deviant Behaviour. a system of action:.
or :.peciftc action'> contradicting the le-
gal or 1Il0rai norms accepted in society.
The basic types of D.S. are .: rime and
unpunishable (legally) amoral behavi-
our (hard drinking, 1Il0ney-grubbing.
loose sex morale, etc.). These forms
of D.S. are connected in tilat delinquent
actions are often preceded by habitual
immoral behaviour. Studies of D.B. give
prominence to inve:;tigating Its motil'es,
causes, and conditions conducive to its
development. and also possibilities for
preventing and correcting such beha-
viour. A particularly important role in
the origin of D.B. is played by dde..:ts
in legal and moral conso.:iou:;ness, per-
sonal ne('d.s. the specifICS of one's .::hur-
or of the emotional and volitional
sphere (see Wi//). As a form of D.B.
crime is studied mainly by criminology.
which along with the data of other
sciences uses Ihe results of psychological
research as well. Soviet criminology ex-
plains criminal behaviour of an indi-
vidual by the combined resultS of wrong
development of the persollalit)' and by
some unfavourable situa/ioll. D.B.
whic h does not collide with the law is al-
so largely determined by educational
shortcomings lhat lead to the forming
of more or psychologil'al
traits (:onducive to immoral actions.
Initial manifestation). of 0.8. arc some-
times observed in children and teenag-
ers, and are explained by tlwir rela-
ti\'e]y low le\el of intellectual de\ elop-
75

ment (see unlkvdnped per-
sonality. negative influence of the fami-.:
Iy and milieu. and the teenager's de-
pendence on group norm'> and 011 the
I'aillt' orielliu/ions ac..:epted in the gi\'cn
group. 0.8. ill children and teenager:;
often serves as a meaus of
sen ion, and the-ir prote:.1
against real or alleged injustice on the
part of adults. 0.8. may go with wf-
licient knowledge of moral norms.
being indicative of the need to form mo-
ral habits in relafively young age. In
cases when D.B. is conne-.:ted with mell-
tal llot only pedagogical. but
also therapeuli-.: measures would be
necessary.
Dialogue an alternate exchange of ut-
terances (in the broad sense all an-
swer in the form of a:lioll. gesture.
or pause is also considered to be an
uuerance). III Antiquit) and in the
17th.19th centuries. D. was a wide-
spread form of philosophical and
tilic works (Xenophon. Plato. Galilei.
:\Ialebranche. Dioderol. etc.). Studies of
D. connected with the analysis of the so-
cial mechanisms of .. taTted III
in Ihe 20lh century {Lev
VygOlsky's ill-
lera';:liolliml, psydzounu/ysis. Jean Pia-
ge!"s theory (see Gelleva 5.'110010/ Ge-
lIeti.' Psy;:h%gy). the of Mikhail
Bakhtin. and Beginning in the
1970s, the psychological aspect of D.
belween man and electroni..: computer
has become a widely <;tudied field. The
interest of p:;ychology in D. :.tems Irom
the fact that for a o.:hild D. (.,pee:h
stirred by an adult and addressed \0 an
adult and lined directly wilh an ac
7Cl
.. _------------
lion) 15 an inilial
componenl of (I),
Ihrough language and. later, in the
of a persoll's life. a
compollelll of communil'ation through
language. Each remark (.<,talement)
conlern.s a cerlaill object (a remark
about and of a social na-
lure (addressed to a partner, regulated
by a relationship between
Ontogenetically. D. precede.s
IIIner .speech (.sec IlIlIer) af-
fet'ting structure and funclioning and
thus man\ loll\ciousnf!;.s in general.
Didact,ogcny a negative psychological
condulOn of a pupil (depre\.sion, depres-
Sll'e mood. {ear, {ruMfa/ioll, elc.)
by the use of inappropriate
leachmg melhod.s hy an educator (teach-
er, coach. elL) and having a negalive
effect on u,'lil"i/)" and relationship.s
hee /lIfefpt'f,\IIIIU/ Reialiolllhips). D.
may cause lIl'urows.
Differential Psychology. a fteld of
chology devoted to differ-
elll.:e, both bel ween ill(/il'it/l11l/s and
between }:fOUp.\, alld Ihe rea:.on, and
comcquclKes of dilference.s. D.P.
ortgHlated with the development of e:..-
and genetical (,ee All'IIlIxh
o{ PI}'.ho,t.:<'II('/i,'.I) and mathematical
mClhlkh. D.P, took ,h,lpe under Ihe
{I Ired IIltluence of such .sphere, of
pra(tll.:al altlvity "eciaxoxi.'.\, medi
and ellgmcering. II inaugurat-
ell hy Fran(1\ Galton who worked OUI
d numher nf mcth('lf.h and (\cvice, for
ShHIYIl11! mdi\illual dilTerenl'e\ and for
them from the point M ,iew
Ilf hee .\lali\I;"ul ,\fe/hod,),
The term D,P." was introduced by the
German
k
r'oychOIOSlst William Stern in
hIS wor .. n the Psychology of Indivi_
dual DIlTereno.'.s' ([900). Alfred Binet.
Alexander Lazursky, James Cattell, and
were the fIr .. ! major representa_
lives of the new trend. Tests (see T es/-
if1!d became Ihe ba.sk method of D P'
first individual test.s and [aler
tesls were used for certain
intellectual and stil! later
with the discovery of prole,'li\'e tests""':'
for al/ilucies and
emotional rea.ctions. Test proce.ss;ng by
{u,'lOr methods reveab faclOrs
that IIldLCate general properties (para-
.measurements) of the perm-
/wltly s II1tellect. On basis, qualita-
live variations ill the psychological
Irall::. of individuab are determined.
The following theories are popular in
Western p'ychology: (I) Charlf!;
Spearman's Iwo-fac tor theory, accord-
IIIglo whidl any kind of al.:li\'il}
both a general faclOr and
a specifll.: factor. one only neces-
.. ary for the given Iype of ac-
U\l\y (f.or imlallce, for sohing
malhemallcal problems. for composing.
elc.); (2) the Illullipll' factor
(Louis ThurslOne, Joy Guilford. and
other.s) which delly Ihe of the
factor and argue Ihat there
eXIsts a broad range of initial intellec-
tual obi/ilies (the .. peed of
lIssociati\e lIIemory. etc.). No mailer
h.ow perfecl Ihe test,> and Iheir proces-
Ihey alone are unable (0 explain
the origin, of differences.
In D.P. is a que.stion.
During a prolonged period
P'>y..:hologi,i'> believed that a
abiJilies and .:lruru,ler were biologically
predetermined. was placed on
heredity and the formation of the orga-
nism. while the dependence bel ween
individual psychological trait.s and the
environment wa.:, ignored. At present
new approache.s and meth()(h, both ex-
perimental and mathematical. are being
developed in D.P. Along with intel-
lectual dilTerences between individuals.
differences in creative and organisati-
onal abilities. in the
and in Ihe 1Il00ivationai are
being ,>tudied on a broad scale. Deh
attenlion i., paid 10 inter-
(.sec Cauda/ioll Allaly.\is)
between p,ychological traits on the one
hand, and and biochemical
propertie'> on the other. Much work is
being done in fteld by Soviet re-
,>earcher.s. D.P. i.s of much importance
for man)' practical problems
(selecting and training IlersOllJlel. diag-
nosing and the development
of certain trait" abililie:!>.
etc.) .
Differenlial Psychophysiology, a field in
p\ychology cOIKerncd with individual
difference.s. The
lerm wa, introduced by the Soviet re-
seardH::r Vladimir Nebylitsin (1%3),
In D.P. twO methodological approaches
are used: (1) compari.,oll of phy.siologi-
cal and psychological parameters re-
ceived ill independent experiment:;, and
(2) .study of Ihe change of physiolog-
ical fUllctiom in Ihe cour,>e of certain
(1,'lil'il),. The conception 011 the proper-
lil'\ of Ihe IIl:'n'OIl' '.1"1/<'111 as applied
to man, whidl is the ba,ic conception
of D.P .. wa:; developed bv 80ri\ Teplo'

17
and Vladimir Nebylitsin on the bMi .. of
Ivan Pavlov'.s works on the of
higher nervous actil'i'ly. D.P. is char-
acterised by: slUdy of certain propertie\
of the nervous '>)'\tem and not the type\
of system as a whole; acknowl-
edgement of the existenCt: of variou.s
inherent in the
property that form a I"YIlt/rome: ,epara-
lion in the syndrome of a single char-
acteristic corresponding to the defmi-
lion of the given property: reJec-
tion of a value approach, ACl.:ording
10 Teplo\', the psychologil:al proper-
ties of Ihe nervous are ma-
nifested in the form of formal-dynamil.:
beha\'ioural and.
Iy, in the subject's tell1pt'rument.
As a rule. D.P. regards the neuro-
physiological level 8.'> the initial
level: the characleri.stic:. of the nervous
system are viewed as an independent
variable. while I.:harac-
teristil.:s are \iewed a dependent
one. However, data is available on Ihe
possibility of opposite
Diligence, a positive individual allitude
towards work. D. is manifested in per-
sonal initiative. conscienti-
ousness. enthusiasm. and gratitication in
the very process of work. Psycho!ogil.:al-
Iy. D. implie\ thaI the individual regards
work as the main of his life
and feels conslant need \0 work. Under
socialism. D. acquires a truly moral
imporl to make Ihe individual aware
thaI his work serve.s the common Call.se,
which becomes his own cause, and in
whose he is personally inlere\ted.
To foster D. in an individual. he or
realise the ,igniftl.:ance and
78
------------
of his or her work. A major task of
edlh:ation in sCKialist society
is to promote D. in all its member...
Dispersion Analysis (in
a statistical method by which the in-
fluence of various (properties)
011 the obscned (dl;'pendenl) \'ariable
is The method was worked oul
by the biologist Ronald Fi!;her (1925)
and IVa'> flr.')1 u,>ed for estimating expc-
in platH-growing. lIs applicab-
ility 10 experiments in pe-
dagogks, medicine, etc. was discovered
later" a !?A. the observed prop-
erly L!> up 11110 indept'nde\H items
each characterising the influence of a
gi\'en faclOf or their inleraclion. The
\ubsequerll comparison of the items
makes it \0 evaluate the sig-
TIIflcance of each obser\'ed factor,
a\ well [heir combinations. D.A. is
mostly i.n experimental psychology
to the Influence of certain factors
on \!,Ibject. 01 mean values
a sreda1 role (deviation from
\,'alue\ is caBed dispersion) hee
Sial/,W.af
(or predisposition). the sub-
Ject \ read1l1ess to a behavioural action
or \0 a of actions. In per-
\onahsllc psychology (William Stern)
means a causally
unsllpulated diSpOSitiOn (propensity) 10
and in Gordon )>er-
sonalllY theory-various individual
(from 18 10 5,000) which f
\el of d' . . orm a
, towards a cerTain
reu,'lIIm of Ihe subJ'ect 10 II . , Ie envl-
ronmen1. In Sm;et P'>),chology, the term
D. 1\ used chleny to describe Ih 'd
\ Id al" d' e III 1-
U \ rea mess to evaluate the .!>;tua-
ti('lll and ill't in .,:onforman(e with pre-
VIOU\ e'perll'lh:e bee Di\/Nhiliollal
Theory).
Disposilional Theory. a concepl;o
I
' . 11
C lora:lertsltlg an indi"idual's social
behaViour by the state of his to
bcha\c in a certain way, D.T, links t he
in?ividuaTs to behave in a cer-
talll .s.o("lal 1I11uat ion with the social
condlllon.!> under which the individual
had acted previously and under whi ch
a stable predispollilion to realise Ihe sub-
. needs corresponding ap
propnate condll!on") was formed. D.T.
wall proposed by Vladimir Yadov. It
regards as a hierarchy, the
of IS formed by the general
of illlere.5lS and the system
01 1'''/lIl' oril'lIlaliol/.\, as a result of
the innuence of general social condi-
tions: its medium levels are made up
of a of generalised alliludes 10-
various social objects and situa-
tlOl1s:.lhe lower level is composed of
s1\uatlOnal attitudes as a readiness
to evaluate and aCI in concrete ("mic-
conditions of activity. Higher
dlSposlllons are more stable, which is in
conformity with the individual's activity
(stable traits in the way of life of
large ")ocial units), they actively innuetl-
ce the. dispositions. How-
ever, sttuatlOllal sodal allitudes in con-
trast to generalised attitudes are relativ-
which provides for the
mdlv[(lual\ (u/aIJlafioll 10 changing
(unstable) condi liOIl ") of activity with
the of his stable generalised
The laller regulate the indi-
VIdual s general orientation of social
behaviour. while Ihe dispositions of
I
-
other leveh regulate behaviour In Ont:
or ar1()ther sphere of activity and the
orientation of actions in regard 10 cer-
tain social object,> and In
principII!, Ihat di")po<'ition which i") in
greater conformity with the given con-
dition") and the goal of activity on the
given scale takes on the leading role.
D.T. eSl3blish ties between socio-
logical and general psyd1010gicai ap-
proache") to the study of the individual's
social behaviour.
Distraction, functionally or organically
di.!>turbed ability for concentrated, pur-
poseful Sometime<>, D. arises
in tense mental work as a result of
one-sided concentration of thought. As
a defeci of voluntary allentiOll. D.
may be by diverse factors, rang-
ing from tirellne,,>s and absence of
necessary 1II0lil'ali01l to various clinical
often connecte<l with distur-
bed
Distress, see StresS.
Dominant, a temporaly prevailing re-
nectory sylltem determining the funcl-
ioning of ner votls centres al the given
momenl and ilms conditioning a certain
way of behaviour. The D. theory was
proposed by the Soviet physiologist
Alexei Ukhtoll1sky. The term and the
idea of D. as a genera! principle gov-
erning Ihe functioning of nenous cen-
was introduced by Ukhtomsky in
1923. As a dominating. centre of excita-
tion, D. and aCl'ur1lulates
impubes passing to the l'entra l
at the ,amI.' time suppressing Ihe
a..::ti\"it)" of other centres. This e:'l.piaitls
79
-----
the and nature 0(
b('ha\'jrlllr, whidl, ..... hile btintt 0' a reo
fte..:tory 10; active and not re:ftctivc.
Ukhlomllky regarded D. a'S a :specifIC
organ and a<, a fum:tional system 1tl$!I:aJ
of a morphologically invariabk furma
lion. He: placed \pecial emphasi, on the
who .. rhythm of
functioning repr(l(lucc, the- rhythm tlf
external Owing to the-loe-
influences, under optimal the
neural resources of the lissue increu,e
ralher than decrease. The general dirt.'l-
lion of the development of the nero
vous system is aimed at thc urgency
of the signali")al ion and control. The
nervous "y,>lem reflects the objects of the
environment in their \patiotemporal
unit\ due 10 the fact that the spatial
and temporal parameterlo of its aClivity
are inseparable, A 5peciflL" D. inherent
in man is the "dominance of another
person's face" which Ukhtom\ky op-
posed to the individualistic outlook.
Dreams. subjectively experienced repre-
senralions, mainly of \'isual modality,
which regularly arise during\/eep,
chiefly in the phallI.' of "rapid" slel'p.
The content and emotional tinge of D"
the degree oj the subject\ "participa-
tion" in his. own dreams are linked
wilh Ihe inten .. it)' of phy .. ical changes.
in "rapid" sleep. The brain corte' a,li
,'alioll characterislic of "rapiel"' sleep
is relatively more pronounced in the
right hemisphere, this corresponding
to prevalel1('e III O. of .,patial-
temporal thinking (see
Asymmelry of ilu' Brainl. This.
is closely with pel'u1iar
changes in in D.: rene.:-

11011 of objecti,"!.' reality and aware-
of oneself as Ihe subject
of cognl!lOrl IS dislUrbed. the In-
dividual i!; not aware of himself
as a person seemg D.. consequent-
ly, he j, not critical oi what he per-
cl.'in'\, if it is illogical. At the
!tame time. appraisal of oneself as a per-
,onaIiIY, 3ml abo ell101 iolis (sense of
guilt. etc.). are retained. In a
flguralive, symbolic form, the content of
D. rcOeds the basic IIIolil'es
and ulli/ll(/t'.\, Emotional experience
and retention of D. would large-
ly depend 011 the individual'S per-
sonality traits lind emotional
prior to ,le(.'p. A basic function of
D. is emOlional Mabilisation. D. an' an
important link in the system of psycho1-
ogi..:al defence Defl'n.'e, PSyd101-
0.1:;;111), they temporarily allerluate the
intemity of a conflict and
help renew orieming activeness bee
A .. Oriellling). The positive
elTe.:! of D. on creative is
with and a[so with
pre\alence of imagery. The functional
deftciency of the "rapid sleep-
dream,," b an important factor in the
of and psycho-

a menIal ,Iale which the
non-differentiated, unawared,
or \Car(ely awared need. D. is a tran-
\ltnl phtnomenon, since the need
therein either attenuates
or 1\ turned into (oncrete
dream, etc. Variou,> tremb
In p\y.'lIo(lIIuIY.I;,\ give an inade-
quaTe mterpretation of Ihe impor-
ranl'e of O. in human psychology be-
came they generally lend to e,aggerate
the role of UII(Ol1Sciou'> D. (see
Lihido) .
Dynamic Psychology,. (I) a fteld of psy-
chology cQlI(erned wtlh the 1I100il'al;oll
of human bellal'iour, dril'(!.\, emotions.
of pt'r,wl1a/it)'. i,e. the dynamic
(motivating, of psychic
life differing from intellectual as-
pect; (2) a trend in Western psychology
which treats psychic activity from the
point of view of dynamics and
liI'ell!''': Robert Woodworth. an Ame-
rican p'>ychoiogisl and one of the lead-
ing represent<ltivl!s of D.P. criticised
Ihe view lhal the behaviour of living
organisms is limited to lhe links bel ween
external irritants and of the
organism (see Bef/(II'iOl/riSIII) and in-
terpreted the psychic response 10 an
e,ternal influence as a complex, chang-
ing act dynamics integrate the
pasl l'xperience and the variety of pres-
ent conditions, both internal and ex-
ternaL Thb integration can neilll<r be
explained by the U,\,\O.'iulion of
demenb, nor by their automatic amal-
gamation into and occurs
owing to psychic activity based on the
drive toward'S a goal as the fun-
damental fealure of all living or-
ganisms. Due to this drive (need)
the organism b extremely sen-
sitive to ceria in ,\I;mllii and insensitive
to olhers. Therefore, the need nOI only
determine, the charaCler of motor reac-
tiom, but the of
the world. Proceeding
from these theses. lhe followers
of D.P. establi,>hed a number of
Important facl'> in the

of perception. thl! of
IIIl'/IIory, Ihe procev;
of reading, elc In all instanCl!\ the im-
portant role of an 3l1ilude, which pre-
cedes the proce,>\ and later regu-
lates tIS course was
revealed. D,P. played a major role
ill Ihe critique of con-
ceplions which ignored the signifI-
cance of the internal psy(holo-
gical factors of behaviour. Yet
D.P. was unable to give a causal ex-
planalion of Ihe and develop-
ment of these factors and their depen-
dence on the socio-hblorical
of the personality's developmenl due
to \1S methodological [imitations,
Today. D.P. no longer an in-
dependenl scientifIC theory (or school).
Dynamics of Ihe Nervous Syslcm, a
property of the lIerl"llllS charac-
terised by easy gcneration of
and illhihition in lite course of forming
The correlation
between the dYllamics of excitation and
the inhibilion of conditioned reflexes
is determined as a dynamic balance
(see Equilibrilllll of Neural
The speed and degrec of success of the
individual's adjustment 10 new condi-
lions depends on D. of N .S, Dyna-
mics as an independenl propeny
of t he nervous sySlem was discovered
by the Soviel researcher Vladimir
(see also Lllbilily; Mobility).
Dynamic Stereotype, an intcgral
of habitual ..:onditioned-reOex responses
corresponding to the signal. ordinal
and temporal of a set of
(see Slilllll/II\). Till' tl'rm was
6 091!l
introduced by han Pavlov in [I),H, Ncr-
you'> processes whu.:h form OS. combine
as a of the exi')tent refleX r..:,>-
ponsI' (funclional slate) becoming a sig-
nal for Ihe next re'ponse and
supported by it. In ..:asc of a
stereotype, this sequence of
processes is fixated and one of
a set of stimuli in dillerent mooal-
lUes may reprodUl::e the character-
istic response of the other stimuli.
Echolalia, automaliC
repetition of anOther
words, ob-
in some mental
disorders (schizophre-
nia, lesion of fronlal
lobes. etc.) in both
adults and children. E. is also occa-
sionally observed in normal children at
an early speech de\elopment stage.
Echopraxia. imitali\ e automalic repe-
111ion of OIher people's mowments
and acts. E. may take various forms:
more often. Ihe palienl would re-
pear the rel::lli\ely simple movements
he or directly, e.g. wavinJ,;,
clapping, etc A form of E. is e;h-
olalia. E. is observed in schizo-
phrenia, lesion of frontal lobes, and in
organi( cerebral diseases.
Economic Psychology, a branch of psy-
chology that examines psychological
phenomena with people's
production relalionships. Marxist E.P.,
whi(h is opposed to idealist (oncer'"
I
Je).iglll'd to p,ydwlogise eco!l(lInic)',
from the fad that the ob-
Jective of social develop-
mcnt are independent oi the will and
of and. in fau.
thetmelves determine the main fea-
IUrt's of man's behaviour and
work. E.P. orig.inated in the USSR
at the illter\cclioll of psychology (,WI-
dul 1)1)'.:ho[oRY of mall-
(le('nH'lIt. and (J!!.I'choloRY of /a-
hOl/r) and economics at a lime
when Ihe CPSU set the task to
,hunl the national economy 10 intellsive
dc-\'elopmt'nl. The main task of E.P,
is 10 develop concepts and practical
rel'ommendalions that could help
further enhance economIC efficiency.
The major task of E.P, is 10 re-
wal the place of man within the
\trudure of proouctin' forces. In
this (3\C. man IS coO\elllional-
ly regarded a, an economic realilY. i.e.
from the point of I iew of the resources
he Pos)t'\\es as the crealOr of ma-
terial and intelle..:tual lalues directly in-
volved 111 material production. Other
task\ E.P. are to study reflection in
human mind of national. collectivc-
farm. l'ooperallve. public. and per-
sonal. owner\hip: the psychologi..:al
of distribution and consump-
[1on: human needs and their quan-
ritatrve and qualitatil'e character
and the govern-
the origination. dele!opment. sa-
tisfactIOn. and reproduction of those
.. E.P, SHldie\ the psychological
..:.)nJlllOm under which the e..:o-
nnmv '.I'ould eITe(tivel\-' fun(\iOI1.
and psydlOlogical prerequi"itc\ for
eflee've plal1lling
Education. an a..:tivity for passing on
Cl'rti1ll1 socio-historical experience to
new generatiolls: a systematk and pur-
poseful influt.'IH.:e that ensures the
moul<ling of an individual. his pre-
paredness for social life and pro-
ductive labour. In developed so-
society. E. of individuals
10 impart them a coml1lunist lI'orld Oil/-
look and high moral standards. pro-
found ideolngical (onvictions. so-
cial a creative altitude to
realitv and a high culture of labour
and behaviour becomes a major so-
dal task. It is l,olved on the
basis of principles devel-
oped within the system of modern psy-
chological and pedagogical knowledge.
liS continuous progress.
The need to reveal psychological
laws governing the moulding of the
persollalilY is a major requisite for
developing new meam. forms and meth-
ods for optimising the process of
E. In regarding E. a process
achieved III the interaction of those
who bring up and who are brought
up. and also of the latler themselves.
who are. in elTect. not only objects.
but also subjects of E.. Soviet psy-
chologists study regularities inherent
in the moulding of man as a per-
sonality under a purposerully organised
system of upbringing, and the
conditions and specifics of
educative work with reference to var-
iollS age groups. The results of
psychological in reveal-
mg specifiC lawl, that go\'ern the
purposeful moulding of the per-
in alld orienta-
ti(\11 to the psychological possibilities of
r
I
the individual are designed to help im-
prove the of E.
Ego. see Freu(Ji(lniml.
Egocentrism. the individual's inabi-
lity to alter his original cogni-
tive stance towards a given object.
opimon or idea. even 111 the face
of information that rUlls counter
w his past experience, because
of focussing on his own interests. The
roots of E. lie in the subject's failure
to understand that views unlike his own
may also exist. E. is overcome by consis-
tently developing personal ability for de-
cell/ratiol/. E. is Iypical of early child-
hood. and is. all a rule. overcome by
the age of 12-I-k a tendency towards
intensified F. i5 observed in old age. too.
Concrete studies examine various types
of E.: II) .:ognitive E .. characterising
the processes of perception and IIlink-
inl(: (2) moral E .. indicating the sub-
ject's inability to perceive the moral
found3lions of other people's actions:
and (3) communicative E .. observed
in transmission of information by
the subject to other persons. In all
above mentioned areas E. may be
overcome relatively independently.
Egoism. a subject's value oriel//a/ion
characterised by predominance in his
life and work of selfish personal inter-
ests and needs, regardless of the inter-
ests of other individuals and social
groups. An egoist treats other people
as objects and means for attaining
his selfish ends. Development of E. into
a dominant personality trait is due
to serious derects in education. If
. -----
family upbringing objt;'..:tively llirec1-
ed to reinfor.:ement of exaggeraled
self-appraisal and thlt
child may form a Mable value
orientation based solely on his own inter-
ests. needs, emotions, etc. In mature
age. such concentration on olle\ own
ego. self -lovi.' and total indifference to
the of other people or social
groups could lead to the subje(\'s
aliella/ioll experienced as isolated
existence in a hostile environment.
Many psychological and ethical con-
cepts accepted in the West ground-
lessly regard E. as an innate personality
trail that allegedly serves 10 pro-
tect the individual in his life and work.
In common usage, E. is the antonym
of al/ruism (selflessness). Yet.
theory notes that it would be a mistake
to oppose altruism to E.: "The Com-
munists do not oppose egoism to .sodf-
lessness or selflessness to egoism. nor do
they express this contradiction theorel-
ically either in ils sentimental or in its
high flown ideological form: they rather
demonstrate its material source. with
which it disappears of itself." (Karl
Marx. Frederick Engels. Col/t'cted
Works. Vol. 5. Progress
Moscow, 1976, p. 247.) To polarise E.
and allruism would mean to cnnsi.sotently
contra pose 1 and They. something char-
acteristic of social formations in whi.::h
exploitation of man by man. and com-
petition of all with all. is essentially
inherent. A historically progressive ten-
dency inherent in socialist society to
remove the antagonism between I and
They by introducing thi.' unifying
principle oj We. which implies that
what an individual does for others
Sol
equally useful 10 and
SIlKe It u!)eful to society to
which he himself belongs. Thus, if one
speaks of the socia-psychological reg-
ularities of individual beha\'iour in a
collertile. the alternative "either E. or
altruism" proves imaginary in develo-
ped socialist society. A true alternative
would be to 10 both E.
and altruism a behaviour in which
the subject would actively regard
others as he would himself, and
as all others in the col-
lective (see Identification. Collect-
il'istJ.
Ego Psychology, a trend in psycho-
analysis thai developed in response
10 orthodox Freudianism. Unlike the
latter, which instincts and
drives as the individual's dominant ele-
ments, E.P. maintains that the ego
(consciousness) plays a more im-
portant and independent role than
that which Sigmund Freud believed
it did. Apart from fIghting drives.
the ego regulates the individual's rela-
tionships with the environment, being a
relatively autonomous entity with its
?wn <;tructural characteristics and
m own of defence mechanisms
De/ellce. P.\'ych%Kica/). In
thIS ca\e, , the functions of the ego
are not directly dependent on drives.
I,n E.P., the "conflict", a key no-
lion for is replaced
_the notion "dialogue", which
the individual's "dialogue"
wllh the environment, and original
autOllomr of the ego. E.P. simplifies
the environment or society regard-
IIlg 11 solely a\ the individual's im-
Illediate surflHlndins,>, and rl'tiuces
the of l'Sl) den:loplIlent' to
(Jelaptatiflt!. Tlli" appronch fail s to
account for the truly re -
gularitics in thl' fUllctioning (If the in-
di,-idual. The chid advocfltes of E.P. are
Alina Freud. Eduard von Hartmann,
and Erik Erikson.
Effectors, organs or syStems of organs
that respond (by neurohumoral mecha-
nisms) to actions of exterTlill or internal
irrilallt,\ and play the role of links
which actuate the renex act. For in-
stance, the eye iris orbicular muscle con-
tracting under light effect would be
the effector of pupillary reflex (see
Conditioned Reflex).
Efficiency of a Group (Collect ive).
correspondence of results of socially
useful aClivity of a given group (col-
lective) to the tasks facing it. When
applied in social psychology. this
concept has two deflT1itions: a broad-
er one synonymous wi th good re-
sults or success, and a nar rower
one synonymoliS with the input-
result ratio. In Western sodal psy-
chology, certain struct urally formal
group parameters (size, composition,
communication channels, etc.) and
certam socio-psychological charac-
teristics (style of leadership, dis-
tribution of roles, etc.) were disting.
guished as basic effIciency factors which
were studied for their effects on
group productivity. Yet, the resultant
evidence proved contradictory and
of little use for theoretical generalisat-
ion of and practical recommendations
for improving group work. Sovie1
I
,
-
social p<;ychology sUEgC\ ted fl .. ystcm
of efficiency criteria typi cal of a
group having higher level of develop-
menlo The most important criterion
was how the behaviour alld results
of group-member activity
to social expectations that would
meet the ideals and s upreme values
of social ist society.
Effi cie nt Gr oup Emolional Ident ifi ca-
tion, see Identification. Collecfivist.
Eidelism, the ability of certain individ-
uals (eidetics) to retain and reproduce
highly vivid and detailed images of pre-
viously perceived objects and scenes.
Initial systematic observations of
E. date back 10 the early 20th century
when they were made on patients
with heari ng disorders. The study
of E. was the central theme of the
Marburg Psychological School (Erich
Jaensch, and olhers). whose adher
ents arrived at the conclusion that.
in preschool and younger school
age, E. is a common and, moreover, a
nor mal phenomenon. Evidence obtained
chiefly by surveying numerous child-
ren was regarded to prove that
eidetic images can reproduce in
detail topica! scenes, and are emo-
tionally exper ienced as real percep-
tions. By the mi d-1930s, publications
by researchers from the Mar burg
Psychological Insti tute became openly
pseudoscientific, and lhe Nazis used
their classifIcation of different types
of E. to substa ntiate their perso-
nal ity typology. Resul ts of recent stu-
dies fail to conftrm that E. IS
widespread. One can speak only
of relali\'ely few ca'>eo;; of reliablv es-
eidetic image\, e.g. in certain
(far from al1) outstanding mnemonist,.
painters, and musicians, in whom E. IS
often combined with synuesthe\;u.
Emol;onal Exper ience (in psychology),
(I) any emotionally-tinted state or re-
flection of reality experit:nced by an in
dividual and directly represented in his
consciousness and appearing 10 him as
an event of his own life: <2, presence
of aspirations, desires and wishes which
in the individual's consciousness repre-
sent a process of selection of personal
moti\'es and goals that help him be-
come aware of his personal attitudes to
events occurring in his life; (3) a form
of activity arising when the individ-
ual cannot realise the leading mo-
tives of his life, when his ideals and
I'ailles collapse, and manifesting itself
in a transformation of his inner
world aimed at reappraising perso-
nal existence. The fust. broad mean
ing of E.E. goes back to
psychology and accentuates E.E.'s
direct relationship to the individ
ual's consciousness. Soviet psychol
ogy has overcome the limitations in
he rent III subjectivist interpretation
of conSCIOusness whereby E.E. is
ma inly reduced to the subject's
affective states. to abrupt separation of
the knowledge about real ity represented
in E.E. from the subject's attitude there-
to, and to the study of E.E. beyond the
actual process of human vital activity.
The characteristic of such a psychic
fact as E.E. is indicative of its
deep-rooled nalure in personal life.
The second meaning defmes the fuOl.:-
-
1I01l of aspirations. desires and
wishes In rt'gulaling individual ae-
1;\';1\1. Thl!Se forms of E.E. reflect the
struggle of moti\{'s and choices of goals
ill cOl1sciousm:ss. A motive subjective-
ly manifesting in E.E. is not pre-
therein. and this is what creates
the that E.E. itself al-
legedly induces personal behaviour.
In reality, however, E.E. comes
out as inner signals whereby the
subject becomes aware of the persol/al-
ised meul/ing of the events laking place
and consciously selects possible motives
and reguiates his beha\';our. The third
meaning of the term E.E. fixates it as a
spec ific form of activity allowing a per-
son to endure grave events in critical
silUations. and to see the existential
meaningfulness of reassessing values.
Emotionality, a human property charac-
terising the content, quality and dyna-
mics of individual emalions and
sentiments. The content of E. reflects
events and situations particularly
significant to the individual: it IS
inseparably connected with the PI-
votal traits of t,he personality in
question, with its moral potential, viz.
orientation of motivations. world out-
look. value orientations. and so on. The
qualitative properlies of E.' characterise
the individual\ attitude towards the
surrounding world and are seen in
the valence and modality of domi-
nant emotions. The dynamic prop-
erties of E. include the ongm,
course, and termination of emotional
processes and their outward manifesta-
tions. E. (along with acli\'eness) is a
major component of temperament.
EmOlions. a JY'>ydlil: rt'jit,tioll in the
form of imnH'diatc afTc ..;tivc expcrience
of the \'ital signiflcan..::e of phenomena
and situationo; by the rela_
tionship of thcir objective propenics
to the subject s IIe('{/s. In the coun;e
of evolution. E. developed as
a means for allowing living c rea-
IIIres to determine the biological sig-
niftcalH.:e of the statcs of their organisms
and of environmental clTects. The sim-
plest for m of E. is the so-called emotional
tone of sellSations. i.e. direct emotional
experiences accompanying specifIc vi-
tally important efTects. e.g. gustatory
and temperature sensations, which
prompt the subject to either re-
tam or eliminate them. Affects
would develop in extreme condi-
tions, when the subject fails to cope
with a situation. With regard to origin,
E. represent a form of a species ex-
perience: i'l orienting himself to them,
the individual would perform the
necessa ry actions (for instance, avoid
danger or procreate), whose purpose-
fulness would remain concealed to
him. E. are also important for ac-
quiring individual experience. III
this case, they are caused by
situations and signals that precede
direct E.-inducing efTects, and this al-
lows the subject to prepare for them in
time. The organism's energy mobilisa-
tion (ac/ivatiOIl) level essential for per-
forming the functions of E. is ensured by
the vegeta t ive nervous system (see Ner-
vous System) in its interaction with ce-
rebral structures consti1Uting the central
nervous substrate of E. E. involve
changes in the activity of respiratory
and digeslive organs. cardio-vasc
ular
,
,>yslcm, cndocrine glands, skektal and
smooth ctc. Human E. are the
prodll\;t of dne!opment
and belong 10 procc,>sl.'\ of irllernul re-
gulation of hehu\iOllr. Subjectivdy
manifc:>ting variou<; E. motivate
and direct all activily to
them. The supreme product of human E.
are stable towards
that correspolld to l>uprcmc human
needs. A strong, ab\olutcly dominant
feeling is called f)(ls.I'ioll. Besides specifIC
E., events signalling possible changes in
an individual's life may also cause varia-
tions in the gelleral emotional back
ground-so-called momk Human
e motional life is highly variegated: E.
manifest Ihe axiological altitude to spe-
cifIC conditions that either facilitate
or block a..:livity, e.g. fear or anger:
S7

derlying cause of Th.: dcve-

of E. in OIltOf<t'IIl?_\i.\ is
in differentiation of E. qualities; in l:llln
plication of the objel.:ts that cau'>c emo-
tional reo;ponses; and in the devdop
ment of abilities to f.:gulalc E. and
their outward manifcstatiom. Human
emotional experience would and
grow as a given would de-
velop owing to joint emotional exper-
iences (see Empathy) arising in (om
mUllicalion (I) with other people, in
perceiving works of art, or under the
influence of the mass media. E. play the
role of regulators of human communi-
cation by influencing thc choice of
communication partners and by deter-
mining specific means and ways of
communication. ExpreSlive mm'f!melll,\
are also a meam of communiGtlion
for signalling some wcially mcaningful
even!. Though charaCitrised by some
common fealures. Ihey eSloentially differ
depending on Ihe historical time and
culture in question.
10 concrete achievements. e.g. joy or
sorrow: to existing or future si
tuations, and so on. The nature and
dynamics of situational E. are deter-
mined both by objective events and the
feelings from which they stem (for
example. a feeling of pride about a lov-
ed one, or a feeling of sorrow about his
failures, jealousy, and so on). An attit-
ude towards reflected phenomena-l he
main property of E.-is represented in
their qualitative character istics (valence-
positive, negative; and modality-sur-
prise, joy, repugnance, indignation. an-
xiety, sorrow, etc.); the dynamics of E.
per se involves duration, intemity. etc"
and their external manifestation (emo-
tional expression) in mimicry, speech.
and pantomime. Humall E. vary in de-
gree of awareness. A conflict between
realised and un realised (see Tht' UII-
E. is most often the un-
Emolions. Information Theory of. a
Iheory. according to which human and
higher animal emotions are determined
by a given actual lIud (by ils quality
and magnitude) and by indi\'idual assess-
ment of the probabililY (possibility) of
satisfving Ihat need on the basis of
previollsly accumulated experiem:e and
incoming information. The individual
would make that assessment by invo-
luntarily comparing available informa-
tion on means, time, resources, etc.
needed 10 achie\'e his (satisfy
that need) with information 011 the
means, time. etc. he had received at the
given momen!. Ideas regarding Ihe prob.
RS
ability (If BttailllTlJ; a goal arc
lially and in lurn, de-
termine:; the subjecti\-c nature of arIs-
ing emotions. Yet. in mml l'ases, a sub-
jecti\'c as.,;c'>.,<;merll a more or Ie\.\
correct rcneclion of the ObjCl-tiw pnl-
babilil\-, since. otherwise, emotions
would "'ose their adaptive significance.
Humans can forecast Iht' probability of
achieving a goal both at the conscious
and unconscious I("cls of higher ner-
vous activit\'. Increased probability of
achie\"ing orie's goal with arrival of new
information engenders positive emo-
tions. while reduct>d probability leads to
negalive emotional response. E .. J.T.,
suggested by Pawl Simono\'. develops
han Pavlov's idea about the atlil'ation
of the cerebral mechanisms of emotions.
when the previously formed "inlernal
dynamic stereotype" does not coincide
with the changed "external dynamic
\tereotype. Basing on E .. I.T. psycholog-
ist!) analysed the regularities and me-
chanisms of emotional ,HfI!.'iS in humans
and higher animals. and the role of
stress in forming neurotic and psycho-
somatic disorders: they also developed
methods for objectively diagnosing the
degree of emotional Mress in individuals
performing some crucial operation, e.g.
aircraft pilot!), control tower operators,
co<;monauts, etc., and suggested
measure!. for preventing thaI stress.
Empalhy. comprehension of the emo-
tional states of another person through
common emotional experience. The
term E. wa5 inlroduced by Edward Til-
chener, who in it various
ideas about sympathy and Theo-
d(lr LIPPS' concept of imaginative entry
-
iUlll <In()tlll'r plr ... flllin!-! .... P'y...:hol_
ogi.\t, clistingui,h cllwtiOrlal F. iMwd 011
proj".tioll Illt"Chilni\lm (sC"t' Projl'./iI'l'
Tests) of ilnothl'r pl'r\On\
nHll\lr .1IId aITectin' n ..... p')11'c,: cognitive
E. ba,\!d lm intelicClual prtll'C"!,\e' (COIll_
parison. analogy, etc.): and predictiv\! E.
regardl'd as human 11bilily 10 forecast
another individual's afl'eClive reactions
in concrCtl' The following
of E. are di\linguished:
cOlllmon emotional experience, i.e. ex-
periencing by an indi\ idual of the same
cmotional statcs as Ihose experienced by
another person by itientifying oneself
with him. and sympathy, i.e. emotions
e>.perienced by an individual and elicit-
ed by another person's feelings. An im-
portant characteristic of E. which distin-
guishes it from other forms of com-
prehension (laking roles, (/i'Cl'lItratioll.
etc.) is ils weakly developed reflexive
(see Re/ll'xioll) aspect. or closure
within immediate emotional experience.
Empathic abilities of individuals were
found to grow with greater life expe-.
rience. E. is actualised more readily
when individuals' behavioural and emo-
tional responses are similar. and also in
highly anxious individuals (see Worry).
In Western psychology. E. is chiefly
interpreted as passive contempla-
tivc attitude towards another person's
states and emotional experience. an atti-
lOde that lacks active intervention de-
signed \0 actively help the latter. At the
same time, in a sylitem of illterper-
sO/wi re/utions characteristic of a devel-
oped collecril'l'. the subject of E. devel-
ops a stand of active interference de-
signed to eliminate frustratio/ls in other
members of the collective (obje<:tS of
,

\
,e
E.J
vi.\t).
- - -
hl'e I tll'/1 f IIi, '<11hili ,
-
CI/llf' Ii
Empirical r\ychIlIOJ(Y. 3 term intrCl-
dUl'cct in the lHlh century by thl! German
philosopher Christian Wolf}' to dl!signatc
a special di.\ciplinc whi(h, unlike ra-
tional psychology with il\ of
phenomcna from nature and the
stance of thc WIlli hcc Hi,tory of P.\.\'-
cliO/f)}:),)' describes and "udies connell.."
phenomena of p"ychic life. Wolff
thOllght that E.P. was designed to ob-
serve, classify, and establish Ihe natural
correlations of specifiC facts basing on
verincation through experience. The
basic idea of John Locke's doctrine was
thaI psychological co niti ould ce.iy
on expenence. e. e interpreted expe-
rience itself in an ambiguou!:i way by
dividing it inlo external and internal
experience (see ami thi!;
turned inlo a premise for the subsequent
split of E.P. into materiali.!;t (French
materialism) and idealisl (George Ber-
keley and David Hume) trends. The
resultant mid-19th century E.P. ("'expe-
riential school"') combined the idea of
empirical obsen'atioll, concrete analysis
and inductive cognition of mental phen-
omena wilh the doctrine that these
phenomena have spec ial substance per-
ceivable only through se/ -ah.\" n'alivlI.
The "experiential sc 1001"' programme
prepared a transition from speculative
inlerpretation of psyche to its expt:"ri-
menIal study. Subsequt:"lItly. the polyst'-
my of the lCrm "'experience" It:"d to a dis-
tinction between the adhl!renls of the
natural-science approach to psyche.
who believed it involved real proces:;es
of consciousness and behaviour control-

led 0)' on..l'rvatiorl O1ml f!Xfk"lml!'nI nd
\Upportt:"r. of "pure'" who,
as Lenin poinled (lut in his bonk \til,
terialism ami Empirillajfi,i.\/1I, redlll"t:"J
i( to 'iubje<.:tive phellf1I11t:na. 111 latl"
19th and early 11)th lclltllril .... m3ny P')"-
chological ,chllols were under the in
fluence of on t:xpe
flence.
Engineering Psychology. a oran(h in
psychology in ... the
and mean.!; of informational interaction
between man and machine. The scien-
tinc and technological revolution trans-
formed Ihe psychological 'tructurt: of
productive labour. whose impor-
tant components became the perct'plio"
and processing of operational informa-
tion, and de.:ision-makinf( within a lim-
ited span of time. It was under these
conditions Ihat E.P. emerged. The basic
problems studied in E.P. are: (I) anal-
ysi.!; of the tas/.;.\ facing man in the
conlrol systems and distribution of func-
tions between man and automallC
de\'ices, compulers in particular: (2)
study of Ihe joinl uctil'ilies of operators
and communication (I) and informa-
tional interaction between Ibem: (3)
analysis of the psychological Qdil'ity of
operators: (-l) study of tbe faclOrs in-
fluencing Ihe efficiency. quality, preci-
sion. speed and reliability of the
of operalOrs: (5) study of the reception
of information by man and of man's
sensor "'inpuI" (see Sl'lIwry Orl!lIl1S;
Brain): (6) of decision-making
and the processing and storage of in-
formation by man, the psychological
mechanisms of the regulation of the ac-
tivilies of operaTors: (7) of
00
the processes of forming commands and
the fulfillment of conlrol functions by
man, characteristics of his speech and
motor "output"; (8) elaboration of the
methods of psychodiagnosis. professio-
nal oriell/a/ion and selection of
alOr-specialists; (9) analysis and opti-
misation of the proct!sses of teaching
operator.;. In the of developing
E.P. transitions were made from the slu-
dy of isolated elements of activity 10
Ihe labour activity as a whole, from
examining the operator as a simple
link in the management system \0 treat-
ing him as a complex, highly-organi-
sed system, from a machine-oriented
approach 10 an anthropocentric ap-
proach. In the 19505. the basic areas
of reseach in E.P. were the processes
of percei\'ing the individual components
of inSlruments (pointers, scales, prints);
in the 1960s, the processes of perceiv-
ing the indicators of instruments as a
whole became the subject of study, and
in the 1970s, E.P. moved on to examine
the interaction bel ween the operator
and the multicomponent information
syslems. At presenl, Ihe intricate proces-
ses of the mutual adaptation of man and
the operated system are under investiga-
tion. This adaptation can take place
at different levels depending on the deg-
ree of the responsibility entrusted to
man and the complexity of the ma-
nagement system. The methods of in-
dividual adaptation elaborated in E.P.
are also applied in education as an in-
fo.rmational .means of treating pupils
with VISion anomalies. The intro-
duction of scientific of E.P. in
the ,economy is carried out through the
engineering and psychological design
of the working l'ontrol panels,
means and systems or regi!-itering infor_
mation. There 3re a number of genl!ral
principles for the of such liYli-
tems in E.P.: optimal laconicism, auto-
nomy, structuralism, stress on the ele-
ments of control and management and
their IOtal correspondence, separation of
the detailed and integral information in
time and space, individual operative
adaptation of the flow of signals 10
the work pace, ctc. E.P. identifies ex-
ternal factors of the complexity of acti-
vity, psychological factors (characteris-
tics of the subjective image, the con-
ceptual model of the controlled object)
and psychological criteria (the indica-
tors of efficiency, quality, reliability and
the intensity of human labour). To
identify and quantitatively appraise the
psychological factors of the operator's
activities. E.P. resorts to a complex
system of methods elaborated within
different branches of theoretical and
applied psychology (algorhythms, con-
struction of general block structures,
isolation of operations and actions, re-
gistration of psychophysiologic indica-
tors and mOtor components, observa-
tion, self-account, interview, etc.).
The introduction of the psychological
factors of complexity has made it pos-
sible to overcome the limitat ions of
the image of the operator as a "black
box" which E.P. inherited in the 1950s-
1960s from cybernetics and the beha-
viourism prevalent in bourgeois psycho-
logy. Soviet E.P. has formulated ma.ny
concepts, such as active operator, In-
volvement, the psychological system of
activity. algorhythm structures, idealised
syslems; polysensor interaction. mul-
-
-
tilevel mutual adaptation of man and
machine, lhe transformational theory
of learning. the psychological factors
of complexity, etc. (Boris Lomav, AI
bert Krylov, Vladimir Shadrikov, Va-
leri Venda, Vladimir Zinchenko, etc.),
(see also Ergollomics).
Epiphenomenalism, a doctrine accord-
ing to wh ich psyche plays no active
role in the life and activity of man,
being but a redundunt product of mate-
rial (physiological) processes. Dialecti-
cal materialism rejects E. and regards
mentality as active reflection of reality
instrumental in regulating vital acti-
vity.
Equilibrium of Neural Processes, a
properly of the nervous system showing
Ihe correlation between excitation and
exhibition. The Russian physiologist
Ivan Pavlov, who introduced the con-
cept "E. of N.P", regarded it as an
independent properly of the nervous
system which, in combination with its
other properties (strength and mobil-
ity), forms a type of higher nervous
activity. The school of Boris Teplov
and Vladimir Nebylitsin regards E. of
N.P. as a tOHtlity of secondary
(derivative) properties of Ihe nervous
system, determined by the correlation
of excitation and inhibition for each
of its primary properlies (strength.
mobility, lability, and dynamism),
which is a novel interpretation of E.
of N.P.
Ergonomics, the general term for a
group of sciences concerned with
91
comprehensive study of man 111 pro-
duction activity and with optiml\ation
of mean\ and conditions of labour. E.
includes the applied se<;lions of en1-:ineer
inK psychology, psychology, labour
physiology and hygienics, anthropolo-
gy, cerlain aspects of scientifiC
organisation of labour, technical design.
cybernetics, the general systems theory.
the theory of automatic control, etc.
The subject of E. involves the study
and optimisation of man-machine-
environment systems. The methodolog-
ical foundation of E. involves a
sySlems approach allowing 10 obtain
a comprehensive idea on the process
of labour and on ways for perfecting
that process in order to enhance the
efficiency and quality of work. all-
round development of the individual.
and satisfaction of the creative require-
ments of working people. Together
with engineering psychology, E. asses-
ses the reliability, accuracy and stabi-
lity of operatOf's work and distribution
of functions between man and machine;
studies the effect of psychic tension,
fatigue, stress. and emotional states
on labour efficiency; and develops
methods for selecting and training
specialists. E. is organically linked
de.signing new machinery, technological
equipment. work places, interiors.
transportation means and.
visual communications, and industrial
complexes. Several government indus-
trial standards have been introduced
111 the USSR as regards E. and
ergonomic requirements for man-
machine systems. display devices. and
work places.
'"
Elhnopsychology. an interdisciplinary
branch of knowledge fhal siudies Ihe
ethnic a:specls of human psyche: Ihe
n3tional character, regularities of
forming and functioning of nalional
self-awareness: ethnic stereotypes; and
so on. The crcalion of a special,
essentially idealist discipline ('a lled
"peopies' psychology" was proclaimed
back in 1860 by Moritz Lazarus and
Heymann Sleinlhai, who interpreted
the "people's spirit" as a specific. closed
formation expres;ed in the psychic
sirniiarilY of individuals belonging 10 a
definite nalion. and simultaneously as
their self-awareness: according 10
these aUlhors. the substance of E. is
10 be revealed by comparative study
of the language, mythology, elhics.
and culture of a given nation. In the
early 20th century. these ideas were
developed and partially actualised in
Wilhelm Wundt's "peoples' sychol-
ogy", US psychologislS
virtually identified E. with a neo-
Freudian theory (see Neo-FreudianismJ
which tried to infer the properties of
national traits from the so-called basic
or modal personality, which they, in
turn, associated with child education
methods typical of a given culture,
C:0ntempor.ary E. is no si ngle entity
eIther topIcally or methodologically,
and the following independent trends
may be distinguished therein: (I) com-
parative studies of [he ethnic features
of psychophysiology, cognitive process-
es, memory, emotions, speech, etc.,
and methodolog-
Ically conSl11ute an mseparable part of
corresponding chapters of general and
social psychology; (2) cuhurological
-
- -
illn""I1,ali01l" dc"ig1l ....J to l'larify the
specifu.:s of the s),lllbolk world and
the \,!lluc OrientatIons of national
.... ulture that are ins .... parably associated
with corresponding chaptcrs of ethnog_
raphy, folklore. study of arl, etc.;
(3) study of ethnic cotlsciousness and
self-awareness that borrow their con-
cepts and from corresponding
chapters of soc tal psychology which
study social attitudes. intergroup rela-
tions. etc.; and H) studies of the et hni c
peculiarities of child socialisation, the
concepts and methods of these studies
being closest to those used in sociology
and child psychology (Igor Kon).
Since the properties of national culture
and those constitut ing an ethnic com-
munity of individuals are not identical.
culturological and psychological studies
of E. are always marked by certain
discrepancies. The abstract and unfo-
unded conclusions of many non-Soviet
ethnopsychologists about the psycho-
logical features of various nations are
essentially harmful, so much so that
they can offend national feelings. The
crucial issue facing psychologists is the
degree of reliability of tests and expe-
rimental procedures used in studying
ethnic communities. The further de-
velopment of E., especially its socio-
psychological aspects, has a major
import for educating the working peo-
ple in a spirit of internationalist co-
operation.
EthOlogy, the study of the "biology
of behaviour", of the general biological
foundations and regularities of animal
behaviour. The concept and basic
principles of E. were formulated in
--
1895 by Louis 00110. The ta."k') of E.
are to study the phylogenl!tk and onto-
genetic (see Phylogenesis,
properties of Ilnimal behaviour and to
reveal. the signifICance of behaviour
as a factor of animal evolution and
individual and populational ac/uptafioll.
In this case, E. gives main attl!ntion
to the species- typical (instinctive)
components of behaviour. Ethological
analysis is based on by
biological methods of the integral be-
havioural act. 'The postures and
movements typical of a given spe-
cies are described in the form
of "ethograms" (systematised "calalo-
gues" of1ocomotor activity of species).
Observations and experiments are used
to establish the functional significance
of these components, and external and
internal behavioural factors are subject-
ed [0 quantitative and qualitative
analysis. E. gives special attention 10
the biological (ecological) mechanisms
of behavioural acts. It also specifies
associations between species and other
taxa with regard to behaviour, and
studies animal behavioural aberrations
in extreme situations. Its accomplish-
ments are used in livestock breeding
and other sectors of the economy,
and also in developing the scientiflc
foundations of keeping animals in
captivity (see also Animal Psychology.
InstincliI'e 8elwviour of Animals).
Psychologists who adhere to anti-
Marxist "human ethology" uncondi-
tionally, albeit quite unfoundedly.
apply the biological regularities of
animal behaviour to human behaviour,
including to all flelds of social activity
(see Allthropomorphism).
Euphoria. an mood .
state of compla(en(y and un(UI1{'C'rn
that runs counter to objective cir(um-
stances and is found to inv(JlvC' mimil'
and general locomotor anllnation,
and psychomotor excitement.
Excitation, a property of living (uga-
nisms, an active response of excitable
tissue to stimulation. E. is prim:i-
pal function of the nl'rI'OIl.\
The cel].; Ihat form the nervous system
can conduct E. from the place where
it has occurred to other places and
neighbouring cells. Thanks to this,
nerve cells have acquired the ability
to transmit signals from one body
structure to another. A!. a result, E.
has come to be the carrier of infor-
mation about the properties of external
stimuli and, logether with inhibition.
a regula!ot:, of the of all baJy
-organs and -sysrems. E. only ari'>C!.
when the intensity of the external
stimulus exceeds the absolute excita-
tion threshold (see Sensalitm
hold) inherent in a given organ. E. is
based on physical and chemical pro-
cesses with which bioelectrical phenom-
ena concomitant with E. and record-
able both at the cell level and from the
animal or human body surface art:
related. E. spreading modes are es-
senlially dependent on the type of the
nervous system: in Ihe most primitive
(diffusive) nervous system. it is conduct-
ed uniformly in various directions
and gradually attenuates. In the course
of evolution, Ihe complication of the
nervouS system was accompanied by
an improvement in the modes of E.
transmission to its terminus with no
--
altenuallon. thus allowing E. 10 Ole-
c01llplish its regulatory function
in the organism in an integral way.
Together with inhibition. E. consli-
the foundation of the higher
nervous activity. Their dynamics
fits all behavioural acts, induding
the very complex ones, and their
individual specifics determine the type
of the higher nervous activity.
Exercise. repetition of some action in
order 10 learn it. In different traini!lg
conditions. E. is either the only proce-
dure within whose framework the
individual would acluaiise all learned
elements by comprehending and con-
solidating Ihe knowledge obtained and
by generaJising and automat ising the
action in question. or one of the pro-
cedures. in addition to explanation and
memorising, which precede E. to secure
initial understanding and preliminary
consolidation of knowledge relating to
the action to be performed. In this
case, E. would make comprehension
and consolidation, and also generalisa-
tion and automatism of the action prac-
tices complete, and in the final account
this ,would lead to complete mastery by
the mdividual of that action, and to its
transformation (depending on the
extent of automatism achieved) into
capability or skill. E. may also be per-
formed immediately after the action is
explain,ed, i:e. without preliminary
memonsmg: III this ca:)e, consolidation
of would fully take place
durmg E.
Existenlial
gcsted by
Analysis.
Ludwig
a method
Binswanger
sug-
for
analysing 1't'rwlII(lJity
and IIniqul,'nc:.s of his
'Accor(1l1lg- -to E.A"
true being is rc\'ealed through absorp_
tion in himself or herself so as to select
a totally independent "life project".
When the individual's ofK!nness to the
future disappears, he begin:'> to feel
himself ahandoned, hi s inner world
narrows, his developmental potential-
ities remain beyond the horiz.on of
vision, and he develops neurosis (see
Psrc/iof!t>llic Disorders). The meaning
of E.A. is seen 10 herping a neurotic
realise that he is free and capable
of self-determination. E.A. proceeds
from false philosophical premise
that the truly personal in man is only
manifest when he is free of causal
associations wilh the material world
and his social milieu (see Depth Psy-
chology) .
Expectalions, a system of anticipations
and requirements with regard to execu-
tion by an individual of intragroup
roles. E, represent a variety of social
sanctions thai bring into order the
system of relations and interactions
within a group. Unlike official pre-
scriptions, functional instructions, and
other behavioural regulations within a
group. E. are non-formalised and not
always realised by the individual. The
two main aspects of E. are the right to
expect thaI other people would behave
in a manner corresponding 10 their
role and in line with other peo-
ple's E. Psychologists distinguish pres-
cribing E., which determine proper
execution by an individual of his role,
and predicting E. which determine the
I
prohahle nature "f thai ml,.. with ar
count for the !ouhje{'t's individual
featur es in a given situation.
Psychology. see lIumani\tic
P.\ yc 1101r II: Y.
Experiment (in psychology), one
of the principal (alongside observat-
iun) methods of scientifIc cognition
in general, and of psychological
research in particular. Unlike observat-
ion, E. invqlves jnter-
vention in a situation by the researcher,
w1fo -cleliberately -manipulates one or
several variables (faclOrs) and records
the accompanying changes in the
behaviour of the object under study.
A correctly run E. allows to verify
hypotheses on cause-and-effect rela-
tions and not only simply to slate Ihe
correlation between the variables.
Psychologists distinguish traditional
and factorial designs for conducting
E's. In the traditional design only one
independent variable is changed, while
in Ihe factorial design several variables
are altered. The lallers advantage
is in allowing to assess the interaction
of factors, i.e. the changing influence
of one variable depending on the
magnitude of another. In thiS case, sta-
tistical processing of E. results would
involve dispersion a/lalysis (Ronald
Fisher). If the examined fIeld is
relatively unknown, and a system of
hypothe:)es is absent. psychologists
speak of a pilol E. (:)ee Pilot Study}.
whose results could help specify the
direction of subsequent analysis. When
there are twO competing hypotheses.
95
--- --
and E. allows hl on\! of them,
of a ..:fucial E.
(cxpaimentum cnl\i.O. A control E.
i<; performed to ched( certain depen
dencies. However, the use of E.
enc{)unter"i some fundamental limi-
tations caused by the impo\Sibility in
some to randomly change the
variables. For instance, in differentiul
psycho/OR)' and personality studies,
most empirical dependencies have the
status of correlatiom (i.e. probability
and statistical dependencies) and, as
a rule, do not always allow to mak.e
conclusions about cause-and-elTect
relationships. One difficulty in applying
E. in psychology is that the research-
er quile often finds himself involved
in communication (I) with fhe subjC("t,
and can unintentionally inHuence the
latter's beha .. iour. Forming or teaching
E's (see Experiment, Formim.:Jmake
up a special category of p!.ychological
imestigation methods. which allow to
purposefully form the specifics of Souch
mental processes as perception, atten-
tion, memory, and thinking.
Experimental Ps),chology, the general
term for various studies of mental
phenomena by experimental methods.
The use of e:>:periment played a major
role in transforming psychological
knowledge and turning psychology <
from a branch of philosophy into an ""-
independent science. E.P. was developed
by extensive studies of elementary
psychic functions, "iz. sClIsaliollS,
perceptiQlls, and reaction lime, which
were started in the mid-19th century.
These works were instrumental III
generating the idea about the po..sibili-
96
Iy of creating E.P. as a special
discipline as di!)linguished from philo-
sophy and physiology. The initial scheme
for developing E.P. was advanced
by Wilhelm Wundt, who subsequently
traine<! many psychologists from differ-
ent all of whom were later
sponsors of various experimental
p:;ychological institutions. Whereas in-
ternal psychological processes in normal
adulb, analyst:d by specially organised
self-obserl'alion (introspection), were
initially regarded as the main object
of E.P" subsequent experiments
were performed on animals (C. L1oyd-
Morgan and Edward Thorndike),
menially ill and children. Later, E.P.
studied not only the general regulari-
ties of mental processes, but also spe-
cifle varieties of sensibility, reaction
time, memory, and associalions (Fran-
cis Galton and James Cattell). Thus,
E.P. gave rise to differential psycholo-
gy, a new trend concerned with distinc-
tions that characterise individuals and
groups of people. The accomplishments
of E.P. were flrst purely "academic"
and not used in education and in
medical treatment. Subsequently,
however, they came to be widely
applied in different areas of human
endeavour, ranging from preschool
pedagogy to space exploration. The
development of theoretical schemes
and specifiC methods of E.P. was close-
ly with the current general
progress In knowledge,
notably at. the Intersection of biologi-
cal, techmcal and social sciences.
Forming,
studYing changes in
a method of
child psyche
through active innuence of the subject
by the rC!iearcher: used in devdop_
mel/wi and pedagogic psychology. E.,F.
is widely lI!ied .in Soviet psychology to
study the speCIfic ways in which the
chi ld's personality forms, through joint
application of psychological investiga-
tions with pedagogical search and
planning of most elTective for ms of
teaching and education. Synonyms of
E.,F: transforming, creative, educating,
and teaching experiment; also method
of active forming of psyche.
Expressive, indicative of or capable
of reRecting an emotional state.
Expressive Movements, overt expres-
sion of Slales. especially those
involving emotion, which show in
mimicry (E.M. of face muscles), panto-
mime (E.M. of the whole body), "vocal
mimicry", i.e. the dynamic aspect of
speech (intonation, timbre, rhythm,
vocal vibrato), and expressiveness
that may be decisive in interpreting
the meaning of utterances. E.M. are
often accompanied by changes in the
pulse rate, breathing, functioning of
the endocrine glands, etc. Man's histor-
ical development and the arisal of
purely human sentiments had a tre-
mendous elTect on the development
of E.M. In the course of human C011l-
mUllicatiotl (1), E.M. become increas-
ingly numerous and dilTerent, assuming
the nature of a figurative "language",
a speciflc code for transmitting the
multiform tinges of sentiments, as-
sessments, and allilUdes to different
and phenomena. E.M. are cor-
I

rectly interpreted in the course of
more or less lengthy commun ication.
Being acts of communication, E.M.
turn into a means of conscious influ-
ence on people. The forms and use of
E.M. depend on the existing system of
social relations, and thus become an
object of social control by the social
environment in accord with the mean-
ing attached to them.
Exteriorisalion, a process of generating
external actions, utlerances, etc. by
transforming a number of internal
structures which had formed on the
basis of illferiorisatioll of external
human social activity.
Externality-I nternality. indiv idual
predisposition to specific form of locus
0/ control. If a subject largely takes
personal for all happen-
ings in his life, explaining them by
his own behaviour, character and
abilities, this is indicative of internal
locus of control. Conversely, if he tends
10 ascribe them to external factors
(the environment, fate, or chance),
this is indicative of external locus of
control.
Extroversion-IntrOversion, character-
istics of individual psychological
difTereTlce!;, whose extreme poles cor-
respond 10 a personalily's dominanl
orie"tati()n either 10wards the world
of external objects, or towards one's
own subjective world. The concepts
of E. and I. were introduced by Carl
J ung (see Anulytical Psychology)
to designa1c twO opposite types of
i.II'l I..,
personality. The extrovertt:LI type
directs hi.s interests outward>;, ami \Of"
rounding objeds attract vital intt:r-
ests and "vital energy" like a m<lgnet;
in a sense, this leads to hi.s alienation
from himself, to belittkment ()f the
personal significance of his subjective
world. Extroverls are characterised
by impUlsiveness, initiative, flexibility
of behaviour, sociability, and social
adaptability (see Adjust ment. S()(."ia/).
Conversely, introverts direct their
interest inwards, towards their own
thoughts and feelings, to which they
ascribe supreme value; they are also
characterised by unsociability, rt:ti-
cence, social passiveness, tendency to-
wards self-analysis, and difficult social
adjustment. The problems of E.-I. were
studied most intently in factor personal-
ity theories (James Cattell. Joy Guil-
ford, Hans Eysenck, and others).
which examined them not in terms of
personality types, but as a continuous
scale showi ng the quantitative ratio
of E.-I. properties in a specifiC .. ubjecl.
In the most popular Eysenck concept,
the E.-I. parameter. combined with
the neurotic dimensioll (emOliollal-
volitional stabilit y vs instability), forms
the twO main persollaJity dimemions
which determine all those propertie ...
The abstract statistical approa.:h under-
lying this concept created serious
difftcuhies in explaining the of
numerous E.-I. which
eclectically ,ombine heterogeneou.,
personality characteristi,s. rangrng
from impulsivenesS and aggre.sivenc!'ts
(see Bellal.iollr. 10
ical and politi,al atlicude,'. The
Eysenck-e.stablished depelldelH:e of
E.-- L on the of the nt'rI'()U,\
',)'.Hem entailed the reactionary C('lI1'
elusion thaI psychological and social
traib are biologically predetermined.
In Soviel psychology, E.--I. mallifeMa
lions, l'rilically reviewed from
position:;. are regarded as propenies
of temperamellt, i.e. a:; dynamil' (not
sub:;tantivel characteristics of menIal
(Volf Merlin, losif Palei.
and others) that serve as premi:;es
for development of specific personal
qualitie::;.
Factor Analysis, a
method of multidi-
mensional mathema-
tical statistics
plied in studying
statistically related
fealUres to reveal
a defInite number of factors couce
ed- from direct observation. Devel-
oped in the early 20th century for
the needs of psychology (Charles
Spearman tried to identify the basic
faclor), F.A. be-
came subscquently widespread in
economics, medicine, sociology and
other sciences with numerous variables,
among which one should distinguish
the main, ones. F.A. is used not only
to establish the correlation between
('hanges in two variables, but also \0
dcterrnine the measure of that
correlation and to reveal the underlying
faClor'l of those changes. F.A. is partic-
ularly productive in the initial stages
of research. when there is a need to
"ingle out certain prt:liminary regulari-
!ic\ in a gin'ti fll'ld. This to
IInpro\l' thc. j'xperilll('/ll
compart'ti wnh that IIlvolving randomly
selected v3nablt"s. As a method, F.A.
al!>o has some weak nspt'l.:1s. For instance
it f"its to provide an unambivalcnI Y
mathematical solution of the problem
of factor loadings, i.c. lhe effect of
individual faclors 011 changes in differ_
ent
Fanaticism, extreme loyalty to any
idea or cause ba!')ed on blind faith in '
the truth of one>_ ()wn and
\
r
IS accompanied by intoleljance
of ot.her beliefs and views, and by
inability to critically view oneself and
one's own actions (like in religious
F.)
Fascination, purposely organised I'erbal
effect designed to reduce losses by the
recipients of semantically meaningful
information contained in a communi-
cated message and thereby enhanct:: the
possibility of its elTect on their behav- r
iour. F. may differ in form. Depending
on acoustic organisation, F. intensity
may vary from minimal (monotonous
announcer's speech) to maximal (spe
cially intoned speech, recitation or
singing). Rhythmic organisation of a
message is an important factor of F.
There is also semantic F., when, under
certain conditions, the text of a message
proves vitally signflcant for the recipi-
to cause a sharp change in their
behaviour (for instance, semantic F.
was manifested in the "phenomenon
of October 30, \938", when a radio
dramatisation of Herbert Well's TIll'
- . -
War of 111(' Worlds caused a panic
involving over one million people in tile
Unitcd States. (Fifteen years laler, a
similar effect was caused by this radio
production in Ecuador.) Rumours can
also produce semantic F.
Fatigue, a sct of subjective emotional
experilo!llces concomitant with the
development of a state of
F. is characterised by weaknes:s, flo!eble-
ness, impotence, feelings of physio-
logical discomfort, awareness of one's
own mental IQSS of
Itllerest for one's work, predominant
personal motivation to stop all activity,
and negative emotional reactions. F.
may also arise with protracted monoto-
nous work. Yel. a paradoxical F.
related to tiredness may also occur.
Another paradoxical possibility is absen-
ce of F. in a really exhausted individual.
Fear, 311 emotion arising in situations
that threaten the individual's biological
or social existence, and directed at
the source of real or imaginary danger.
Unlike pail! and other forms of suffering
caused by the actual eITecls of factors
to existenct::, F. occurs when
the individual anticipatcs them. Depend-
ing on the nature of the danger, -the
intlo!nsity and specificity of F. would
vary quite significantly to involve either
alarm. dread, fright, or horror. If the
source of danger is unclear or unreal
by the individuat, the resultant
sensation called anxiety. Functionally,
F. serves to forewarn the subject of an
imminent danger, him to con-
centrate hb allention on its source,
and compels him to seek ways
to avoid it. When F. anains the
,inlensilY of an uffect (panicky fear.
horror), il may illlpO'>C behavioural
(night, stupor. defensive ag-
gres.\ion). F. can educalt:: people social,
ly. For example, F. of condemnation
is used by society to regulate individual
behaviour. Given that in modern society
the individual is protected by judicial
and other social institutes, his incrt::ascd
tendency towards F. lacks ils adaptive
signilicance and is traditionally viewed
in a negative light. Fear reactions are
relatively stable and may persist even
when the individual realises that they
are absurd. Hence when the psychia-
trist trains a person to make him or
her this is usually intend
ed to make this person learn how to
exercise self-control in ca:;e of F., not
10 rid him or her of F. Inadequate
fearful reactions are observed in various
mental disturbances (see Phobias).
Field (in psychology>. a set of Ihe pre
sent ("here and now") stimulants of
individual acti\'ity emotionally experi-
enced by the subje(1. Tile F. (oncept
was developed within tlte framework
of Gestalt psychology and topological
psychology and was interpreted in
accord with the principles of these two
schools of bourgeois psychology. By
means of tlte F. cOllcept, one would
characterise individual behaviour in a
given silUatioli depending on the sub
jecrs orientation (see Field il1depl'l1-
deflct').
Field Independence, a concept desig'
nating preferential orientation oi the
I II!)
indhidualto inner
of outward impressioll:;. when inade-
quate form:; of environment rl!neclion
are impmed thereon. F.1. embrace,:; a
wide range of events, from those il1\oh'-
ing stability and adequacy of perception
of The outer wortd in conditions That
hamper such perception to manifesta-
tion of the individuar ... autonomy under
innuence
of a W()UP or crowd ( ...ee Muss Panic;
COllfa1{ioll). Field-dependent behaviour
is one in which the subject responds
to stimuli pos.:sessing IllO-
ti\'ational forre ("valence") beyond the
inlluence of a predetermined objective.
Field-independent behaviour manifests
ihelf in ba:;ic human orientation to one ...
O'A-Il . purpose and in disregard of an
eXI ... tll1g \lIUaIlOI1.
Field Research. study of social pheno-
mena or animal group behaviour in
.,!1Qrn)al _ is primarily
the :;tudy of space-limited group of
individuaLs (people or animals) within
their daily activity, .'>pecifically human
collectivc\ in their social COl1\e:\t; \lods
of animals in natural habitah; etc. F.R.
wa'. initially connected with ethnogra-
phiC de.'>cril>ing events which
were difficult to foreca\t and systematisc
beforehand. The main purpose of F.R.
is to reveal unknown proce.s\es and
!heir determining factors. Depending on
Its tasks and means, there are three
types of F.R., viL., exploring F.R. (see
Pilot. SllIdy), which is essentially
de'>Cflpl1ve I.n nature; diagnostic F.R.,
which 1\ auned at solving pra..:tical
problems; and experimental F.R. (see
F;xperimenl) , whi..:h involves veriflca-
tion of hypoTllI.'ses. A major condi tion
for F.R. to l'n:;urc the observer's
preserKl' thaI doc, not dil>\ort The natu _
ral lour ...e of the Observl!d proccs,s.
Figure and Background, a distinction
that originated in the fine arts and was
subsequently introduced into psycholo_
gy in the early 1900:; by the Danish
psychologist Edward Ruhin, who termed
as flS.llrc The. closed, protruding and
arresTing section of the "substantive"
phenomenal fi eld. The background sur-
round ... the flgure to appear to be its
uninterrupted continuation. Separation
of F. and B. may be shown by the
following two-flgurc illustration whose
individual parts may be perceived both
as figure and background:
F. and B. ditTer not only descriptively.
but also functionally. For instance. in
visual perception, tht: background
the function of a reference
frame in-re-Iation (0' whietl the colour ..
:;patial and otllt:r figure characteristics.
are as.:seS!)t:d. The correla\lon of F. and
B. various types of constancy.
I

Firsl Signalling System, Si1<Iwl-
lillg SY.,'I'II1\.
Forens ic Psychological Expert Exami-
nation. a major form of appli cation
of special p:;ychologkal knowledgt: in
criminal proceedings. It is performed on
the investigator or court ordt:r in
formity with the code of criminal
ceedings in relation to mentally ... ane
accused, and victims. The
general subject of F.P.E.E. concerns
mental activity specifiC:; study is
important for establishing the truth
in criminal Speciflc F.P .E.E.
inquiries may be performed to diagnose
the or absence of affect in the
at the moment of crime. the
ability of witnesses and victims (prima-
rily children) to correctly perceive im-
portant for Ihe case in
question. and to testify correctly there-
on; and so on .
Forensic Psychology. a branch of jl/ri-
dical psychology thaI studies problems
pertaining to legal proceedings: the
psychology of judges. investigators,
and other law-enforcement offlcers
and lawyers. the essence of their
professional activities. and their se-
lection and training: methods: the psy-
chology of the accused. wi\ltesses,
and victim:;; the psychology of wit-
ne.<;s testimony and the
principles of investigatory and judicial
actions (interrogation. confrontation.
etc.): the of inquiry: and
the methodology and techniques of
forensic ...holol!ical ('xlJert (!xam-
i IIlIlI on.
101

Pocgeuing. a process characteri.,ed by
a gradual decrease in the ability to
recall and reproduce the learned mate-
rial. F. was first studied by Hermann
(1885) who established
experimentally the temporal dependen-
ce of retaining in memory \'('r-
bal material. Subsequent studilts have
:;hown Ihat the rate of F. depl!nds 011
the following factors: the volume of
memorised material. its cont ent and
degree of comprehension, the similari-
ty of memorised and (see
Inlerference)' material; the signiflcance
of memorised material and involve-
ment in the _mbjert's actil;I)'. etc. The
inability to recall some material does
not mean Ihat it is forgotten completely.
What is forgotlen is the concrete form
of material. but its content significant
for Ihe subject undergoo qualitative
changes and is included in the subject's
experience. According to the interfe-
rence theories. F. is a consequence of
the erasure of memory traces under the
impact of ,.9roactive and in-
terference. According to Richard'
Atkinson (1968). long-term memory is
eternal, and F. occurs in the following
way: a key 10 rltcalling is the choice of
test (prompting) information which j
activates the corresponding retrieving
sets in the long-term memory storage
(see Memory. Long-Term): an inade-
quate choice of such information and
its :;ubsequent unsuccessful reproduc-
lion leads to the F. elTect (this hap-
pens because the task of recalling
a big volume of material involves big
retrieving sets). But Ihis theory is
vulnerable. too. because it does not
explain all F. phenomena (see Sequell-
!lI2
Effe..:-t). In psychology. pros-
peTlS for developing a psychological
of memon' whi..:-h would explain
F. are connt!.:ted with
l'om:ept of memory a!> an action rer se.
rather than with the traditional doc-
trine of memory tra.:es (Memory:

Freudianism. a trend named after
the Austrian psychologist Sigmund
Freud that explains personality's delle 1-
opment and by irrational
mental fac\U('S antagonisiic to consci-
-and uses p.1),chollierap>, based
thereon. Having originated as a con-
..:-eption for explaining and treating
neuroses (see Disorders),
F. developed into a general
leaching about man, society and culture
10 acquire a maior influence in the
.:apita!isl world. The core of F. b in the
Idea of hidden c_ontroxt;rsy
lz.e_twn _iI!! forces
(the main one being sexual urge-
libido) concealed deep inside the indi-
vidual, and Ihe need to survi ....e in a
:so.:ial mt:dium hostile to that individ-
ual. The social bans that create .:en-
sorship" of consciousn! inflict a
psychic trauma and the energy
o which break
through in the form of neurotic symp-
IOrm. dream.l, mIstaken actions (oral or
wr:llen slips). forgel! ing of the un pleas-
ant. etc_ F. di-:linguishes the fOllowing
three omponents III the structure of
pe':"SOnahty: ia (it, ego (I) and Supere-
( upe-_I) , Id focus of blllld
II'ISUnc....ither sexual or aggres.;ive.
w.lch te"1d owards nstant gratiflca_
)n. rres)e( ve 0 the subject's rela-
tion:.hip with external rcolity. Ego per.
information about the \urround_
ing world and the condition, re-
tains this information in memor>, and re-
the individual's responses in the
inlerest of helping
him adapt to external reality. Superego
im'olves moral bans and
encouragements assimilated by the
indi .... idual. mostly unconsciously, in the
course of education, chieny from his
parents. Arising from a mechanism
whereby the child himself
with an aduh (father), id manift!SIS
itself in Ihe form of conscience and
may cause feelings of fear and guil!.
Inasmuch as the demands of the id,
superego and external reality (to which
the indillidual b compelled to adapt)
on the ego are incompatible. the latter
inevitably finds itself in a conflicting
situation. This creates unbearable stress, \
from which the indillidual saves himself
by means of "defence mechanisms",
viz. repression, rationalisation. Sflblima-
lioll, and regression. Alleging thai
childhood unambiguously determines
the character and allitudes of an adult
indillidual, P. ascribes childhood an
important role in the forming of moti-
vations. P. sees the of psychothera.
py in revealing damaging emotional
and in liberating the indi-
Vidual of them through calhan-is,
awareness of repressed urges, and
of the cause:; of neuro-
IIc symptoms. To that end. F. uses
dream analy5cs, the "free associations"
method, etc. In the- of psycho-
therapy, the physician encounters the
patienCs resistance, which b subsequent-
ly replaced by emotionally posilive

allitude .. towards the former. i.e. by

tram/nel/et', owing hi which the pati-
en!'s ego grow .. in strength to make him
realise the source of hi'> and
outlive them in a .. form. Freud
introduced several important problems
into psychology, namely, uncon\,-ious
motivation, correlation of normal and
pathological mental phenomena, the
psychological defence. the role of the
sex, the effect of child traumas on adull
behaviour, a complex structure of
personality, and contradictions and
conRicts in the subject's psychological
structure. Yel, in interpreting these is-
sues, Freud advanced scientifIcally
unacceptable biologistir tenets which
claim that psyche is subordinate to
\.. instinctive asocial urges. Ihat libido is
omnipotent (pansexualism). and that
the con SciOli!> and the unconscious are
(
antagonistic. Thus. Freud adllanced an
inadequately interpreted psychological
factor as a determinant of both organic
and social life. By subordinating the
history and culture of human society
to that factor. P. mystified both, having
thus taken on a reactionary ideological
purport.
Freudo-Marxism. a trcnd in
that tries to combine Frt'lI-
dianislll and Marxi.sm by arguing that
some tenets in both doctrines are al-
legedly common. F.M. thus distortS
the essence of Marxism, on the one
hand, and tenus to Freudian-
ism at the t:xpensc of Marx's presti.
gious doctrine, on thl.' other. The rust
representatille of wa_\ Wilhl.'lm
Reich, who maintained that the pro-
letariat's revolutionary struggle mllst
10.,
be complemented with a ,>truggle for
a new policy in \exual eJu.:alion.
Gerbert .\1arcuse, Reich's follower, al
It:ged that the es....ence of capitalist
exploitation wa1 10 restrict human
urge..., including perllersions. At the
!>ame time, he reduced revolutionary
struggle to a battle for liberating
instincts. According to Marcu!>e, rello- Y
lutionary forces arc scx:icty's "outcasts" A
to which he indiscriminately as.\igned
studellls, the unemployed. lumpen pro-
letarians, and nalional minorities. These
views made Marcuse the ideologist of
leftist and anarchic elements among
young people. Erich Fromm's claims
thai Freudianism is affmed to Marxism
desen'c particular attention. \Ianipulat-
ing with idea'i. and not' in-
frequently substituting th<!ir for
his own (see .'IIea-Fuutiiullisml,
Fromm tried 10 creale the imprt:ssion
that his theory was close to \1arxi",m,
continuing at Ihe same time 10 criticise ) I
capitali!>m from abstra..:t humanisti.c
positions. All F.-:'-1. trends are SClenfL-
ticall), unsound. -
Friendship, a Iype of steady indi\'idual
selective inlerpersonlll re/utiorzsllip.\
characterised by mutual aHachmeot of
ils members. intensification of a/fifju
/ioll processes and mutual expectance
of reciprocal feelings and preferences.
The development of F. presuppo:;es
adhl;'rence to its unwritten "code" whIch
affums the nel;'d for mutual understand-
ing, frankness alld opennes.s _ ill
to each other. as well as actlve mutual
aid and mu(Ual inlen.'st in the atTairs
and emotional experienl:C!!i of each
olher, and selnessneS!>. Gra\{'
10-1
breaches of the F. "code" resulf eilher
in a ces.<;alion of the relationship or
the establi!;hment of superficial F. or
10 F. resulting in its opposite=-
hatred. The of F.-de.spite
its intimate nature-to business, formal
and olher relations is of a relati\e
nature. F. depends on common goals,
intere:;ls, ideal:.: and intenlions. It neres-
sarily reveal:.: \'allle orienlational unity.
The wealth of relation:.:hips within F. is
determined by Ihe social value of the
activity to which Ihe friends have devot-
ed them:.:"lvc\. 10 those ideas and inter-
est:.: on which their union is based.
The functions of F., its pallerns of
development, etc. change significantly
from one stage of the life cycle to
another and are sex-specific. The in-
ten\lty of F. reaches its peak during
youth and early adulthood
when with friends are of
extreme Importance, when the number
of meeting:.: c. greatest as is the time
'ipenl together. Relations between
are characterised by deep ema-
_ contact. _ In view of the fact
that girls eX(>Crtence a need for' .
acy at - II1l1m-
bo an earlier age as compared with
, ys, they progres..s (tom childhood F t
adolescent F. al an earlie, oge M .. 0
d ) " . I arrtage
ler changes brought about by
_ ood change the nature of F
frtendly relations cease to b '. and
th'i ' 'f e ulllque
_ c r Kance le<;sens and th f '
11011\ of F. change. Neverth e unc-
al later stages of the lif eless,
am' f e cycle 11
. aJor actor in r .
the per<;onality and su . ormlng
nmC('p/. Since F' - pportmg the
. IS a SOCial ph en
Oil, liS anaJyw-; by _ I 1 omen_
b' so e y psychological
" 11 vlously inadequate. F. is
-
by sociologists, philo.\ophen.
ethnogrophers ond other re.\carchcr.s.
II psychological slate aris-
II1g because of. somc rcal or imaginary
.obstade to. adllC\'lIIg a go,ClI. II
usdf in of oppres.sivc stress
worry. dispair, anger, etc. F. illtellsit;
would depend on the of
the blocked behaviour and the goal's
s,ubjec! ive "proximity". Defence reac-
III F. lake the form of aggres-
slve.ness (see .Bellal'iollr, Aggressil'e)'
of dIfficult (includ-
11; ?f __ lo. an imaginary
p)ane>. dec1l1led compfexuy of beha-
viour to a level of deep
since increased stress in
hlbJls and more complex apion-
regulating structures. F. may lead to
character uncertainlY of one- ,/
self, ftxatlon of rigid forms of
behaviour. (see Rigidity). Quite often,
F. results In neuroses. Hence, develop-
ment of individual tolerance (resist-
ance) to F. is of particular signifi-
cance.
Functional Asymmetry of th B .
cha '. e ram,
f ra.cteflses distribution of mental
unc.tl0ns between the Iwo cerebral
hemispheres. It has been established
that the.lef! hemisphere operates with
verbal-:':Ign Inf ...
form ormation 111 liS expressive
and and .has the function of reading
. I COUlltlng, whereas the right hem-
lere 0peral' . [ .
I f
. es Will Images and has
tIe unctIOn f .
d
.,ff '. 0 spatIal orientation
erentlatloll of . [ .
lodi muslca lones, me-
r
es. and non-verbal :.:ounds identi-
ICatlon of, I . '
faces) and comp ex objects (human
, production of dreams. The
1U5
-----
--.. --

diflercnr.:e between the two hem-

lie\ not <;0 Illu<.:h in the pecu-
liarilie\ of Ihe material (verbal \Ign::.
or images) in the mode of informa-
tion arrangement 'Iud proce\sing, that
i\, type of Illinkill};. While both hem
ispheres <.:a ll and words
and images (the right hemisphere being
capable of perceiving speech
in the minimal degree), the processes
proceed differently. The " Iefthemi-
sphere" type of thinking discrete and
analytical, inasmuch as it effeCl.s an ar-
ray of consec utive operation:.: producing
a logically non-contradictory analysis
of objects and phenomena by a certain >
number of features. Thus is produced
an inherently integral model of the
world that can be fixed and expressed
through words or other conventional
signs, which is a relevant condition for
communication (I). The "right-hemi-
sphere" (spatial-imaginative) type of
thinking is simultaneous and synthetic,
inasmuch as it makes possible to
"grasp" at once all the properties of
the object in their interconnection
and interaction with the properties of
other objects, which provides for
integrity of perception. Due to
the interaction of images, they
acquire multiplicity of meaning. This
multiplici ty underlies creativity, on the
one hand, and complicates the logical
expression of interconnections between
l
objects and phenomena and can even
hamper their perception, on the other.
The hemispheres function in close
conj uncti on, each contributing to the
functioning of the brain as a whole.
F.A. of 8. is only characteristic of
man; while its development is geneti-
cally inherited. F.A. nf B. {ju.sl 15
,(fU't'('h) a<.:quires filial 11\ cmnmu
nkation. The 'left-hemi.,pherc-" or
"right-hemi<;phere" type of thinking
may prevail derending nn obtallling
conditiom, thi\ to a <;igniflCant extent
determining the mental quali.
lies.
Functional Psychology, a trend that
studies cQnKifmsne ....\ from
the viewpoint of their functions in
adapting the body 10 the environment.
F.P. developed under the innucnce of
the theory of evolution (Charles Dar-
win and Herbert Spencer) and in con-
nection with the requiremenls of social
practice, which made it necessary to
swi tch over from the sterile elemental
analysis of consciousness in the Slrul'-
(ural of Wilhelm Wundt and
Edward Titchener 10 the study of Ihe
functional role of consciousness in solv-
ing problems vitally important to the
individual. F.P. involved several trends.
In Europe, Theodule Ribot (France),
Nikolai Lange (Russia). Edward Cla-
parede (Switzerland) adhered to a
natural-science interpretation of mental
functions, and Carl Stumpf and re-
presentatives of Ihe Wiirzburg School
(Germany) 10 an idealistic interpreta-
tion. The US version of F.P. goes
back to William James and is represent-
ed by the Chicago School (John Dewey.
James Angell, and Harvey Carr) and
Columbia School (Robert Woodworth).
which regarded psychology as a science
dealing with the functions (or "acti\li-
ties") of consciousness in their relation-
ship to organic needs and in connection
with the problem of organism's effective
adjustment 10 a ..:hanging n8IUrai and
).(lcial environment, This appro3ch es
sentially expanded the sphere of psp:ho
logy, whi..:h embraced not
only but also behaviour
(adaptational actions), the of
that behaviour, indi\'idual differences
belween people, the mei:hanisms of
learning, and other problems that drew
closer to practice, The sup-
of fhis trend substantially
contributed to experimenlal psychology.
Yet, The weakness of their theoretical
stand, inherem in Their under
standing of the correlation of somatic
and mental functions, and their
teleological "iew of consciousness as
a purposefully acting substance
In a let;.!, of scientific influence by F.P,
Inl,he InOs, American F,P. yielded its
positIOns to bl!hul-iQurism.
Functional Stale 0( the Central Nervous
System, the background or level of
the at'lil-uti?" of the nervous systt'm
at whu.:h alllmal or human behavioural
aCb are effected. F.S. of eNS . h

1- . Iste
, . Integral brain function cha-
that designates the go I
condition of, h . nera
F S r C
a of bram structures.
.. 0 .N S de ..... d
,"d
_ -." ,._n s on the nature
of th . .
wh"" b e activity again:.t
... ackground it . . .
\igniflcance of mot" . IS actuallsed;
activity;
either high or shar I
under Ullsory d ' . P Y reduced
level of the epnvullOn; the initial
load as n
of previous activO . a. re ectlon
j;ubjf(,.t\ ny, the .of the
. ..., a d h
produced by pharmacol ' ,n t e eff.ects
electrical, and Qth . Qglcal, chemIcal,
er slImull, which are
-
beYllndtltc nrgIHU\m\ hahitut. 1-',5. of
eN.S: imlirectly l'ither b
hl'llU\'IouraJ man,ifesUltioll\ hl
\'anous 01 wah'llllne.\.\ WOuld
or by changed efflcao.:y .of
actl\lty.
Functional Systems. Theory of, a CQn-
cept by Soviet physioiogisl
AnQkhlll, accQrding ,to which
physi.ological processes take
tl\. an It1tegral organi<;m inter-
With the. environme nt. F.S.,T.
IS ba:.ed on the tdea that the function
r,epresents ,the. resulT of organ.
lJ,m s a.dJustment 111 IIlteraction with
!he The functional system
speCifically organised activity
of elements, leading to a cor-
respondmg useful result. The functional
:.ystem forms in the course of trials
.error:. (bolh genetically and in
indiVidual . training) and undergoes
corresponding selection. Correlation of
recent organisms with Ihe environment
represents a hierarchy of functional
that became increasingly com-
p ex. In the course of evolution. Ac.
to F:S.,T., behaviour (active
organism-envIronment inTeraction) is
based on qual', ,. I .
I a Ive y speCifIC system.s
processes
I
' or on processes whereby
e ement s are '.
b h
orgall1sed Into a system'
e aVlOur b p . f ...'
ed . urpose ul, for It IS dtrect-
b
leading reflection of reality Tho
o y relat" .
are of a wHh the environment
betw nature; the interval
. een the sl,mulw>" and the begin-
nlllg of the "rl! " ". ..
b
. . UC 1011 IS dlstmguished
y compartng" .
istic' Ie character-
wllh the u("e If
action res I . ep or 0 prevlOu:,
. II Iii, and by afferent synihesiii,
I)n whICh the deler -
mine'> II'> sulr>C(jUClit <llIIUII , I.e.
ih gt)OJI aud prl)grallllm,', The !'>tart of
IlX't)lIIulOr activilY '>Ignifle"l
of an actioll under the innucnce
uf the goal (or of the ilcceptor of
tlte action the achicved re'\ults
would also be compared with the ac-
ceptQr of the action re<;ults 10 initiate
the next cycle of activc body-envirQn-
ment correlation. The idea that bt!.
havioural rcpre .. ent a
functional <;ystem was ,>uggested by the
Russian physiologi.'il Ivan Sechenov and
further developed by Alexei Ukhtomsky.
Nikolai Bernstein's physiology of active-
ness contains similar concepts.
Galvanic Skin Res-
ponse (GSR), an in-
dicator of the skin's
electrical conductiv-
ity. It possesses both
physical and tonic
forms. In the firsl case
GSR is a component of an orientating
reflex, arising in response to a new
stimulus and extinguishing with it s re-
petitiQn. The tonic form of GSR
('haracterises changes in skin
conductivity, which develop, for in-
stance, with
Game, Business, a form of reconstruct-
ing the object and social contelll of
professional activity, the modelling of
the systems of reiation.'S characteristic
of a particular type of practice. G.,B.
rl!presents the unfolding of a particular
(game) activity by the participants in
101
an JIIlitatiun model reHcallng Ihe (nn-
ditil)lIS and dYliamiC3 01 production,
Siudy, rescan.:h, managerial and exam
ination (j's,B. (an be dl'il'uned, depend.
ing 011 the I)'pe of human pracli\:e
recomlructed ill the game and the g.lals
pursued by the partidpants. The ortglll
of G .. B. can be tral'ed to the magic
rite<; of primitive people; its more recent
predece .... sor wa .. a military game ('on-
ceived in the J71h century. The flr:.t
managerial game (an "organi\ational-
productional test") elaborated and
conducted in the USSR in 1932.
However, a 'redou,> approach to the
development of (j's,B. wa') lacking in
that period, and the cQnu:pt was only
revived'in 1957 in the USA, where it
was conducted with thc use of a ('om-
puter. AI present, G's,B. are gaining
in scope in connection with the problem
of imprQ\'ing management, planning
and production and
persQnnel training. In teaching, educa-
tional G . B. makes it possible to set an
object-oriented, so..:ial context of
profes:.ional acti\ity, thereby creating
conditions for moulding the pe .... onaJity
of a specialist thaI are more adequate
as compared to traditional learning.
In these conditions, the as:.imilatiQn of
new knowledge is superimposed on the
groundwork of future professional acli ...
learning acquires a joint, col
lective character; the development of
the speciali.'St"s personality occurs as
a rc:.:ult of submission to two Iypes of
norms- the norms .of competent ob-
ject-oriented actiom and the norms of
social relations within a collective. In
this "cQntextual" learning, the allain-
ment of dida..:tic and educatiQnal aim.'
IUb lOll
---------- _.. -
is fused in one stream of the students'
social activity, which is real
ised in the form of play activity. The
motivation, interest and emotional status
of the in G.,B. are deter-
mined by broad opportunities for goal-
selling and goal-attaillment alld for
dialogic communil:ation arising from
the material of the problematically-set
content of the G .. B.
Genealogical Method. see Methods 0/
P!>yhvgenelic.\.
General Psychology. theoretical and
experimental studies revealing the more
general psychological regularities, theo-
retical principles and methods of psy-
cho/ORY, its basic concepts and categor-
iaJ One can only reveal and
the general principles. categor-
Ies, concepts and methods of psychology
that conSlllute the subject-matter of
G.P. by abstracting himself from con-
crete investigations performed in spec-
Ial branches of psychology. At the
same lime, the results of research into
G.P. serve as a foundation for develop-
109 all other branches of psychology.
The baSIC notions of G.P. characterise
psychic pr?Cesses, states, and properties.
The psychic include: (I) cog-
IlItlve VIZ. sensations and
percept/oils, memory, imagination, and
thmkmR; (2) volitional processes. viz.
WifNratio/l.\, desires, and deci-
\/OnmukIllR;and (3) emotional proces-
M'nllmenh and emolions. The
include manifestations of
psychll' viz, cognitive proces-
J>eS (e.g. doubt); volitional processes
(e.g. confidence); and t'lilotional pro-
cesses (e.g. mao.d.\ and affects). The
p'ychic properties include qualities of
the mind (abilities), stable volitiona l
features (character), and fixed emo-
tional qualities (/emlx'ramellt). The
classification of the basic concepts of
G.P. into these groups is purely con-
ventional. The concept "psychic pro-
cess" underlines the processual aspect
of a psychic phenomenon studied by
G.P. The concept "psychic state" char-
acterises the static moment, the relative
constancy of a psychic event. The
concept "psychic propeny" reflects the
stability of the phenomenon under study
and its recurrence and constancy within
the structure of the personality. For
instance, an affect may simultaneously
be regarded as a psychic process (since
it displays the dynamics of senses and
its stepwise character). as a psychic
(since. it characterises person's
mllld at a given time period), and as
a manifestation of the individual's
psyc.hic propenies, viz. quick temper
or lrefulness. Dialectical materialism
con.sti tutcs scientific philosophical
baSIS of G.P, mvestigations.
Generalisation, a product of thinking,
a form of reflection of the general
f:atures and properties of phenomena.
Forms of G. correspond to forms of
thinking. G's in the form of meallings
of words have been studied most ex-
G's are also means of think-
mg. simple G's are made by
or grouping objects Oil the
baSIS of individual, random feat.
ure (syncrellc combinations). A more
compl1cated G. is a complex G., when
,
a group of objects is into
a single whol!;! on the basiS of different
features. A more complicated C. IS one
in which specifiC and generic features
are differentiated distinctly and a given
object is included in some system of
concepts. Complex C's (like syncretic
ones) are present at any level of com-
plexity of intellectual activity. In study-
ing the formation of new G's, psycho-
logy uses the method of forming "ani
ftcial concepts" by analysing the ways
in which a person would group objects
. '
(the syncretIc, the complex, or the
conceptual). The same G. may result
from differently organised research
activities (G. based on minimally neces-
sary data, and the same G. based on
excess data). Subjectively, a new G.
(knowledge) may differ in origin and
be either obtained (assimilated) in com-
munication (I) with other people or
developed independently, In the
case, this G. may be a new one 111
social experience, To study G's, psycho-
logy defines, compa res and classifies
concepts, The study of purposeful
control of the assimilation of G's is
now widely practiced. Normally, several
G's are associated with one word
(Vassili Davydov). Actual use of one
of those would depend on the context
of the situation or utt erance and on
the motives and goals of the speaker.
The forming of G's that enhance social
experience is a contribution to histor-
ical development of thinking.
Generalisation of a Conditioned Reflex,
takes place at the initial stages of the
development of a conditioned reflex,
when the required reactioll is produced
not only by a reinforced stimu/u,\ but
other proximal stimuli as well. The
generalisation of the effector part of
the response is also possible, e.g. when
an animal develops a renex flex;ing of
an extremity, its other extremities may
at first be involved in the response as
well. The neurophysiological mechan-
ism of G. of C.R. is the irradiation
of excitation. Recent research has
shown that G. of C.R. is accompanied
by changes in the electric activity of
brain structures at different levels.
Opposite to G. of C.R. is the speciali-
sation of a conditioned reflex.
Genetic Epistemology, a trend in the
study of thinking developed by Jean
Piagel and his school (see Gene.va
School of Genetic Psychology) wllh
a view to create a general theory of
cognition that WOUld. synthesi.ze the
evidence of ontogenesIS (experimental
psychological study child
and phylogenesis (hIStory of SCience).
Parallels between the two were per-
ceived in the changed nature of relation-
ships between the and .object
of intellectual opera lions, both III the
individual and in the course of general
evolution of scientific ideas. At both
levels, progress is seen in the overc?m-
ing of egocentrism.and phenom:nahsm,
and in the deepenms of reflexlOn and
construction of logieo-mathematical
structures. G.E. hdped study correla-
tions between the logic and psychology
of thinking by strongly influencing.
among other things, the development
of Piaget's psychological concep!.
However. the original s.::hcme of G.E.
failed to produclively dcvdop because
__________________________ ___
G.E. ignored the role ('If factors
in the dC\o'elopmenl of cognition.
Genelic Ml'lhod, see
Geneva School of Genetic Psychology.
an orientation of psychology studying
Ihe child'), menIal deveJopmelll, percept-
ion and genetic epistemology. Was foun-
ded by Jeall Piaget and developed by his
followers. The main object of study is
the origin of a child's in1l'lIed: the
main purrose-- a study of Ihe mechan-
of a child\ cognitive activity con-
ceak-d behind Ihe overt behaviour; the
malO method of research-clinical in-
tervie..... (see Inlerl'iew, Clinical)-
conccmrating not on recording the
external \igns of a phenomenon but
on the proce\ws ri.<.e to them.
Re<.earch carried out bv this school has
shown that intt'lleclual development is
" fact a tramition from egocentrism
fan/ru/jnn) to an obje(!i\'e position
through. decelllrulion. The peculiarity
of child s mental dc\'elopment is linked
with Ih05e cognitive which
are shaped after birth through ultioll.\.
The external au ions of a child under
)'ear\ of age performed
and III detail) become
thanks to repetition and,
sym?ollc means (imitation,
p mental linage, drawing, speech)
are 1I1ternall'ed between the ages f t
Seven. Being coordinalt:d
at the 3@'e of 7-11 they become
CO!1t rete mental operations. Education
speed up the acquisition of notions
I Ihe e)(tent and nature of 'h .
m c le\e_
ellis liTe alwaysdependenl on the initial
dtvelopment level, while the influence
of ,o.:i31 en\'ironml.'nt is determined by
Ihe sdll'mcs and structure!; which allow
the to assimilate tlH:!.C innuen-
ces; the order of thc formation of cognit-
ivc schemes is comtant. but the duration
of their attaimllt.'nt varies depending on
a number of factors: the laws of cogni-
tive development arc universal. operat-
ing both throughout the development
of a intelligence. and during
scientifiC cognition (see Gelle/ic Epis-
Il'rlloloKY) , The point of departure for
the G.S.G.P. b the concept of interac-
tion of 3 living system with the en-
vironment. assimilation and accom-
modation being two inseparable proces-
ses. In the course of assimilation, the
individual as it were superimposes his
behavioural patterns on the environ-
ment, while accommodation that
he these patterns in ac-
cordance with the environment. Piaget
proceeded from this general biological
stand when interpreting intellectual
developmerll believing thai striving to-
greater equilibrium with Ihe
Homeostasis). the
individual builds cognitive schemes.
ThiS approach has determined the inter-
pretation of the data gathered by the
thr?ugh biological calegories,
gave 10 welJ.justifled critique
of liS theoretical pOl;ition by Soviet

Geniality, the hight''>t level of develop-
of man's uhilities, both of general
.. and specific ones
, Only when a Pl'fW)fI-
ulll} such through his
or her creallve actil'ities which consti-
tUle an epoch in the life of society
--
and in cultural developmcnt, would it
scrve a sign of (j,
Genotype, the total of all the genes
localised in the of a given
In a broader seme, G. is
the total of the genes
inherited from parents. The term wa.'.
inlroduced in 1903 by the Danish
biologist Wilhelm Johannsen. Each
species of microorganism.'.. plants and
animals has a genotype characteristic
of it. At the same time, within each
species, Ihe organisms differ as 10 their
G. The only members of the human
population possessing identical C's are
monozygotic (one-ovum) twins (see
0/ Psychogenetics).
Gerontological Psychology, see De-
I'e/opmental
Gestalt 1 Germ.-form. configuration,
pattern 1. a functional !olructure which.
lhropgh, of .laws inherent
III II. structures the mullllude of sepa-
rate phenomena. The term was inlro-
duced by Gestalt psychology and was
originally used in the description of
psycl,e, but was later extended to the
study of physical, physiological, social
and other phenomena. The notion of G.
evolved during the study of
phenomena when the need to
distinguish the clemen IS
constituting them from the method of
their structurisation (e.g. although
when performed in different a lune
gives rise to different it is
still recognisable as the same IUlle).
This method came to be known as G.
having its own laws. whose be-
11 I
-
came the principal obJcr.:tlve of
psychology. The law, of G. mr.:lutlc:
the tendency of tht: elcmt:nt'i to form
a symmetrical whole. tht:ir grouping
in the direction of distillctivem:s;, ,im
plkilY, proximity, balance, "preRnalld'
(the tendency of each psychic phenom-
enon to assume a more defltlite, dis-
tinct and closed form), etc. These con-
cepts expressed the general melhooolo-
gical trend of C. p.'.)'chology which
unjustifiably granted the status of law
to individual fat:ts discovered when
studying pern'ptilln. and interpreted
perception itself as a "pure" phenomen-
on of consciousness and not as a menial
image of objective reality built Ihrough
object and dependent of pre-
vious expertenc!;'.
Gestalt PsychOlogy I Germ. Gestalt,
form, configuration, pattern 1, an orien-
tation in Western psychology evolved in
Germany in the first third of the 20th
cenlUry which studied psp:hologiral
phenomena from the point of "iew of
whole perceptual structures (CieSlalt.q
considered 10 be primary wlm rC!.pec\
to their elements. G.P. was
\0 the principle of slrlie/ural pSY"!lOloJ:Y
(Wilhelm Wundt. Edward Titchcner,
et al.) according to which COl/Kious-
ness is split inlo elements used to
construet psychic phenomena according
10 the laws of or creative
synthesis. The idea that the inner,
of the whole
determines the propNlles and functlOm
of the elements constituting il wa..\
originally applied to experimental
dies of peraptioll (mainly \'isual per-
ception), which made it possible to
x
II 2
examine a number of its major proper-
constancy. organisation. the de-
rendence of an object figure on its
Nck,l{round. etc. "'hen analysing intel-
lectual hdlul'iour. the role of the sen-
,ory image in organising motor respon-
wa." traced. The construction of this
image explained by a special mental
ad of insight or instantaneoU!) gra.')ping
of in the perceptual fIeld
(See In\iXhn. G.P. opposed these ideas
to hehul'iouri.\/li. which explained be-
haviour of an organism in a problem
5iLUarion by "blind" motor trials ac-
cidentally on the solution.
When Ihinking. G.P. laid the
\Ire<>!> on transformation
fion. flew .:entering) of cognl1l\'e
strlJcturo. which allow\ thinking to as-
sume a productive character distin-
guishing it from formal logical opera-
lIo:nS. uloritllm\. etc. Although the
prinCiples of G.P. and the facts it dis-
covered have promoted the ad\ance of
knowledge about mental
refers. ahove all. to the de\elopment
of the category of mental image and
the establi:-hment of the ap-
proa,:h I. It\ Ideali\tic mcthodology.
whKh deriYes from phenomenology.
Ij:l$ ha..mpered a deterministic
afl/llyu\ (if thc\c Mental
ilnd their
wert' Ylewed 3\ of individual
.. who'>e dependence on
tht" nbJcrt world and the fun..:tlOning
o! rht" m'n' nlH \YIfI'm were
al008 the lines of bOinorphi'>m
slru .. lutal . Mmllarlty). a variant Ilf
psycnophllhal puruJ/l'li\m. The prin-
Cipal In G.P. are German f"'>y-
cllologlJb 'Iu Wen heimer, Wolfgang
Kohler and Kurt KolTka. Another trend
in G,P. is associated with KUrI Lewin
and his S(hool. who applied the systems
principle and the idea of the priority
of the whole in the dynamics of per-
ceptual SlruclUres to motil'a/iOIl of
human behaviour. Other prominent
representatives of G.P. are Kurt Gold-
stein. the advocate of "holism" in
pathop\ychology and Fritz. Heider, who
introduced the idea of Gestalt into
social psychology \0 explain inter-
personal perception Perception,
Inter per.HJl1a/).
Giftedness. (I) a qualitatively unique
combination of that ensures
successful/lcti\ity. Combined operation
of abilities representing a defmite
structure allows to compensate for
insufflcient indiYidual abilities at the
expense of advanced development of
others; (2) general abilities. or general
elemenb of abilities determining the
range of human possibilities and the
level and uniqueness of human activity;
(3) mental potential or ;nlell(,(,t: in-
tegral individual characteristics of cog-
nitiYe possibilities and abilities to learn:
(ol) a SUIll of illdillutiol/.\ and native
qualities; the degree to which native
of abilities are expressly pro-
nounced: and (5) talent, i.e. the pres-
ence of intrinsic factors for outstand-
Ill. achievellh.'llIS. The polysemantic
nature of the ter111 "G" renects variety
of prohlems treated within an integral
approach tn abilities, Being the most
general charalteristic (If the sphere of
ablhlles. G, all-round study by
the differential and
!.octal psychulogy.
I

Goal, a ImaKl' of an anticipat -

ed result, to whose achievement human
action i.'> directed. In the
notion of G. is aho used in the follow-
ing formal description of
terminal ,>itllation,> towards which any
self-regulating functional system strives;
and anticipated useful result which
determines the illlegrity and trend of
an organism's behaviour. The idea of
G. as an alllicipatcd useful result is
used in analysing the biological pre-
history of the origin of a realised human
goal and in studying the psycho-
physiological mechanisms whereby pur-
poseful behavioural acts are regulated.
The notion of G. as a realised image
of an anticipated result is used in
studying voluntary intentional acts
representing some speciflc feature of
human activity: G.-formaliorl is essen-
tially ba.\ed on object-related activity
aimed at tran..,forming the surrounding
world. Two forms of anticipation in
animal vital activity are phylogenetic
(see premises for the
origin of realised G's in hllmans. name-
ly. (a) anticipation of some useful
result ("necessary future") whooe ac-
complishment would produce a direct
adaptational effect, and (b) anticipa-
tion of means that would lead to a
useful result (such anticipation arises
at relatively high evolutionary h,wels).
In olllogenesi,\, G. formation starts
with selling a G, and forming inten-
tions in joint activities and ends with
the individual selling him.')clf a G. Func-
tionally. an action involves G. forming
processes; performance; emotional and
cognitive assessment of the course of
aCllon; and the flllal result of that ac-
I I 3
.-
tion. The image of the 'anticipated
result a motivational force.
becomes a G .. begins to guide the ac-
tion and determine the choice of pOs
sible means for implementing that G.
by merely referring to a given mutil,t
or system of motives. G,-formation (or
emergence of a G.) is the central
element of any action, and the principal
mechanism whereby the individual
de\-'ises new actions. The psycilophy
siological foundation of a G. is the
"image of the necessary future" (Ni-
kolai Bernstein) coded in the brain,
the acceptor of actiorl re.wits (Pyotr
Anokhin) {hat regulates the program-
me of physiological implementation of
an action by means of anticipated and
sanctioned commands (affording in-
formation about of the
accomplished result to what was re-
quired).
Goal Formation. the process of SCllmg
new goafs in human /lcli"il),; a ma-
nifestation of thillkillg. G.F. may be
involuntary or voluntary. and is char-
acterised by change in time. G.F, in-
volves a number of mechanisms, viz..
transformation of a received require-
ment into all individual goal, choice
of Olle of the available demands. con-
version of motives into moti\'ational
goals when the former are realised.
transformation of "by-products" into
a goal. transformation of unconscious
anticipations inlo a goal, identifICation
of intermediate goals, transition from
preliminary to filial goals. alld forma-
tion of a hierarchy and sequence of
goals in timt!', G.F. studies constitute
an important trend ill P.':\)"chological
I "
of 3di\;IY (both inJilidual
)llinl): they examine the 01
G.F. on mOl/I'utioli of actlll1y. the
role {If emoliflll\ in G.P. 3(1\, the at-
tainability of a re.ult, and the .:orrela-
lion of general and goals. G.F.
is for function, hisl(lrical de-
velopm"ent of human mentality. 01110-
genetic hee developm<:rH
of P'>yche, and the pre-
of gnab as aClualised Images
of future
Goal Gradient. a change in the strength
of u,//I-ily IIIllIil'u/ion depending on
Ihe "J'I'ychological distance" from the
G.G. b\' the grow-
inlt'nsil) (If //Iolil'll/ion and activity
3\ Ihe goal draws nearer. Ap-
prna(h and 31uiuance gradients are
Jislinguished ('In whether the
goal i!. positive or negative.
CradiCnI, OJ regulOjr quantitative change
iii magnitudc of 'j()me propeny or
(e.g. grudicllt of (see
1,ui., I.
Graphology, the of handwrit_
ing U'i a of 010\ c-
met1\\ allowmg tn the charach.'r-
and p\y(hil 'Hill' of the writer
rtflc(\tt\ in it. The view of hand-
Writing il di\rinl'l e"'prl' ..\ion of Imln\
nalUfe g()t'!l h'Kk ({) amiquitv
It. 'I hcophra\IU\, t'l al.) -The term
... II1tfl)(lulcd hy
111 lhe St'UlIlt! half of the llJth
,enlury, The UJcil that OJ \tudy of hand-
wr:!lng ,an hdp lli ... gno\l'
,ra.l, "I origin and <,trw,:ture
Iws nOI hct'n SClcrltifl< ... lly \ub<.tdllliall'J:
In'rt' lilt alll'mpl'
!l) din'.:! hl'twcl'n
the graphil' l'il'LlH.'nt' of
and a dWrill"Il'r [rOlLI, and I1fe
story, allt'gl'tll) l'\pn. .."cd 111 it. There
i, autlu.'lItit- prouf thdt the writer's
emotional ,tate and cerlain typologied!
propertil'!> of nel!ral activity
afTet:t handwriting. F.lenll'nts of graph-
ological analysis in comhination with
otller tet:hnlques al'e used
in into of differ-
entiu/ and f,sydwphys-
i{lloMY. There are data thaI
the handwriting of
from certain mental acquire!>
features. Thm the hand-
writing of a Sl.:"hil.ophrenic often
eXCl'\l>ively fant:iful. whieh makes
'>Iudy helpful Irom the diagllmlic point
of view. III graphology i'>
for the idelllifh:ation of an indi-
vidual, e.g. of the author of a docu-
ment by eOlllparativt'" of lhe
graphological traits found in a doeu-
JIlCllI whme author not known with
the graphologi(dl II'ait;; contained in
writ len by (legal
grapilOlog) ).
Craphomania, l'ompuls;nn to
write IIll\upporleJ by the !llIilil} this
oct: upat ion
Group, a ,o..:idl utl;t ditl"crcntiated
from the \o..:ial whoic 011 Ihc basi,
of d cendill dwral'teristil' (..:iass af-
flliatiun, the ta" or nalUre uf joilll
uclil'ili('I, Ihe leI d llf dl'vl'lopmclll of
illll'rp.'nol/ll/ r('/uliolllllip.I. feature\ of
nrgantSallllll. elt:.I. G\ arc da,sifled
t:orre\polldillgl}: (111l\Cntillllal and large
,
1
and \mall G\ (Sl'l' <irllup, 1..af}W:
<if(JllP, StIIull). organiwd and non
organised G\; offll'ial and unnfflt"iat
G\ hee UfO/I!" OfticiuJ Hormal),
<lnd (;roup, /IIwfticiuJ (infnrm<ll) I;
membe"hip and referellct' (i\; G\ with
high (eOllt'dil'I',1) dnd Inw (,:or!'oru
110111', G .. diffuse) dcvdopment level.
Sot:ial psydw/ox)' views G\ as the
suhject of {lelil'ily through which Ihe
G. is included into Ihc of
relations. The bask parameter!. of G's
traditionally studil'd try \odal p,ychol-
ogy arc .;omposHion (membership);
(the SlrUl'1urc of communica-
tions. of Icadcr\hip and s ub-
ordination, the di!>\ribution of roles,
etc.), G. (illlerpt'r.\Imu/ relu-
lio//s); the dynamics of G. norms
Grollp NOflll.l1 <lnd )'(1[111'.\, tht: /el'd
of xrUIlP c/('I'('lopmt'nt (see Co/-
leelil'l!) .
Group Behaviour of Animals. coor-
dinated joint <luions of animals (Illany
higher and vertebrates)
performed while in communities,
I.e. permanent or temporary
lions nods, famities). G.B. of
A. includes all form\ of intcr-individual
relations betwet:1I (lninwl, (mating
partllNs, parents and the young.
and always lake\ place under condi-
tions of COll1l1ll1llic3tiOn among melli-
bt> of t ill' conlin UII i I Y (sl'l' (' Otll III IIIli,'I/'
11,,", Allimll/) , The IIlI)!"C dl!vl'iopcd
of comillunitil'., arc dlaraderi,ed
by a mort" or ics., stable 11l('llll1cr-
An important eicment 01 G.B.
uf A. i\ tht' so-called of
anil.Jab. i.e. altiOIlS dirt'ded agaiml
,}tlll'r repl't'wlitillileS I)f the 'j)C'cic'> tor
I I.I1i
anillldh equated With The intra-
speCIe, \truggle lor k<tding pn.\i-
tion in Ihe t:ommunily, a !ill!t'pill,l( (.r
re-ting place, food, IIlt'1til1g (see
Tf'rrlloriul IJdwl'iolir of Animull) ,
mating partller, etc but it rarely
\umes the form of genuine
(with a po"ible death of one of tilt"
advef\arie\). As a rule. it is "prctcnd-
ed", "rituali\ed" conte\\, Flemenh of
('\'ommdnding respt:l"'")
form part of animal courting ht:hav-
tour. from rdatinn\hip-;
among people and their jllint adiolls.
which are determined by smial and
historical factor .. , anima! group behav.
iour remains entirely within the frame-
work of biological la ..... s thus falling
..... ithin a qualitatively different ratcg(lry
of phenomena.
Group Cohesion, a quality
ing the strength, unity and siability
of personal interactions and relalion
ships in a In Western \(I(ial
the ;;;:hool oft.:n1llp d.\"flU
min launched G.c. studies l1a\ed on
the concepl that a group to be
understood as a psychological IInil
on a !>)'!>tcm of t'motional and
intt:rper!>onal (Leon Fe,t ing:er).
Accordingly, a gruup wa .. Clln-
!>idercd that which "strongly auracts"
all participant,>. G.C. was aho inter
preted as somcthing that lIlakl" a giwn
group allra([ive and u,t:ful for the
individual melllbt>r (D. Cartwrighl and
AII'in Zanderl. resulted in tw(l
appmaches 10 a\se)o.\mg G.c:., \ LL,
(a) tn' estimating thl' mutual
al of group members
(lhe more person.!> ill a group like e .. ,,,
I I II
nlh ...r. 1h,' high,'r til,' L.C.); ami Ih)
llrfl,uJo!h 1'1IH1lil1nal a.,'I"\tIll'lll (If till'
gfnup Ih 111,'mhl'r\ (lh ... 1IILlr,' tht'\
ar,' \all,f1l'd ..... ilh Ih,' group, the: hlg.h,'r
Ihl' G.C), S,Hnt' C.C. a"')C.',,nu;l1h 1Ll(lk
,'011\1'11\1/\ mill ,'lido,
",,'/rl' !>Ug!-!' ....,lJ a (j,e. 111(\0:\,
IIIl' 4\J\\tlt'1I1 IlhliJl11 ...J hy div it.ling
\If rnulual madt'
lin: group mt'rnhl'f' Juring \oo:i(JllIl'lril"
\1\l11L1" hy 1hl' pn ... .,ihk
lIumlll'f (If 1"11I11(t'\. Sovit'l \IKiiJl p'y-
dHllngy under'liJIHh (j.e. a, !hl' 1'lIlm"
IIrll'II/Ullll/llll alill (lhJI'l"1-\alu,' IlIIi/.v"
Group ("ompalibilily, iI "Il'i,l-r,y(ho-
lo!;iI:.Ll J:rflllp l'harill'I,'rL\lln thill
mamf ...'h jhl'lf In Iht' iJhihly of group
III (oordinale Ihl'ir .. dllll"
iJ g i\ \'11 group h,l\ " 1110;11111,11 I I,'W' (II Ih\'
w rltl. Ilo,,,iI1l11l' ,111\1 ',11111\1"1", 111 IIIit'
wllh llil, (I'II\('PI. w\tKh l'IIl,qH'11 011
Ihl' h.t'" of 1III,'r"I"IIIIII/.\III, G,(. "
,.'lab\l"IIl',1 111 ,h,' nmrw \11 dlr,'d
111 1,'r;Il'tIt)II'. Ihnlugh lI1utual .In'l'pl
,111'l' 11\ lilt' ",n1up 1II1'nJlll'r' III l.llh
olh,'r,-. .111(\ !ok,. I hl' (i,(
rOIH.:e:pl ,I\\l'rl' tll.ll .I,ITI'rl'ut IndllLd-
uah O:lllllhllh;d 111 grnup., gradllilllv
he:gin "llI.lllli11ll'1)1I\ly 10 glVl'11
\llualllll1,. I'lIl.'nl" phl.'!Hltlll.'llil, and
,,(Irial ohJl'rl\ III Ihl' ,,,a 1111' way.
Wilhin !hi", l"nlll"l'pl, Iht' ,ignifll'allt , 1\-
1)<.'\'1\ or J01111, \m:ially valuahk lIo:tivi-
<Ind }:rml/l ('Oh,"';IIII hilV,' IHI! h,'l.'n
di"ingui\hL-d. Smll't "(Killl p,y,'hnlogy
1r(al, G.c. a, I"OIIlI'-or/"lItal;()/w/
IIII/I\"
allll nplin\l\t their fclalioll-.hip .. in \ar-
UlUlio I)'Pl"S Ilf J\linl ill'linlic ... A rcqui,>ilt' Group Dcci .. ion. Making. tIll' dwiu! of
for a Lnnurahk p'>ydHllngildl a snltuion fmm illlHlllg il range (If
dim;!l.: in a ("/1/1,,(,,;1'1' i" In l''>[abli"h a1lCr1l31lVI')' made hy a 1:'11111' under
G.c. In iI ,Il'\t:lnpcd nlllc([i\c, G.t. the (ondiliol\). of illftlrmalioll CXdl<lllgl'
inv'lIH .... a hil'f;udn of 11.'\1,1\ (Anuf wlll'1l ,>(llving d (ommon ta"k. The
Pl"lfIlv,>kll. rill" h;wef It\d impli!.', pmn!durc of G.D.-M. tlc(c\\arily irn-
r,y ... ulrnpJlihilih' of phl'\ (oordilldlion (If npll1i(1ll\ (If gmup
/,'m(/(',"ml'nh ilnd (onrdin.lCinn nf ..en- nlcmtll:r\ J.\ 1I L,I 11K I ffnm group di'(\1\*
!o<lnmlllnr ild, k\d IInrl , ,.
_ " II.:' \Inn, W III \ 1\ U\Uillly rcgankd a\ pre.:-
',,,,m,hlldlLI,nllffuno.:1ltllhll.rllil"I'Apnia. -"din, (j D-M I ,.", (. I) . ,
II,JIl-. I,' th' , " ,. n \mllt ,a\t\. . . . -" .
,
. mt'lII Idta" \\ u'>I..'d und,"r Ihl' l'Olldiliom of r"."rin
.lhLlLII ..... 1 .. ,. In ........... 1111 whnlll and III "\. r .
..... hat 111 (lfmallllll I'xl:hJl1g,' whl.'l1 1111.'11\ -
\1'4","11,',. Ih':)' IIIU\I do whl'll her fl'
a (nmlll,1Il -'nll: Inp )f"'O Itll'lgroupl1lay (lIlly ,Ial,' Ihl',f
Cd Ind implil'\ l"u/II"-Ori('l!/UlilJlw/ ; ,lg\1\a. G.D.-M. \I1(1uld
lin/I}" all,l .uln\II'lll' r,"'pol1"ihilily for r fr('.m Ihl.' Ir,J1I\llInll
Mh',," "':'I and r .. ilLLrl''', rlllll lilt dl,I\IOII\ ('>1..'1.' /)('ci
Croup ullil)' of dlar
:,dO:-rL\IIlJo! (It'npll' making, lip il J:""'p.
!he' lam (d', Il1Irndllll'd h\' Then-
... 1' ..... 'lIlI1h. 111\',\1" 1hal IIIl'mhl''' of
\111/1 /I.1aklfl/d 10 grollp 011,'\ laking
pl<ln: wllhout Ihl' in1l.'r-
\llIdy of Ihl.' pro-
11'\\, of (,.D,-M. W,I\ by Kun
I 'WI ,
II, W HI I'x .. ml1ll'{l Ihl" udlUI'IICl" of
grou p d i "nl\" ion 1111 I h I' <In' i" i 1111\ r,' a l' h -
I


cd, 111\ \ ..hool di,uIVe:rt::d rhl" r;,"-y
and WilliI' pof"ri,,,I;,,'" whidl
,how Ihal group dl"n,IIl1l\ lanll/)( be
n::ducl"d 10 a ,urn of indiVidual den-
but are a ,pel'ifK pmdud of
group interaclion. Soml" dala le'lify
to a higher quality of group
compared 1() individual onc" AI
Ihe same limc, it ha\ bcen nOled that
Ihe di\cus...\ion may give ri\e 10 certain
derormaliom a ri.,ky shift)
which impair the quality of group deci-
sions" I nvestigating Ihe relalive value of
group and individual decision-making,
WCSlern psychologiSls ignore Ihe level
0/ JVOllp development, which has to
be reckoned with when evaluating and
analysing Ihe resulls or research mto
the questions of C.D.-M.
Group, Diffuse, a social unit marked
by the absence of cohesion as a .l'ulue-
orientational IIIIlty and of joinl acliv-
ities capable of medialing relations of
its members, Irrespective of the Iheore-
tical trend, US social psycho/OK.II (neo-
behaviouri,.,m, cognitive,
ical! Ihe inleractionisl orientalions),
concent rate mainly on research inlo
problems of small groups (see Group,
Small), speciflcally, laboralOry ana-
logues of C's, D. , i.e. persons accidentally
broughl logclher for participation in
a psychological cxperimerll. The con-
clusions drawn as a resull of the
experimcnl in a G.,D, arc eXlrapolaled
without juslifLcalloil in all lhe
small g'roups irrc'peclive or their devel-
opmenl level (sce Level of Group
Deve!0plTle"n. SovicI
research has shown thaI Ihe socio-
P'>ychological laws and rcgularilies
\
117
di<;c()vl"reJ ao; a resull of Ihe SltJdy (If
(i's, I). are rWI valid fur grnufl'i with
a high deveJnpme'nl level Isee ("flf.
.
Group Method of. (I) a
method of joint
of colleclives aiming at \reedy and eHI'
cient group problem (2) a
lechnique which u'-t's Ihe of
logically '-;Uly,lanliated argurnl'll" 111
order 10 innuence Ihe opinlon .., PO\!
lion\ and altiludes or Ihe
in a distu\\ion in Ihe prck:c ...\ of direl'l
communication II), The u\e of G.D.,M.
10 give Ihe panicipanh, by
confronting oppO'>ile position<;. a chance
to see the various a,"pel'h of the
problem to specify and clarify pu,;i 1<'
tions, which reduces the roi\tan<:e to ,
new information; to l'omooth away
hidden open <;tatements
provide an opponunity to remove emo-
tional biao; when the parrners'
'nand; 10 reach a group decision granl-
ing il the status of group norm (if
Ihe decision is approved by all partic-
ipants, group normali\alion occurs, if
not. group polarisation re:iults); 10 use
Ihe mechanism of )
ing responsibility thus enhancing the
participants' involvement in Ihe subse-
quenl implementation of group deci-
sions; to raise lhe efficiclI<:Y of Ihe
conlribulion and the inleresl of Ihc
parlicipants in Ihe discussion in ful-
fIlling the group rask by giving them
a chance 10 display their competence
gralifying their need for recogni-
lion and respel"l. DitTerenl of
organising group dis<:ussion from
orJinary production conferen<:e\ 10 spe-
/
I ,
a1'\- forms, such a'i tht:
brain MorminK G.D .. \t. t-e used
nhe c )urst 0: anYloinr
co:)ra:naled action:
ndustrv enn! group P'>ychotherapy
( ':to' ho(herapv. Grllllpl.
GroYp a trend in \O(!O-
J)SydHllo,ic<11 ro-sean:h founded hy thc
I 'S Kurt Le .... in. The lhitf
)bJcll or research i\ the rroup
(irrll/p, Smull). The lerm "G.O."
IS ned \lI .'onn"y different
I 10 denote a trend
"all ,(()lIPS the principle<> of
(,nL311 12) \0 de'iCribe
Iht' P" ll'CS$CS JC urnng in thl' gr(lup
'I aud to
de'lI.:rlDe II e lUX and-effect rdatlon
ships c- .'lamm, ht"';(: (4) In
pomt 0.1 the s('\ )f -1\('lho<l .. Iised 10
III dy w.;ial and intt'f{H'(,\rInal
" I/IJIC. in grou,l. HI.'1ildo the prnl'r-
ms IlSIed lboH'. G.O. 1Il\e'l.tig3te:';
he rrellh:>n be wrtn mdividual arlll
lml p m ,II till;), IIlIer and intra.
,rol p . f'; I. etr. the
....".1. ,101, Oll I o In G.D.
Wa." r e :1I"fu\r 81 mp ;l'e (irollp.
I1r P 11< pOll ml'rhod wa'
1f .. I , II atinns With pn'.
S')I iCt p'),dloln.-::v
nVCitl,armit. "'1' prnhlelll\
Within Ihr (,II range from 1111' plv,i.
100 )f the heo y III the (111/".:/1\'1'.
(,n.llp 'u..-malion, a Pfllf,'l'S.' in till'
rw l( ... hlch a ar ndellial
anrel II , of inJlviJual<. turns 11110
epar .. lr sn all tlroup
UIIlP, 'mIll ,.,ttl a C Tli..in stru\:lUh'
an j t" char " rlS1il's (, '.1/.
le.-/;\"(', ,orporation. etc.). A specific
type of G.F. __i!!_ jorma,tjqn.
We\tern who do not con-
the collecti"e an object of re-
'earch in its own right and take no
account of the principle of war/.;-
mediuud inlnperwna/ rdatiolls, re-
gards G.F, as a \ocio-psychological
phenomenon governed by the general
ruk\ anu law\ of !troup dynumic.l, It
is maintained that G.F. star!.s when
a certain number of people motivaled
hy individual l1(!pd\ di.splay a siril'ing
for a l'ommon xou(. The process is
('ompleted when such inlerpersonal re-
131imls formed (see Inlerperwmu/
Rl'Iatlom) which are neces'>ary for
goal. Threc main group-
forming fadflrs arl.' di\tinguished: l'oin-
l'ilierll"e of individual IIIlt,,,'.\I\: people's
\patiaJ and temporal proximity: and
the prl."oenn!" of a sittralinn
'\1",5.\) threatening their
wdl-heing and prompting them 10
unitt, Thi .. interpretation, whi('h pro- \
l'l'elh fmm rel'ognitinll 01' indi-

aplllle:'; to l"t.mmunitil"S wilh a low
il-I'r/ of dt're/apmt'nt and
therdnre IIIvahti for the prnces.\e .. of
n.lle'li\e lorm3timl.
Group Inl tgralion. the \:onrdination,
ordcr a.ul \lahility of a system "f inlN-
group G_1. i\ in a
(onlin\\{)u\ life of the
whirh implit's a rather \table repnxiul
lIOn "'\ the p'ychlliogical cllmponenb
I.t IIltl'rll-fIlup <Il'1ivities, a certain dt'grl!e
nf aulnn"II1)'. G.1. is a ne.:cs<.;at\ re-
'1
lm
ill- for the \lahle functioning and
he vcr)' t'Xi\telllc of the group: the
lad, of integrali,c properties inevitably
\0 the disintegration of any ,>ocial
unit. Being the n ...... ult and distinct re-
nectiol1 of the reproduction of
a system of intl'rgroup a(livlties, G..I
renected in ccrtain ,tates of its
structure,. irlll'gratioll proce\\es are
distlllguished hy the fact Ihat in usual
condiliom they arc '"hidden" in the
everyday fun.:tioning of the group and
show of Iheir only when
overcoming suddt'n impedl'menl\ and
neutrali\ing erupting discord. Inl egra-
tion pnx.-e"e\ arc inlended to countl'r-
a(t internal and es,tl'tI1<11 perTurbations
threalening the integrilY of the group
and to sel'url' it\ preserv<ltion by Irans-
forming its initial component\ .. The
genl'tic \ourcl.'S of G.t. lie in ,ocially
.:ondiliollt'd joint U<lilil;I',\.
Group, Large (I) a social unit em-
hral'ing iI cl,",itll'r;lhll- numher of
reopll' alting IIlgl'Il!\!"r ill mean-
ingful \ituations: (2) a
community or iudividuals dilferl'nti<lted
a wlH'l\!" 011 the hu,i\ of certain
(da", II.Hi\)lwlity, \l'X,
agt', et(,). (j\, L emhrace I"ll'ople living
in the \arm' slale, rllltioi\s, l'lhni( gmull';,
da"!.',, parti!.'" profc\\ionill,tr<lde and
other orgalli\atiolh, sOl'ial IIIOV!.'IllCnt'S,
agl' l'ohort\, media au di cn(es,
hodil'\ of ('lI1ploycc\ al alHl
organl,allo,l, 1I IIn iheri lig hUlldrcds and
thOU\UIHb of pt'oplc, ct(. TIlt' ,'per.:ifll"
regulator of thl' heh,wiour of Ihe
members or a G. I . are sodal relutions
dl'terlllining the way of lifl',
indudillg XI)U/I, 11I1I'r('\I\, I'U/lll'\, //I'ed\,
l'ulture, traditions, lIlorab, customs, and
typi(al form, of the imlil'ilua/"s f\."\pon-
II.
se to social and evcnh. Major
G's, L indude whose profound
scientific analysis is contained in the
works of Marx, Engels and Lenin.
Group Normalisalion, Grollp Po-
larisation.
Group Norms, standarcb of hehaviour
accepted in a given community and
hUll1an r.elulionship. Observ-
ance' of C.N. is a -requiSite for
elTective interaction of individuals in
Ihe course of jOillt aclil'ily and ,'0111-
(I). When a subject com-
plies with social norms rdkCled in G.N.,
this makes him socially responsible for
his behaviour. G.N. fulfIl regulati\'e,
el'aluati\e, stabilising, and other func-
tions associated with human relation-
ships in G.N. allow a per-
son to asst'&> his own and other
people's actions, compare them wilh
models, choose Ihe forllls of
behal'iour and drop out thow una(-
cl.'ptable to a gil'en community, and
guide and ('ontrol his relation .. with
OIher people. The functioning of G.N.
is directly connel"tl!d with so.:ial control
(sec ('Olllro! Sodu/) of group and
individual a(tivity. Any organised com-
munity of peopk existing for a fairly
long time would develop for themselves
and be guided by a dcfmite ,)'stern of
spe(iflc group norms. A uniform and
by the group
10 individual actions differing
from the behaviour of of the
other members would signify the pre-
of G.N. G.N, t,\tablish tht' basil'
dements thar govern \o.:io.psycholog-
ical pro':t'sse. in a given gmup, \iz .
120
human relation!>, rights and dulies,
f!O$lble \'er.;ions of intragroup b,ehav-
jour and the content and admISSible
of sanctions against
behaviour is noticeably deviant
from established norms, One
understand relalion.'; between 11ldmd
ual.'; in a group when he knows what
G.N _ they accept and reject, and
why,
Group, Official (Formal). a social unit
having a legal Matus, whose members
are united under conditions of the
social di\'ision of labour by socially
determined aclil'ilies which organise
their work. A G.O,(F.) always has
a normative, hierarchical structure or
\latus sy!>tem. The relative structural
ngidity a condition of
dealing with problems set
before it. Under certain conditions,
this may hamper their solution (for
when the goals of group activ
ity are undergoing a change)
and frequently leads to the emer-
gence of temporary informal groups
f\CC Group, lino/til-ial). which make
up for the imufflCient flexibility of the
G.O.IF.) In certain case:;, this may
result in the of the
G.O.IF.).
Group Orderliness. the capability of a
Kroupas a collective subject of jOinl
IJI'/II','W\ for active reorganisation of
group states into organ.
L..ed,l<iIrlictured ones. G.O. is manifested
in aOllity to independently create
an in an uncertain situa.
lion. and to (omoine the ini1iative and
var,.:ty)f form, of individual behaviour
with stable unity of action in achiev-
ing the group The nature of .<?'O.
under .\'Ir/'.\.\ conditions
may sene as a aiterion for
that organisation, viz. (I) the ability
of a group to independently plan the
steps of reaching its goals and to dis
tribute the forthcoming work among
its members; (2) the high discipline
of group members in fulfllling the tasks
entrusted \0 them; (3) the ability of
a group to effec ti vely control and cor
rect individual actions, a nd to suppress
manifestations of disorgan isation, and
(4) the ability of a group in a relativ-
ely short time to summate the work
performed by its members, 10 ensure
the general of interac
tion, etc. (See Group
Harmony in Work).
Group Polar isati on. a sociopsycholog
ical phenomenon appearing when pre
vious differences of opinion between
group members are 110t only evened
out in the group dist.:ussion but on the
contrary exacerbate to split the group
into two groupings holding diametrical.
Iy opposite views. In such cases, com
promise opinions as it were d isappear
giving way to extreme ones. G. P. also
implies an extremiSalioll of group deci
sions GroufJ or
opi nions as compared to averaged de-
cision!, or opin ions. The extent of G.P.
is the greater the farther the initial
preferences of group members are
removed from average values. A partie
ular (ase of G.P. is the risky
G,P. may arise outside open discuS.';ion
a result of regular exchange of
OpiniOn!> among participants in joint
,
. - -
aClivilit>,\' and lead to the formation of
grouping!> holding diamctrically
posed positiom. In its extremc form, G.P.
is exprcssive of the state of mtra
group conflict. The phenomenon
posite to group polarisation is group
nor malisa ti on. It occurs in the course
of a discussion or outside it when
in ilially diverging opinions ('on verge
and Ihe number of extreme opinions
decreases while the n umber of averaged
ones lIlcr eases .
Group, Refer ence, a real or imaginary
social unit whose norms. values and
opinions provide a
for the individual'S- beFiaviour. By and
lar'ge, G's, R'. ' perform tWO main func
tions: normative and t.:omparative. The
normative function fmds expression in
motivational processes (see
(ioll)' G's, R. act as a source of norms
of behaviour and value oriel/lations
for the individual. The comparative
function is reflected in perceptual
prot.:esses (see Social Perception):
G's, R. ac t as the standard which allows
the individual to evaluate himself and
others. Correspondi ngly. G's,R. are sub
divided into normative and compara
tive, but both functions may be fulfllled
by the same group. Also distinguished
are positive and negative G's,R (see
Object uf Rcferew: e Relations). In
developed socialist society the most
important positive G.,R. is, as a rule.
the work collective which provide::;
the personalit y with frame of refer
ence.
Group, Small. a relativel y restricted
social unit comprising individuals per.
III

sonally communicating and interudillg.

A particularly intensive invesllgallon uf
G's, $. is conducted within the KrOlII'
dynamin school. one of the trend" In
Western social It regards
the of a G.,S. as one of
basic characteristics, i.c. differentiated
system of mutually regulated clement ..
and relations. which include: the system
of interpersonal interactions, the dis-
tribution among participants of the
information of roles, positions. views,
opinions. evaluations and influence
(see Leadenhip). A feature of a
G.,S. is involvement of all its members
into interpersonal relations, which al
lows each of them to feel part of the
group (experit"nce the "us" feding).
Soviet psychology srudie5 the structure
and phenomena occurring in a G.,S.
as dependent on the system of sOI:ial
relations into which it is included,
and on the content of the udil'il\'
which mediates group processes (see
Collectil'e) .
Group, Unofffcial (Informal), a social
unit which has all group characteristics
(an established system of interper'
sonal relations. joint adil'itit's, the
feeling of belonging to a group, etc.)
but no legal status. Depending on the
type of activity uniting members of the
G.,U.(I.) they are subdivided into
professionally and nonprofessionally
oriented groups. With reference to the
form of their existence. they can act
as isolated units or emerge within of
flcial groups Isee Group, Official
(Formal) I. Brought together by com
mon il/tereslS lying outside the profes
s ional field, C's,U, (I.) exis t in the form
\22
of socielil"S. etc
united b)' mler-
estS Of11;'11 of
I.:rcali\c (e.g. the
ill\'L\ibk "-- informal MSOC131lOm
of employed by different OT-
but
with (()]leagues n1l0 the
same \Cl \)f Membas of all
G\.U,O.J are united by friendly
mutual emotional at-
(Tallinn. ulldt"T\tanding and respect,
which frequently exerts a benefICial
influence on within the of-
"Kial grllup') \If whi..:h sU\:h an informal
ma\..cS a part.
lIabilualion (in IX'iY-
chophi\iology), neg-
ali\(' training result-
ing in the absence of
L ____ l fj'udifln \0.3
",mil/II}. very gen-
erally. H. involves a
fradual lh,;,:rea\e of Ihe reanion mag-
nude 31 3 nf repealed stimula
ion. II from fatigue and ex-
hau'>linn In lhal the real:tion may be
3!(<t1tl hy merely the
SllIllulu!. H. manife<;l,> ilself 1110:::.t
m Ihe mi('/IIulillR n'//(>'\

II a II Ul" i naliom. , pat ho 10f ie a I lii'>t \I rban-
ll."1; III (""n'pIIOlI in
the (,,'h'l'I'mmrn"(;fijeI1\ whid\ al the
mOTlcnt do nllt affecl rt'le\'ant ,en,e
organ .... II, ill 1'1\ a
CJn -lut'n,"' of lll\lIluntarv liutward
ion 0' '''WIII' and locali,a-
-
tion in time and space which rcsulh
in their rcrceplion a'> e:>..tent.
Halo Effect, a general impression
about the way a person's actions and
personal qualities are rerceived under
of 1IIforl11atiOll about that
rerson. When the initial impression
forms aud develops, H.E. may take
the form of positive bias ("positive
halo") aud negative bias ("negative
halo'"). For instance, if the flrst im-
pre<"\lOI1 is generally favourablt', the
en lire behaviour and all his
features and acliom would be reas-
se",ed pO'oitively to distinguish and
exaggerate dliefiy positive
whibt undcre.o.timaling or ignoring neg-
atiYl! ones. If the frrs! general
sion about a given persOIl proves nega-
lL\e. then e\en his qualities
and al:ILon:::. would surn.equelltly be
either tOially unnoticed or undere::.ti-
matcd again'>t the background of e:>o.ag-
gerated allentlon to his short..::omings.
Likl;' maLI} other phenomena of .meiat
(k'rCl'(1I/O/l, H.E. based on Il1I;'Chall-
ism, that allow to categorise, simplify
and ,>clect social illformati01l c<;sential
for the \Ul'ce!>..\ of gi\'l;'n aClivity when
Ihl;'re i:::. shortage of rcleval1l e\'idenn"!.
Harmony in Work, a l1cgree of epor_
in interindividual jnlt:raction
during some <;peciflc joint UcI;I'ilil'S.
H. in W. charaCleri<;l;'d by high
rroducti""il), of joilltly working indi-
viduals, who are quill;' with
the proce" and of their work.
t-Iatred, a \table and acti\e !legati\<>
human feeling directed 3t phenomena
that are counter to ol1e\ individual
"el'l}s. nlllviC/ioll.\, and vU/lies. H. can
evoke 1I0t only a corre'>ponding asse,>s-
ment of its object, but also high acti-
vity aimed against il. The forming
of H. is normally prel:eded by acute
dissatisfa..::tion caused by aIL unde<;irable
course of events, or by sy:::.tcmatic ac-
cumulation of weaker innuenccs of the
source of negative emotional
riellct's; in such the rcal or
imaginary cause of these events be-
the object of H. In educational
practicl;', the forming of H. is controlled
fl.)" revealing the and causes
.of phenomena. To impede
the de\'elopment of undesirable H" the
individual ..::ounters it with moral
corn-icliom, and also with his awareness
thai unpleasant events arc objectively
inevitablc. In concrete terms,
morally ;tt\lifwd H ,(e.g. H. of the
oprrcsscd for their oppre!..\ors) plays
a markedly positive role to become
a meaningful motiv/:' for rarticipation
in political movl;'ments and revolution-
ary struggle.
Higher Mental Functions, complex.
systems mental of social
origin that form during one\ lifetime.
H.M.F. arc a major l'oncept in modern
psychology introduced by Lev Vygobky
lind furl her developed by Alexallder
Luria and other Soviet psychologists.
The idea lhat H.M.F. are so..:ially
conditioned mental formatiollS or
coriscious forms of menIal activity is
essentially on the tenelS of
Marxist rsychology concerning the so-
cio-historical origin of human psyche
12J
and the leading role of labour in form-
ing human COIl.\CiOlI.HlI' ....\. sy:::.tem",
H.M.F. involve highly nexible and
interchangeable components. By devel
oping the theory of t-I.M.F.,
ogists could substantiate the tenet
concerning the ba:::.ic pO\.sibility of re-
storing impaired mental funllions by
the fUllctional systems
that constitute their physiological
foundation. 111 this case, they distin-
guish intrasyskmic and inll;'rsYlolemic
re.-.tructuring of funt,tional (the
transfer of a process to a higher,
conscious level; the replacement of a
fallen-out link in Ihe functional
with a new one. etc.). The forming
of H.M.F. is characterised by the fact
that they initially exisl as a form of
interaction between people. and only
laler as a totally inner (intrapsycho-
logkal) process. The transformation
of eXll;'rnal functional means inlo inner
psychological ones is termed inleriori,
Another important feature of
the de\elopment of H.\I.F. is that
they become gradually "compressed"
and automatic. In the initial stage5 of
development, H.M.F. represent a broad
form of objective activity that relies on
relatively elementary sensory and mOlor
rrocesses; subsequently, this activity is
'"compressed'" to assume the nature of
automatised mental and the
psychological strucrure simul-
taneously changes, too. Psychophy.
siologically. H.M.F. are based on com-
plex functional systems illvoh'ing a large
number of afferent and efferent links
(see Afferent SYlltlles/I;
Some links in the fUlictional s}':::.tem are
strictly "allolled" to dt!flnite brain
(
while the rest are highly
flexible and interchangeable. Ihis being
Ihe factor underlying Ihe restructuring
mechanc.m of Ihe functional system as
a whole. Thus, each H.M.F. is asso-
ciated wilh the work of nOI just one
"bruin centre", and not wilh the whole
brain as a uniform entity, but
by the brain's activ-
ity. in which various brain structures
art' differently involved (see Localisa-
tion of HIgher Mental Functions).
Psychology, see Sociogene-

HislOl"iography of Psychology, the total
ity of whose subject-matter is
the hiwlr}' of psychology. In the 19th
centur)" only a few worl0. appeared
n field. In Ihe 20lh cenlury, i\
evohed into a particular trend
which j .. quill' represented
ahroad in the works by E.Y. Boring
(USA). Ludwig Pongrat1. (FRG), and
other!i. In the USSR, the basic problems
of hi!.tory of psychology are covered
tmm the standpoint of the Marxist
meth(l\.lology in the studies by Boris
Ananyev, Lyudmila Antsyferova, Yele-
n.3 Budl1ova, Artur Petrovsky, Boris
1 eplov. Tutunjan, Michail Yaro-
-.hev\ky, and H. of P. ib
t3.,k of the rast
wIth the aIm of working out a general
theory of the evolution of rsychological
the conditions and
(au'>l:! of evolution (socio-
cultural and per,onal), the conformity
to the laws and method, of obtaining
ew knowledge on mental reality, the
interaction of sc Ience and social prac-
lice.
History of Psychology. The first
scientifIc notions concerning man's
appeared in the ancient world
(india, China, Egypt, Babilon, Greece,
Georgia) within philosophy as a coun-
terbalance of the religious tenet treat-
ing Ihe so1l1 as a particular entity
connected with the body in an external
and fortuitous manner. The develop-
ment of these notions slimulated the
requirements of Ihe social practice,
cure and education. Ancient physicians
established that the brain is the organ X
of the psyche and elaborated the teach-
ing on temperamenls. This natural
scientific trend was closely connected
with the treatment of the human soul
as a material (heat, air, elC.) particle
of cosmos moving according to its
own eternal and inevitable laws. In
idealistic concepts, the soul was set
apart from the body and was recog- 1
nised as immortal. The teaching of Aris-
tOile wru, the summit of psychology in
Ihe ancient world (treatises "On the
Soul", "On the Origins of Animals",
etc.). He interpreted the soul as a form
of organisation of the material body
capable of life, rather than a mailer or
an lIlcorporeal entity. Aristotle sel
forth the first system of psychological
nO\1ons elaborated on the basis of ob-
jective MeL genetic methods. In Ihe
Hellenistic period, the soul turns from
Ihe of life in general into
a pnnclple of its certain manifesta-
lions: the psychic is separated from the
general biologic. In feudal times. the
development of the positive cognition
\
of psyche was sharply curtailed but
not stopped altogether. The ideas of
progressive physician!. and thinkers of
the A rabie-speaking world (Ibn-Sina,
Ibn ai-Hassan, Ibn-Roshd and others)
paved Ihe way for the subsequent
flourishing of natural, scientifIC psy-
chology in Western Europe, where,
with the emergence of capitalism, an
urge was growing to examine man
experimentally as a natural being
whose behaviour is subject to the laws
of nature (Leonardo da Vinci, Juan
Vives, Huarte de San Juan, and
others). The era of bourgeois revolu-
tions and the triumph of a new,
materialistic world-view engendered a
totally new approach to Ihe study of
mental activity, at that stage explained
and studied from the positions of
strict delermi"i\m. Socio-economic
transformations stimulated progress in
psychological thinking which had been
enriched by a number of fundamental
categories. -nescartes discovered Ihe
renectory nature of behaviour (see
Ref/ex), and transformed the notion
of Ihe soul into a non-theological notion
of consciousness as a direct knowledge
of the subject about his own mental
acts. This era saw the emergence of
a number of important scientifi C
theories: of association as a natural
link between psyc hic phenomena deter-
mined by links between body phenom-
ena. (Descartes, T. Hobbs); of affects
(Sp1l101.a); of appen.:eplion and the
unCOllscioliS (Gottfried Leibniz) of
origin of knowledge from Ihe indi-
Vidual sensual experience (John Lo-
cke). The specifiC scientifIC elabora-
tion of the principle of association by
125
the Briti<;h physician David Hartlev
made this principle, for a century
and a half, the basic explanatory cun
cept in psychology. The
ideas of Denis Diderot, Ru<;.<;ian scienti,ts
Mikhail LomonosOv, Alexander Ra-
dishchev, and other progre .... ive think-
ers developed within the bounds of a
materialist world outlook. [n the 19th
century, psychology gave rise to ex-
perimental methods of study of menial
functions, and the first attempts were
made to inlroduce in Ihe analysi'i of
these functions quantitive assessment<;
(Ernst Weber, Gustav Fechner,
Hermann Helmholt1., and others).
Darvinism proved the nece!>.,>lIV or
studying psychic functions as a real
factor in the development of biological
systems. By the I 870s-80s, psychology
became an independent field of
knowledge distinct from philosophy \ '
and
lahoralQcies became- main centres

Qide\.elopmeol. The lirst of them was
organised by Wilhelm Wundt (Leip-
zig, 1879). Similar establishments
were set up in Russia, England. the
USA. France. and other countries.
Ivan Sechenov put forward a consistent
programme for the elaboration of
psychology on the basis of the objective
method. His ideas engendered experi-
mental work in the fIeld of psychology
in Russia (Vladimir Bekhterev, Nikolai
Lange and others), and later on
through the works of Bechterev and
Pavlov, made an impact on the elabora-
tion of objective methods in world
psychological science. The basic
topics of experimenlal psydlOlogv at
the initial stage were sellsalions and
: !(l
tile re",.:I;"'l limt' (Fral1c;...cus
d
'ubsenUt'I1II\' (L\\O ...-l</II1I/1S
an .
(Hermann Ehbinghaus), ",(/t'nIlOI/
{Jaml:'i CaHe1l1. eOloli("IOal "1<l1e;- (see
(William ThroJule
Ribl,t), Ihinkin): and the ,,.;1/ (lI'iirl:-
harg "-';,/,001. Alfred Binet). Dif!I'ft'lIwJ.1
whose task wa" to delerm
me
inJi\ idual between people
with the help of measuring methods
(jahon, Alfred Binet. Alexan,
der Lawrsh. William Stern, and
others) iaking along with
Ihe .. eareh for I!eneral of
- _..... .
A was 111 lite
mal<.in('ill at Ihe turn of
the 20th eentury, a crisis engl..'fldered
by brcal\lIlg of Ihe _ old. COI!.c!"l'I'
The noti<ln ,,1 a\ a (I '
latity of pherlom<:na experienced by
suhJect prmed to be [o[ally untenabl<:,
S[ros IhlW laid on the orienta-
ion of ma'i in the environmenl, on
he. fadoN behaviour which
art: concealed from
HI'h(1I'ivuri\m becilllle Ihe main [rend
III American ll',ychology, al'ulrding
10 whi h ps)'dlllt.lg)' not
!o any further .han ing or-
garUlim'S rl..... p<lII\e'> !<) OUbllk ,llim
Ii, The dynamin of
reo-Will " cnncei\'cd a) a blind
aClidclHally kading 10 a
alli\)11 flxl'd hv repl'tilion
(IiiI' Ir;ul alld ('fror 1I1I;'hINI) , Tilt'
of Ihi) !n:nd were
by John Wahton (11)13), Alllllhcr
ml1l1l:l1tial Sl:h,,\JI \la\ (ie.Hull p.I\,<'iwl,
II,""V, l:Xf,crimlntal \ubjt"<."\
II e 1I11tp:ra!.. lli1.ure of
11 r"rmil.lli!ns, AI [he hl'giii!ii'";lg
c .he cC'lllury S,gmund Freud\
"IIfhlll.ll.ni\ aho aClllrding tll
which till" mk in Ihe nrgiHli-
\alioll of p\yche
(II1\l"i(.lIl\ all
ntw- the
empiriC and methodological
l,f and (onlribulcd 10
.he devc\opllll.'lIt of ils con(eptu:l1
(-ail.'gories of (ldioll. ;nwg/!,
molil'{'). 1iowever. the inadequate phil-
o.sophic:11 ill1crprctation of these
achievemenl\ led 10 erroneous aud
0I1e-sided condusiom, The allemp1s to
understand froll1 idealistil' posilion.'>, Ihe
of man's p,yche 011 the
world of history and culwre and social
life inelitably led 10 duali.'>lTI. 10 Ihe
con(epl of "two (Wil-
helm Wundl, Wilhelm Hein-
rich Rickert). according to whi<:h
f6ychology cannot be an inlegral
\ClerKe .,11" .. , an allegedly nalUral
Kientifle, experimcntal explanalury
approach 10 p',),(he is incompatible in
principle with the cultural historic
.. pproiJch. The who
hrnugln \0 Ihe foreground Ihe rule \,f
.,.)wal factor., in r"'guialin.s. 'human
behaviour (James Baldwin, Jofi'n De-
we)" George Mead, and also
failed 10 clabo rate a produclive ap-
proach 10 thl' of the
persona1ily and its p.,ychic funclions
\IKial;ly it.'>elf was interpreted
"purc" i!lIercour.,e oUl\ide \pt'ciflc

illtroJucl'd new pril1cipks into
\Cll'lItifll" p,ychology which have pro-
foundly affl'ctl'd il. K.m.,tantin
lov, Pavel Mikhail BassoI',
and o.h ..'rs altlvely .,upport ...d the idea
of rCMructuring psyrhology on a
)
[\tarxi\t Til ... principk
of 1I!..\t(lrici\m II.CY rule ill the
w",.k., of I,ev and fol-
lowcf'>. SOy il'l p'>ydHllogy was lIl\cpa-
rilbly linkl'd wilh the of
rc.\earch III\() p,>ycho-phy\illiogy in the
of Ivan Pllyloy, Vladimir Bekh-
lerev, Alexei Ukhtormky, Leon Orb.:li,
Sergl'i Kravkov, Nikolai
and other." lu r...ruting Ihe ideali.,tic
and rejlexol-
ogy) innuenn'\, sciellti\!\ a .. -
.,el'teu in p\)"chnll,gy the Marxist leach-
ing on IId!I'!I\" ami ils
foundation, th ... idea., of Iheory
of rt'j!t'clioll. The Iheorelical and ex-
perimenlal .,[udy of Ihe basic problem.'>
of p\ychology was carried oul by
Alexander Luria, Alexei N. Leon[ye\,.
Sori.'> Teplov. Anatoli Srnirnll\, Sergei
Rubimtein. Boris Anan}e\. "ik,)lai
Dobrynin. Alexei ZaporllLJll'l' and

The dell"!opmenl oi p\Yl"hology in the
world in the can
be d('scribcd .1\ th ... of
the main s.:llools. Beha\'il.luri.'>1 theori('s
put forward Iht' notion of
L'uriub"'I. i.e, [ht' factors IIll'diating [ht!
motor (the dependent lari-
, Ihc ;rril<f".'
vanahle). The logiC 01 Ihe dl'\'elop-
IIICIII of ... r": l and the of
pral'[i!:c !I'd 10 the .'>Iudy of
tht: "cell Ira] \I(curing be-
Iwccnthe "input" and .he mowr
"lllllpUI" 0'- [11l' blllJ)' ... m, Ttlls
Ir ... nd gained ground in 1]\\' IQ5th-(J{J.,
due to the aCl'lul1IlIaled
ill Ih ..' uw of compUll'r\. Sudl brill1l"he!o
of psychology <'ngi!ll'l'ring,
aud lllcdical I"ydwlog) b ...g<ln to
develop. The work3 llf 'he Swiss.
PSYlhologi.,1 Jt:an Piagcl, who studied
tht: Iramformation of thc in[ernal
Iotructurc of men[al in 011/0-
exerted a .,tTlmg innul'nc<: 011
the in[erprct3tilln uf I11l'lllal
The altitude loward" neuru-p.,ydwlo-
gical mechani,m, i., al\o changing!
rather than being igIlMt:d. thcy are
now perceived an inalicnable part of
Ihe stru!:.ure of behaviour (Donald
Hebb, Karl Pribram).
engenders IIN)Frf'udiulliIIII, a trl.'nd
linking tht: mt:-
chanics he ... Til .. wilh
Ihe operation of thc
factors (Karen Horney, Harry Sulli-
van, Erich Fromm), whi(h has
restrUClured ps)'l'hothl'
rap)'. The '>O-called t'xist ... n[ialist,
psycholo!:y, us,)erling that
the of !>('ientiill" and
objectil'e methods leads 10 .he de-
humani5ation and disil1legratiun of
Ihe personality and impedC'\
dCldopment. ha.\ ((l claim
the role of a "third force"
with beha\iourism and Freudian-
ism, This !Tend del'elo]:"l into undis-
guised irrationalism.
II ilh biologi\[i..: and (on(eph
has evoked a lil'ely il1t<:rC'>[ among
progressil e ill [he l'api-
wtist (oulI[ries the Jialcrti..:-
materialisl interpretation of Ihe mental
al'li,ity, Ihe of Soviet psy
chology (George\ Poli'Lcr, Hellri Wal- .z..
lOll, Lth:i<:l1 Siv.... Paul
and (lIht'rs).
Homeostasis, a dYllamlc equilibrium
maintained b) a by
121\
--- -
the internal and {',\tcrnal far.:t?p,
to it. The
oriJ;inally c\ol\'ed in phYlilolog.J
for the purpose of e'\plaining the
hI\' of the organism's visceral pheno-
mena (blood. lymph) and the constancy
of the ba,ic phvsiological functiuns,
which is anained ihrouJ;h the operation
l,f the self-regulalOry mechanism. The
idea was de\'doped by the US phy-
siologist Walter Cannon as part of the
'body wisdom' doctrine, the body
being an open liystem constantly
taining itli own stability. Receiving
\jJ.:/lIlh about changes threatening the
W
stem
. the organism switchCli on the
adaptive mechanism which continues to
(lrerate until the equilibrium is
established and its parameters return
/riydwlog.\'. whil:h 1lIainlain ... tl1i1t when -
e\er thl' equilibriulll helween Ihe
t'lement... 01" Ihe Illl'nl:ll sysh:m IS
disturbl'd it ... 10 re-cslablish it.
Explaining thc phenomenon of auto-
regulation, tht' principle of H. faih,
however, \0 reveal the source of al-
terallons in Iht' mind and its:
Vltles.
to their initial value. The principle
of H. wa ... later adopted from phy-
SIOlogy by cybernetics and other
including psychology.
ing a more univer\31 significance as
a principII: of syMems approach and
autoregulation through feedback. The
Idea thaI every system strives to main
tain its stability was transferred to the
mteracllon between the organism and
the environment. Such transfer is a
feature of. for instanl:e, nl'O-helulI'iOllr-
i.\m whkh holds that a new motor
respome is reinforced due 10 the
gal1lsm relea'e from the need which
has upset its H.; of the doctrine
advanced by Jean Piaget, who recognis-
ed that mental development occurs in
Ihe proce'i'i of the individual's adjust-
ment (J the environment; of Kurt Le-
w -n cuncepi of hfldd', according to
Wlll,h motH'utllln in an imbal-
anCI.d '\ystem of tensions'; of
Hope. an emo/ional experience arising
when the subject anticipates: a certain
deliired event. H. renects: an apprehend-
ed likelihood of its aClUalisation. Its
formation is explained by the cognition
of Ihe oojective causes upon which
the anticipated evelllS are dependent,
or on the basil; of subjective emotional
experience <feeling:s of joy. failure,
etL) accumulated in similar situations
in the past. By predicting the possible
course of events in given circumstances.
H. plays a role of an internal regulator
of activity whiLh helps the subjeci to
determine its consequences and
sity. In case of strong motivation, H.
may be maintained even in the absence
of conditions that substantiate it.
Hormic Approach, the concept
ed by the US psychologist William
Mcdougall who believed that the basis
of individual and social behaviour is
inn.ate (ill.'StinclUal) energy or "honne'"
which determines the nature of the
p.ereeplion of objects, produces emo-
tional arousal and directs the organism's
menIal and bodily actions towards a
.goal. Corresponding to each
IIlStlllct, IS an emotion (e.g. the instinct
(If cakmg fllght and the emotion of
fear). which turns. from a brief state.
,
)
-
;nto a sentiment as a stable and orga
niscd system of lJiwmitions towards
action, In hili work.') Sodal P\ydw!ogy
(1908), and Group Mind (1920),
Mcdougall attempted to explain social
and mental proceS!ies by a striving
towards a biologically meaningful goal
inherent in the individual's
sical organisation, thus rejecting their
scientifi C causal explanation (see Depth
Psychology).
Humaneness, a system of a persQnali-
ty'li attitudes determined by moral
norms and values to social objects
( indi viduals, groups, living beings),
which assumes the form of
ti on and sharing joy in the conscious-
ness and is realised in communication
and activity through acts of coopera-
tion, compassion and assistance. The
notion of H. as a social attitude
ing cognitive, affective, and conative
components is used when analysing
a broad range of issues involved in
assimilating moral norms, empathy, the
helping behaviour, etc. As
distinct from ideas of bourgeois psy-
chologists, the notion of humaneness as
developed by Soviet psychology has a
concrete historical character
cd by the principles of equality and
justice prevailing in socialist socil'cy.
The notion of H. helps overcome I Ill
opposition, wlli,11
implies ei ther a humiliating sdf-:,;a,:n
flce or conduct. III it s
vanced form, a subject's H. ftnds ex
pression in gr oups with a high develop-
ment level (see Lel'el of Group De-
velopment), where ;t is a form of
existense of such interpersonal relations
-
which imply that each member of thc!l
collective treats other') a .. he does him-
self and vice versa, procectiing I"nlm
the goah and ta ...k ... of joint 8l"1ivil1c!',
A collective secures cach personality
not only the respel.:t due it but also
sets it high ... tandards. The empyrical
embodiment of H. ili collectivist
lication (see Identi/kation, Collediv-
ist). The formation of H. in onW1<I"
nesis proceeds through the development
of the of Ihe child whu
comes to distinguish himself from Ill'>
social environment. Research ha ...
shown that of tremendous importance
in the development of a child's H.
is his joint activities lirst with an adult
and later with peers, Joint activiticli
create a unity of emotiollal
and the changing roles in play and
communication shapes the child's
mane attitude to signiji.,.lII/ others;
from direct manifestations of emotional
responsiveness (such as commi .... ration
with Ihe unhappy and joy flH the
happy), he passes on to acts of
miseration in joint activities mediated
by moral norms. A study of the laws
of de\ dupment and establishment of
H. as a characteristic of the personality,
as well as of the mechanism of ils
funct ioning is a major objective of
moral education and the formation of
a harmoniously developed personality.
Humanistic Psychology. a trend in
Western, mainly US psychology which
takes as its principal object the
personality as a dynamic integral system
with an open pQl.entiallor
satioll characteristic only of man. H.P.
is OPPolied, as a Ihird force". to both
130
and Freudianism which
lay the main emphasis the person-
ality's dependence upon ItS past.
ience. H.P. maintains that an mdlvld-
ual's behaviour is determined by his
present and future. According 10
trend the main feature of the personahty
is the striving for freely realising his
or her potentialities (Gordon Allport),
especially creative ones (Abraham
Maslow), strengthening self _confidence
and attaining the "ideal self" (Carl
Rogers). The principal part in this
process is assigned to the which
ensure. not conformist behaviour (see
Conformity) but the growth of the
constructive element of the human self
whose integrity and intensity of emo-
tional experiences are to be stimulated
by a special form of psychotherapy.
Rogers named it the "client-centered"
psychotherapy, in which the physician
enters into a close personal relation-
ship with the patient and regards him
not as patient but as a client who
assumes responsibility for solving his
The role of the physi-
cian 15 that a counsellor creating
a emotional atmosphere which
makes 11 easLer for the client to reor-
the structure of his self, his
mner (phenomenal) world attain the
. .. ' .
mtegrlty .of hiS personality and grasp
the meanmg of its existence. Opposing
the concepts ignore the specifi-
cally human 10 the personality the
latter's representation by RP. is n'ever-
theless madequate and one-sided for it
does not. recognise. that the
IS sha!>E'd by soclo-historical factors.
H.P, 15 sometimes called existential
psychology.
-
Humour, ..,ce SI'mt' of IIl1mOlir .
Hypermnesia, unusual, sometimes pa-
thological sharpening of memorising,
retention and recall. Pathological and
borderline cases are chara.;; terised by
the person's ability to memorise a multi-
tude of insignificant and irrelevant
details (railway timetables, calendar
dates, telephone numbers, etc.) Occurs
irrespective of a person's intellectual
ability and is met even in feebleminded.
May also appear in response to the
stimulation of drugs, fever, brain in-
juries, and electric stimulation of cer-
tain areas of the cerebral cortex. In
such cases. recollections assume the
form of involuntary externally imposed
"flashes of past experiences". H. may
also occur under hypnotic state and in
ordinary dreams. It is demonstrated
by persons with the so-called pheno-
menal memory-mnemonists.
Hypnosis, temporary state of cons-
ciousness characterised by sharp de-
crease of its span and concentration
on the content of suggestioll. It stems
from changes in the function of indi-
vidual control and self-awareness. H.
is by the hypnotist'S thorough
speCial teChnique of influence (see
HYPllotisatioll) or purposeful self-sug-
gestion (see AlltoliYPllosis). One should
between spontaneously ma-
mfested features of the hypnotic state
and those. induced by the hypnotist.
The stale Itself is character ised by en-
hanced suggestibility. posthypnotiC
amllesia, involuntary forgening the
content of the hypnotic suggestion and
I
tilt" very fart "f etl,;
While III a hypnmic Mate, the subject
may di .. play phy .. iulogical and P'>ychic
re..,pomc'i unu..,ual to him in hi<; normal
sta te of mind. They may aIrel,:! tht:
area of pt.'rn'pti(JII fplhitive and nt:ga,
tive .. ); memory (forgetting or
recalling fact s and events from tht:
past and more act ive of
new material); altent;on higher
conccutration and distribution): think-
illg (disturbance of the normal logic
or greater creativity); penonality
(change of motivation, habits, mood,
personality traits. suggestion of another
person's image, manipulating with sub-
jective time). The presence of these
changes has been confirmed by phy-
siological and psychological tests. Until
the mid-19th century, the notion of H.
was based on the assumption of special
"fluids" or magnetic waves supposedly
emitted by the hypnotist (Franz Mes-
mer, 1771). 11 was materialistically
considered in Ivan Pavlov's works.
Physiological theories regard H. as a
specific state of the central nen'ous
system-"partial sleep" (Ivan Pavlo\',
Konstantin Platonov). Psychological
theories regard H. as changed function-
ing of Ihe subject's normal conscious-
ness under unusual conditions: sugges-
tion of motivation, allention, expecta-
tions and interpersonal relations. H. is
used for treating alcoholism, drug ad-
diction and smoking. and as an anaes-
thetic in surge r y, obstetrics and stO-
matology. Psychotherapy uses the
method of hypnoanalysis of conflicts
and allitl/des of the personalilY The
use of the H. technique makes it pos-
si ble to conduct an experimenlal study
I JI
-
of behaviour at or
functioning of the subje{'\'s conS(:illus,
n.,..
Hypnotisalion, of the
hypnotic state by the hypnotisl or
hee
through the uSt: of verbal or non-verbal
The hypnotist using the cla ..... ic
verbal technique repeatedly or just
once orders the subject to close his
eyes, feel his eyelids grow heavy, relax
and rail asleep. and then proceeds to
other necessary suggest ions producing
corresponding movements, actions, etc.
The non-verbal technique implies the
use of either extremely powerful ex-
ternal irritants or very gentle mono-
tonous and rhythmkaT \souno. ViSual.
tactile, thermal. etc.) ones: the subject
is often ordered to fixate hi$ eyes on
a glistening object, to concentrate on
the hypnotist'S words and passes; the
sound of a metronome is also frequent-
ly used. Two \'arieties of H. are dist-
inguished: the imperative one, based on
strict directi\'e-like injunctions of the
hypnotist and powerful non-verbal sti-
muli. and the cooperative \'ariety which
implies the-use-of gentle forms of H.,
gentle repetiti\'e st imuli and persuasive
verbal suggestions. In certain cultures,
ritual dances, rhythmic sounds of mu-
sical instruments (the beal of drums,
tambourins) and monotonouS choir
singing are tantamount to H. The
degree of the subject's H. is ascertained <"
by spe.;;ial te.sts ("clasped hands", "fal-
ling forward and backward". etc.) The
choice of H. technique is determined
by the individual traits of the subject
and the hypnotist. as well as by the
\.u
obje(:ti\"t:!> pursued by hypnosis" Th,e
effect of H, depends on the subject s
susceptibility ("hypnoabilit{'). the
quacy of the techniqu,e o.r the .subJect s
psychophysical organtsatlon (1I1ftuenc-
ing predominantly this or that
organ). the absence of hypnophobia
(fear of being hypnotised),
_ Iatrogenic Illness, a
disorder or the pati-
ent"s mental state
brought on by some
unintentional sugge-
stion by the physi-
cian (for example,
some comment about the ilI-
neS5) and conducive to neurosis. Sy-
nonym: ...
The Ideal. an object's special mode of
being. its representation (acti\'e reflect-
Lon) in the psychological world and
vital acti ... ity of the subject. "The
ideal 1.\ nothing else than the mate-
rial world reflected by the human mind
and translated into forms of thought
(Karl Marx). The transformation hap-
pens In the process of material and
which, in line with
1(X:lety s reqUIrements, engenders multi-
form!> of the reflection of rea-
hty In the human brain: sensory and
menial lmaRts, the methods of their
COl13.tructlon and application, spiritual
lIalues and onental1on. Being derived
from the material, the I. acquires a re-
latllle ther,b, b, .
, . . commg
an a .. 11\Ie lOurce of ... ital actillity. Ow-
illS 10 the pre<.ence of the I .
. , man IS
capable not only of reality
but also of transformmg II both in
his consl'iousness and in practice. Under
certain conditions. the process of trans-
formation can lead to illusory products
of the I. that are inadequate to reality,
The biological requisite:) for the I.
evolve in animals as the ability to pat-
tern their behaviour ofT the environ-
ment through the "model of the neces-
sary future" (see Physiology of Acti- )
veness). Howe ver, it is only in the pro-
cess of labour which creates objects
of the material and spiritual cul ture,
including the language and other sign
systems. that the brain becomes a sub-
slratum of the I. Labour, by trans-
forming the matter of nature, gives it
socially meaningful forms which the
subject perceives as generalised images
of reality. By mastering these images
and operating with them, the indivi-
dual projects the goals and the means
of his activity (see Reflection; psyche;
Consciousness; J nleriorisalion).
Identification, (I) discerning someth-
ing or somebody; (2) likening to so-
mebody or something. In the ftrst mean-
ing, the term "\." is used in the psychO-
logy of cognitive processes, and also
in engineering and juridical psycho-
logy, where I. is understood as a pro-
cess of comparison collation of an
. '
object with another on the basis of
sign or property result-
IIlg In the ascertainment of their simi-
larity or dissimilarity. The I. process
helps in the discernment of images,
the. formation of generalisations and
theIr classification, analysis of sign
systems, etc. When the object of I. is
a person, it become!) a proct.:.,.\ of qua-
litative identifIcation on who\e ba\i\
a personality may be a<;\igned to a
particular cla\s or type, or be recog-
nised as unique in its own way throug-
hout one's life. In the second meaning,
J. is the emotional cognitive procC!>S
of the unconscious identiflCation of one
subject with another subject, group, or
model. The concept of I. wa!> intro-
duced by Sigmund Freud, initially in
interpreting the phenomena of patho-
logical depressioll and, later on, with
the aim of analysing dreams and cer-
tain processes through which a child
assimilates the behavioural pattern of
significant olhers, forms the "super*
ego", assumes a female or a male role,
etc. In modern psychology the concept
of I. encompasses three imersecting
areas of psychological reality: (I) the
process of unification of the subject
wilh another individual or group on
the basis of an established emotional
bond, as well as the incorporation as
one's own of their norms. va-
lues and standards, This may ap-
pear as an open imitation of a mo-
del's gestures and movements, which is
particularly visible among preschool
children; (2) the perception by the
subject of another person as an exten-
sion of himself, and projectioll, i.e,
the attribution to that individual of
one's own personal traits, feelings and
aspirations; (3) the mechanism of plac-
ing oneself in the position of another in-
dividual, which appears in the form of
immersion, the transfer of one's own
ego into the space and time of another
individual and results in the assimi-
lation of another's persollalised mean-
I .ll
ing.\. This mechanism evokes corres-
ponding behaviour (see Altriusm; Em-
pathy) and the manifestation of hllma-
neneu (see Identificalion, Collecliv;.\t;
PenonaJily; Alienation).
Identification, Collectivist, an attitude
the subject holds towards other people
which in the nature of the vallie orien-
tations determining his activities coin-
cides with the attitude towanu .himself
- - . .. . ,.
and corresponds 1<;1 . collectIVist prm-
. ciples. I.,e. is formed in collective in
teraction resulting from the practical
assimilation of the moral norms of
Communist morality and implies the
rejection of altruistiC all forgiveness
and egoistic pragmalism as regards
one's a<;sociates. Humaneness, care for
each member of the collecr;\'e, com-
bined with an exactingness towards him
are a display of I..e. Behaviour in
which an individual applies different
moral norms to himself and others
and places different requirements on
himself and others and, proceeding
from them, undertakes corresponding
actions. is a violation of I.,e. princip-
les. I.,c. incorporates moral values and
norms of beha\'iour corresponding 10
the moral ideals of the Soviet people,
It reaches its highest form in grOllps
of the collec;tive type, which are the
basic cell of socialist society. One mani-
festation of I.,c. is efficient group emo-
tiOrlal identification as a form of
interpersonal relatiolls, which helps
organise the activities of the members
of the collective directed towards achi-
eving a group goal and eliminating
tendencies which lead to frustra*
tiorl .
I
Identification Features. the sum of an
object's properties, basing on which
ont" would identify that object as per-
taining to a certain class. A person
may distinguish and take account of L
F. both consdously and uncomciously.
In the course of ontogenetic (see Onto-
and functional development
of perceptual processes (see Percepl-
ion), one would continually distinguish
new I.F. and this would ensure inte-
gral identification of complex objects
that had nOI been previously perceived
as a whole.
Ideomotor Act, the transition from the
idea of a muscle movement to the rea-
of this mm'emenl, i.e. the ap-
pearance of nerve impulses ensuring
the as soon as the thought
of " emerges. I.A's are involuntary,
uncon!>ClOu.\o as a rule, have weakly
expressed spalLal characteristics. The
pnnc,Lple of LA .. was discovered by the
English phYMclan, David Hartley, in
the 18th century and later developed
by hIS COuntryman, William Carpenter
Further research has .\ohown that
accompanying the process of imag-
a movement cannot always be
as inVOluntary and that
muscle contractions to parti-
cular movements ... .. 1.._
A .... " vc meamngful
t present .there are two points of
vlew
h
the I.A. psychological
mec The first is based on Ivan
Pavlov s nOllons that I A's
,d by ff " are controll_
e cetory Impulses emana'
from CertaLn cortical cells The se tmg
vIew stem" from th . cond
CUlt regulation of e of a cir-
Ref " . vements (N A
nsteln). I.A s are controlled by
-
back is..\ued hy the mm'ClIlt' nt
organs. Sensihili/y to lllu.\I.:1c micro_
movements in I.A. that arc impercep_
tible to an oUbide makes it
possible to foretell the involul11ary
movement conceived by another indi-
vidual.
Illusions of Perception, an inadequate
renection of the object perceived and
its properties. Sometimes the term I. of
is used to denote the very conflgurat_
Lons of the causing such in-
adequate perception. At present the
most widely studied J. of P. are the
illusory effects observed in a visual
pl' rception of two-dimensional contour
images. These "optico-geometric illu-
sions" consist of a seeming distortion
of the metric proportions of the frag-
ments of an image (see Fig. 2). The
phenomenon of bright contrast is ano-
class. of I. of P. For instance, a grey
stnp agamst a light background seems
darker than against a black back-
ground. There are many illu!;ions of
apparent movement: autokinetic move-
me.1lI . (the chaotic movement of an
obJeclLvely fixed source of light which
I!; in total darkness); stro-
movement (the impression of
a movLtlg object where there is rapid
consecutive representation of two im-
stimuli in a close space pro-
xlmLl;y); and induced movement (the
seemmg movemelll of an objectively
nxed Object in the direction opposite
to the movement of the surrounding
One can also regard
Llluslons of , .
. non-vl.\oual nature as I. of
Pi IS,. for instance, the illusion
o arpenller: of two objects of equal
?9,o8o
OO

Fig. 2.


,
Some Geomelric DpliCllllllusions
...
I

A. Though sime in rulil)" 110'0 cenlrll cir-

cumferences seem 10 differ
B. Of 110'0 selmenls equII in ten,Lh. Ihe venicil
one seems 101lier illusion)
C. Two vertical segmenl$ Ire equal. bU1 Ihe righl
one seems longer illusion)
D. SegmenLs of one oblique line seem mUlullI)'
displaced '
E. Parallel lines seem 10
weight but dilTerent dimensions the les-
ser one seems to be heavier. There
are also various a/titllde illusions stu-
died in detail by Dmitri Uznadze and
his pupils. Some I. of P. have a comp-
lex nature: for instance, in a state of
weightlessness. unusual stmulation of
the vestibule impedes the appraisal of
the position of visual and acoustic
objects. There is no common theory
that can explain all J. of P. It is be-
lieved that illusory effects, as was
1.\.;

by the German scientist Ht:r

mann Helmholtz, are the re:>ult of the
work in unusual conditions of the same
mechanisms of perception which in nor
mal conditions ensure its ('om/an-
,yo
Image, a subjective picture of the world
or its fragment::;, including the subject
itself, other people, the spatial surround-
ings, and the temporal sequence of
events. From the viewpoint of the Mar-
xist theory of cognition, l. is a form of
reflection of objective reality. In psy. #
chology, the concept of l. is used in
several meanings. In addition to a broad
interpretation synonymous to the con-
cepts "reflection" and "psyche", I. is
traditionally associated with prefe-
rentially perceptual (see Perception)
forms of knowledge. For instance, in
describing the development of Ihink-
ing in a child, one would distinguish
the stage of visual thinking, which
differs from earlier and later stages in
that it is based on visual representa-
tions and their transformations as a
means for solving mental lasks. When
studying ontogenetic development (see
Ontogenesis), I. involves interiorisation
of schemes of action with objects
(Jerome Bruner, Alexei Zaporozhets,
and Jean Piaget). In his works, the
Soviet psychologist Alexei N. Leontiev
advanced a hypothesis that the 1. of
the world is a multi-dimensional psy-
chological formation, whose five "qua-
sidimensions" include space-time coor-
dinates and the quasidimension" of
mealling. The latter resultant may in
turn be conceived, through correspond-
ing mathematical processing (multi-
dimensional scaling, cluster analysis.
elc.1. in the form of diverse geometric
models. and slIbjeclil'e semantic spaces.
An important distinction between a
'"naive" and "critical" picture of the
world, depending correspondingly on
a commonsense or scientific approach
to interpreting menIal process, was
made by representatives of Gestalt
psychology. Detailed study of I. is the
of cognitive psychology. A sug-
gesllon was made about the existence
of a hypothetical neurophysiological
!ilructure, a "visual buffer" whose acti-
by sensorial information or
evidence from long-term memory leads
to the emergence of a visual I. Yet
the emrirical1y revealed
dence may be, e.xplained only genetical-
ly, by the ongm of the inner plan of
actn'lty from real objective actions
The difference belween the two
of I's may be evidenced by differences
between subjective distinctness
and also b.y the fact Ihal the J's of
never localise in the
outer the only
exceptions being the so-called eidetic
. (see and true hal-
u":lnallOn.(, whi('h are caused b
me'la1 di\nrder : Th-"" d" .y some
, . IstmctLOns are
we}f.kelied in the altered
Slat .. 01 cO/ls ... iOume< [0 - -
dr .\, r mstance m
, ean and drowsy states (h ' .
Is) ,ott Sle(' H . ypnagoglc
ps.eu,lohallu p, ypnoslS). Conversely,
uished f cmatl0ns are clearly distin-
perceptual I's (Viktor
Im'"o .
-&ll'IallOn, a menial
feuln.: it - (11 . . proctSl> mani-
of the of the image
om the result of the
subject's objective actil'ilies; (2) deve_
lopment of a programme of behaviour
when the prohlem sitl/ation is unclear'
(3) produclion of images which
not programme, but substitute activity'
and (4) of images according
t? t,he object's description. A major
of I. is in that it allows
to .the result of work prior
to It, and thereby to orient I
In the course of activity. Simu-
lation by means of I. of a model of
the final or intermediate product of
helps its objeclive implementa-
lion. "At the end of every labour pro-
we. get a result that already existed
the Imagination of the labourer at
commencement" (Karl Marx, Ca-
pllal, Vol. I, Progress Publishers, Mos-
cow, 1974, p. 174), In effect Ihe funda-
menial distinction of labour
from instinctive behaviour 0/ ani-
IS m that man conceives the anti-
Cipated result wilh the aid of I. I. is
Involved in any laoour process and is
a - I
essenlla aspecl of any crealive aCli-
vllY-lhe arts, designing, or science.
the. cour.se of activity, I. comes out
11l unity With thinking. The involve-
ment I. or thinking in the process
of .acuvlty depends on Ihe extent 10
which the problem situation is unclear
th.e sufflciency or insufficiency
of 1Il1llai IIlformation about Ihe task in
hand. If the initial data are unknown
the of the task is basically
subordlllate to the laws of thinking-
howe 'f '
I b ver, I these data are hardly ana-
Ie, I. mechanisms begin to operate.
une oflcn, the same task may be
?oth by means of I. and think-
g. , IS valuable 11l that it allows to


)
make a decision in the absence of suf-
fIcient knowledge to solve the task.
Yel, in this case, the ways for solving
the task are often insufficiently exact,
and this restricts 1. I. processes are
of analytico-synthetic nalUre, as also
are the processes of thinking, memory.
and perception. I's main trend is 10
transform memory concepts to ulti-
mal ely ensure Ihe creation of an a for-
tiori novel situation. I. mechanisms es-
sentially transform representations to
create new images based on already
available ones. I. is a reflection of
reality in novel, strange, unexpected
combinations and associations. In I. re-
presentations are synlhesised in various
forms, viz. in agglutination, when qua-
lities, properties, and parts of objects
uncornbinable in reality are aClUally
combined; in exaggeration, when the
object's size is intentionally enlarged
or diminished, or when the qualities
of its elemenls are changed; in accen-
tuation, when Ihe object's features are
stressed; in sc hemalising or smoot hing
out object's distinctions, and in reveal-
ing their similar features; and in typi-
fying or distinguishing substantially
recurring elements in homogeneous
phenomena and Iheir embodiment in
concrete images. By degree of the im-
plementation, one would distinguish
passive and active l. Passive I. is
characterised by the creation of images
that are not materialised, or program-
mes that are either not implemented
or altogether unimplementable. In
this case, I. comes out as a substitute
of activity, as its surrogate, by means
of which a person would dismiss the
need to act. Passive 1. may be intenlio-
)37
nal or unintentional. Unintentional pas-
sive I. is observed in weakened activi-
ties of the mind, in impaired consd-'
ousness. in a haM-sleepy state, and in
sleep. Intentional passive I. creales
images (fancies) unconnected with Ihe
wiff. which in fact could help trans-
late them into reality. Prevalence in
I. processes of fancies is indicative of
certain defects in personaJiIY develop-
ment. Active I. may be creative and
reproducive. Creative I. arising in la-
bour assumes that a person objecti-
fies his own images in original and
valuable products. Creative I. is an
inseparable aspect of creative activity
in engineering, the arts, etc. Repro-
ductive I. is essentially based on the
creation of various images correspond-
ing to descriptions. I. is not always
instantly actualised in praclice. Quite
often it takes the form of speciftc inner
activities. whereby the person in quest-
ion creates an image of some desi-
rable future, i.e. indulges in day-dream-
ing. To dream of something is a re-
quisite for transforming reality, a ma-
tive of activi), whose final comple-
tion has proved delayed. Fantasy is a
synonym for 1.
Imitation, the act of following some
example or model. I. occurs at various
ages of individual developmenl. Despite
outward similarity. I. in various age
groups conceals different psychological
mechanisms. In infants, I. of adult
movements and vocal sounds repre-
sents an attempt to establish an initial
contextual contacl. In preschool age,
T. is' a way to penetrate into the
semantic structures of human activity.
II se\eral stages and changes
logelher wilh changes in the main ac-
Il\'it}' al Ihis age, \'iz" topical and role-
playing game;, in which Ihe child would
initially imitate adult characteristics si-
mulated in a game and most open to
him to only gradually start to imitate
the aspects of beh3viour that really
relle(;\ the meaning of a given situation.
In teenagen. I. is designed to mani-
fest outwardly (and sometimes also in-
nerly ..$lkidentiflption with some
specific signlfiC'rnt personality (see Sig-
nijkarll Other: Referentiality) or with
a stereotype of behavioural
and personal characteristics (see Ster-
tOl}'pt Social). In adults. I. comes OUI
as an element of learninR in cerlain
types of professional ::.cti'iily (sports,
arts, ClC.) ,
by Animals. a specific form
of Is by Animals)
dunn, communication. when one ani-
mal foUows Ihe ex.ample of another.
There are. mstinctiv'e I. by A . i.e. reci-
:o..:al stimulation (animals joining
ose feeding or birds laking wing) and
lmltatlOnai learning. In the laller case
Innate behavl'.lural forms would
thro\lgh vl(ar:ous learning (particularly
lit Imitation by young of
attlOtlS of ,adult !>pecie:;). The topmost
of Imitational learning
Imltatlonal problem <;ol\o'ing (merel;
'rough of another indi\o'-,d.
",a S ktlOO$. ,
mainly in ex Observed.
by A
. penmental conditions I
. IS an Im""n f . .
#Jeh4v1 .. - ant al,.10r of group
Ollr,
Immediacy P<*ulate., a pr_ .
- ...,ltlon. ac-
cording to which CXlernal irritalll,\, by
affecting unambiguously deter-
mine its manifestations and relaled
reactions of Ihe subject. I.p, b based
on the following binomial scheme of
psychological analysis which ignores
factors determining that psyche: effect
on the subject's receptor (perceptual)
systems _ responses (either subjec-
live or objective) caused by that effecl.
In the history of psychology, J.P. took
on different forms, viz., in the prin-
ciple of "closed natural causation"
(Wilhelm Wundt), according to which
mental effects are essentially based only
on psychological causes, and the prin-
ciple of "psychophysical interaction"
(Gustav Fechner), which claims that an
external physical effect would unam-
biguously determine the sensation
caused thereby. J.P. il> most clearly
pronounced in the behal'iourist central
scheme (stimulus -- reaction). Accep-
tance o.f J.P. leads either to ignoring
or to its explana-
tion by Idealisllcally interpreted factors:
apperception, intention, etc. In Soviet
psychology, I.P. is overcome within the
framework of the theory of altitude
and the activity approach.
Theory of Personality, (I) Ihe
l?t.aIIlY of chieny unconscious suppo-
S1l10ns about motives of behaviour
and personality structure; (2) the to-
talllY of notions regarding the link
II1dividual personality traits
;hlth form a general impression about
person qUlle often on the basis of
sparct: II1formatll'lI concerning his ac-
tIons and Having discovered one
or \e\'l'ral ind i\ idual psychological

___ _________ 139
trait s in another person, the subject
automatically ticl> them in with other
traits incorporated in his own LT. of
p, and concludes that the:.e traih mUl>t
be typical of the other person. Obpite
its unsc ientific basis, the I.T. of P. exists
as a product of common sellse influenc-
ing the perception, understa nding and
appraisal of one by
and sometimes servll1g as a SOCIO-
psychological basis for bias. In diffe-
rent cultures l.T's of P. vary. which
can affect understanding between
their representatives. The I.T. of P.
problem is studied by method::; of psy-
chosemalltics. Synonyms of Ihe term
"I.T. of P." are "naive concept of
Ihe personality" and "the common
sensica\ theory of the personality",
Impression (among animals), a specific
form of learning by animals. See
Imprinting.
Imprinting, a special form of learning
(see Learning by Animah) among
higher vertebrates which fIXes the
distinctive signs of the objects of some
innate bf'havioural actions of the par-
ents (being simultaneously the carriers
of the typical signs of the species),
brothers and sisters, food objects (in-
cluding animal-victims), etc. I. occurs
chiefly at the early stages of post-natal
development and takes place only within
a defmite, usually very limited ("sen-
sitive", "critical") period of time. The
process of J, happens very quickly
(often with Ihe first encounter with
the object of I.) and without outside
reinforcement. The result of I. is, as
a rule, irreversible, I. ensures for ani
mah the protection of the descen-
dants Clhe following of the parents by
children), recognition of mem-
bers of the community, relatives. future
sexual partners, landmarks, etc,
Inclinations, innate anatomic and phy-
siological peculiarities of the nerVOUI
system, the brain making up a natu-
ral basis for the developments of ahil
ities. I. are not speciftc for the con-
crete content and forms of activity;
they are multifarious, Yet it would be
wrong to believe that I. are abso-
lutely "neutral" as regards future abili- '"
ties. Thus, the peculiarities of the \o'isual )
analyser would have a sure effect on
the abilities involving the participation
of this analyser, while the peculiarities
of the brain's speech centres would ha\'e
a more definite effect on the types of
activity connected wilh the speech abil-
ities. So, individual I. are somewhat
selective and vary in relation to \'a-
rious types of activity, There are.consi-
derable individual dislinctions In the
structure of men's brain tissue, but the
role of such morphological distinctions
as conditions for the development of
mental faculties remains unclear, So-
viet psychology began to
crete scientific data on L followlI1g the
study of the innate propert,ies. of the
nervous syslem and theIr slgnlfi.ca.nce
for individual psychological <1lst1l1C-
tions (the school of Boris Teplo\,).
Individual, (I) a mall as individual na-
tural being, a Homo sapIens. a
of the phylogenetic and. Onlogenetlc
development, as 8 ull1ty of the
innat!! and the acquired (see Gt'IW
type: Pht>notype) , as a carrier of indi-
vidually peculiar trails (inclinations;
etc.); (2) an individual repre-
sentative of a community of men: a so-
cial being transgressing the bounds of
his natural (biological) limitations, us-
ing implementS, signs and through them
influencing his own and
psychic processes (see Higher Mental
Functions: Consciousness). Both mean-
ings of the term "I." are interconnected
and describe man as a separate and
specific being. The most general cha-
racteristics of I. are: the integrity of
psychophysiological organisation: sta-
bility in imeraction with the outside
world; activeness. The indication of
integrity points to the systematic na-
ture of links between multiform func-
tions. and mechanisms realising vital
relations of I. Stability determines the
preservation of the basic attitudes of
I. towards reality, at the same time
presupPQS.ing the existence of elements
plasllclty, flexibility and variability.
I. s activeness ensures his ability to
change and dialectically combines de-
on a situation with overcom-
Ing Its Immediate impact.
Individual. Psychology, a trend in flS _
which is an offshoot
reud,amsm and was developed b
Alfred Adler \ P Y
. . '" proceeds from the
Supposlt1?n that the structure of the
personality, (individuality) of a child
IS formed In early childhood (bef
5 yean) as a k' d ore
style" h h In of a special "life
suh-... W Ie predetermines his enlire
"""""juenl mental develo
eause of the d pment. Be-
bod un erdevelopment of h'
y organs, the child experiences
feeling of inferiority and the goals
he forms are an attempt 10 overcome
this feeling. When these goals are re-
alistic. the personality develops normal- ) \
Iy; but when Ihey are unreal, he be-
comes neurotic and asocial. Early
ch ildhood is the period when a con-
Hict arises between the inbred social
feeling and the feeling of infer iority
(see Complex) which br ings into ac-
tion the mechanisms of compensat ion
and supercompensat ion. Th is engenders
the striving for personal power, su-
premacy over others and deviation from
the socially valued norms of behaviour.
The task of psychotherapy is to assist
(see Neurotism) subject
In realismg that his molives and goals
d? nOl correspond to reality so that
hiS urge to his inferiority
fl.nd expression 11\ creative efforts.
ThiS Ideas of LP. gained currency in
the West n.ot only in the psychology
of personality but also in social psy-
chology, where they were used in group
therapy methods (see Psychotherapy
Group). LP. also influenced the
enlS .of neo-Freudianism. The method-
weakness of I. P. lies firs t of
all m the fact that it defends the con-
cept of the predestinat ion of mental de-
is conceived teleolog-
.callr as ac hieVing the goals or iginat-
109 10 the deplhs of the personality.
of Act ivifY, a general
of the individual psyc ho-
logical peculiarities of a person which
formed and revealed in his activ-
Ity . . I.S. of A. is dependent on the
.of upbringing, the psycholog-
quahtles of the subject determined
by the properties of his nervou!S !Sys-
tem, and on the peculiarities of his in-
clusion into constantly repeated stand-
ard situations (in production, etc.). The
study of LS. of A. makes it .p.O!Ssible
to forecast wit h great probability the
effect iveness of the activity (Yevgeni
Kl imov) .
Individualit y, a human being charac-
terised by socia ll y meaningf ul disti nc-
tions fr om ot her people; t he distinction
of the psyche and the personality of
the individual, its idiosyncrasy. L is re-
vealed in the trai ts of man's tempera-
ment, character, in the specificity of in-
terests, the pr operties of the percep-
tual processes (see Perception) and in-
tellect, needs and capabilities. The ana-
tomic physiological inclinat ions which
are transformed in the process of edu-
cation having a socially condit ioned
nat ure constitut e the requisites for
formi ng man's I. , which gives rise to
a wide variety of l. man ifestations.
Induction, the movement of knowledge
from singular asse rt ions to general
postulates. I. is closely connected wi th
deducti on. Logic treats I. as a kind of
inference discerni ng perfect and imper-
fect I. Psychology studies the develop-
ment and deviation f r om inductive
reasoning. The movement from iso-
lated to general knowledge is analysed
in its dete r mi nahon b)' all mental pro-
-cesses, the st r ucture of thinking as a
whole. Experiments with the format ion
of artificial concepts serve as an exam-
ple of experimental studies of inductive
reason 109.
\4\
Induction of Nervous Processes.. the
emergence of a nervOUS proce!liS wilh
an opposite valence following the exist-
ing process (consecutive induction) or
its spalial limits (simultaneous induc-
tion). l. of N.P. was described by the
English physiologist Charles Sherring-
ton (906). It is posilive if the ini-
tial proce!liS is inhibition followed, ac-
cording to the laws of L by exitation,
and it is negative if Ihis correlation is
reversed. The notion was widely used
by Ivan Pavlov to explain Ihe regular-
ities of higher nervoUS activity.
Inductor, the subject addressing a mes-
sage 10 the recipient. Synonym-com-
municator.
Infant ilism, Persona l, preservation in
psyche and beha\'jour of an adult of
trailS Iypical of a child's age. The
individual afflicled by infantilism (in-
fantile) is distinguished by the immatu-
rity of his emotional-volilional sphere
even with a normal or accelerated level
of physical and mental development.
This is reflected in a lack of inde-
pendence in decisions and actions, a
sense of vulnerability, a low capacilY
for self-crit icism, in heightened de-
mands on others regarding care of
him/her, and in various compensatory
reactions (fantasies replacing real ac-
lions, egocentrism, etc.).
Inference. a logical form of thinking
(see also Concept; Judgement). I. is
characterised by a process of logical
reasoning by which a specific conclu-
sion necessarily follows from a set of
142
general premises. I. classifications are
developed by logic, whereas psychology
the developmental conditions
of deductive (discursi\'e) reasoning and
its distorted forms. For instance, the
former is studied by psychology 10
assess the extent to which an individ-
ual trusts certain syllogistic premises
and the conclusions derived there-
from.
Complex. a central notion
In Alfred indil'idual psychol-
ogy. accordmg 10 which, due 10 "de-
fee live organs", a sense of his
own mfenoruy i.s formed in a child.
The way of overc,OI,oing this complex
determmes the mdlvldual's "life style".
the subject included in an
expenment and informing Ihe '
_ experi-
menter (directly or through a med'
by a I IUrn,
'. Wri ,answer) of the peculi-
of hiS Interaction with the ob-
Ingroup Favouritism the d .
somenow favour members of to
group as compared to membe own
Otner group. I F rs of an-
h,oth in
IOU\ situations of In var-
and in SOcial perc Interaction
pr?Cesses
forming atlitudes ' .. r Instance, In
to members of . etc. relating
Own d
groups. I,F is tn' an Other
re<,.ult of
albeit nOl tne 0 I up dISCrimination
I.F may be an: one. The degree of
c aracteristic of inter_
group pencption and intergroup " I
, U' n l'r
actIon. nllkc some forcign authors
postulate, thnt I.F. is esselltially
prtmordlal, and II1cvitabl' '
II d
.. C 111
a II Ions of II1tergroup interaction
Sonei ha\'e theoreti cally
and ex penmen tally s hown thai II '
I
. liS
P lenornenon I!, secondary and depen_
dent on a number of activity and social
factors: and, notably. not typical f
colfec/lves. 0
an process inseparab_
associated with excitation and lead-
Ing to activity of J1crve cen-
tres or functIOnal organs. In the for-
mer case,.!. is called central, and in the
laller Peripheral I. was dis-
c?vered III 1840 by Ernst Weber and
brother Edouard Frederic, who ob-
delayed systole in rhytmic st i-
mulall.on of the vagus nerve. Central I.
was .dlscovered by the Russian physi.
Ivan Sechenov in 1863. This
ad a profound effect on the study of
only neurodynamics, but also regu-
of mental processes. For a long
I1me,. the l. remained obscure.
IIlllially identified it with
state or exhaustion of corres-
pon lIlg cells. At present, two different
;ays of cell activity inhibition have
f een I. Illay either resull
rom actlvallon of specifiC inhibitory
structures or b
C II
. e caused by preliminary
e sllmulatlo 1 I ' ,
P
l .. IS an essential com-
onent of it .
ity of h n egratlve, coord lila ted activ-
. I e nervous system The Rus-
sIan ph . I . .
. yslO oglSI Ivan Pavlov distin-
gUished the f II '
f
. 0 oWlIlg two basic types
o COrtical I . h'
ily . III 19her nervous acliv-
, namely eXler I ' ,
, na or unconditioned
I., and internal or conditioned I., differ-
ing from each ol her in origin and de-
velopment. These Iypes of I. allow the
body to selectively respond to environ-
mental etTects and to adequately distri-
bute such responses in time; in other
words, together with excitation proces-
ses Ihey provide the body's optimal
adaptation to continually changing en-
vironmental conditions.
Inhibition, Conditioned, a variety of
cortical inhibition, which occurs in
neural structures directly involved in
developing a conditioned reflex when
the condilioned signal is not rein-
forced by an unconditioned stimulus.
The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov
distinguished four types of I. , e.: (1) ex-
tinctive inhibition, which occurs at ex-
tinction of a conditioned reflex; (2)
differentiated inhibition, which occurs
when one stimulus is continually rein-
forced by an unconditioned reflex, and
the other stimuli are not; (3) condi-
tioned inhibition, which develops when
a given isolated stimulus can still cause
a response; and (4) delayed inhibi-
tion, which occurs when an uncondi-
tioned stimulus is manifested some time
after the conditioned stimulus.
Interaction of I.,C. and excitation plays
a highly importanl role in the adapta-
tion of living organisms; it also en-
sures active functioning of the brain.
Successful development of both pro-
cesses in ontogenesis helps form more
complex types of generalisation in child-
ren. In old age, all types of I.,e. are
difficult 10 develop. For instance, a
switch-over from .one kind of activity
to another one is inhibited.
14]
Inhibition. Proactive, an integral
neural process that delays 1t!(.IrninR
because the replies relating to the
ceding elements of Ihe material inhibit
answers relating to its subsequent ele-
ments. The term I., P. was sugge:iled
in 1928 by the French psychologist
Marcel Foucault, who relied on the
concept of internal (conditioned) inhi-
bition introduced by the Russian phy-
siologisl Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov distin-
guished it along with external inhi-
bition (inhibition of given activity by
orientating reflex to some external sti-
mulus) and protective inhibition
(which protects nerve centres from
overexhaustion). Internal inhibition is
observed at extinction of conditioned
reflexes, and also when they differen-
tiate in the forming of delayed and
tface conditioned reflexes. The effect
of I., P. on the reply is the stronger
the greater the volume of the mate-
rial learned prior to a given reproduced
element is and the more complex and
yet identical with the current was the
preceding activity. Somelimes, psychol-
ogists use the term progressive (inter-
nal) inhibition as a synonym for
I., P.
Inhibition, Retroactive. an integral
neural process that delays learning be-
cause the replies to subsequent ele-
ments of the memorised material pro-
duce an inhibitory effect on answers
relating to the preceding elements; in
other words, the individual forgets the
previous material under the inftuence
of subsequent memorisation. The term
l..R. was Suggested in 1928 by the
French psychologist Marcel Foucault.
\44
Numerous investigations have es18-
bli!>hed that the effect of I..R. on the
reply becomes stronger with more nu-
merous elements memorised after the
element to be reproduced, and also with
subsequent act;\'IIY more complex
than and similar to the one being repro-
duced. The term "regressive (internal)
inhibition" is sometimes used as a syn-
onym for I.,R.
Inhibition. Social. see Social Faci/-
itatioll.
Inhibition. Unconditioned, a variety of
cortical inhibition. Unlike conditioned
inhibition, (see Inhibition, Condi-
tioned) , L,U. occurs spontaneously and
involves: (I) inductive (external) inhi-
bition. i.e. urgent termination of condi-
tioned reHex activity under alien stimu-
li; its biological significance is in thai
it mainly ensures Qriemaling reaction
t? a sudden stimulus; and (2) protec-
tive inhibition occurring under stimuli
that excite corresponding cortical struc-
tures to a performance limit higher
than ,that inherent in them and thereby
prOVide a real possibility for retaining
or restoring thaI performance.
Insighl, a sudden comprehension (with-
out of previous experience) of im-
portant, and the structure
of the as a whole which makes
II pOSSible to fmd an intelligent solu-
tion ,10 a problem. The concept of I.
wa.o. Introduced by Gestalt psychology
In. the work of the German
r ..
t
Wolfgang Kohler on the instinct
o anthropOid apes, it was contrasted
with thl' behaviourist (see 8ehm'iollr
ism) notion of a gradual and "blind"
feurning by trial lIml error meth-
od. while in thc studies of the German
psychologists Max Wertheimer and
Karl Duncker this concept is also ap-
plied to describe the thought proces- ..
ses of man and is interpreted as a spe-
cial act separate from other intellec-
tual operations. A descriptive rather
than explanatory importance should
be attached to the concept of I. The
scientific interpretation of I. is con-
nected with the recognition of the
decisive importance of understanding
this phenomenon, its "preparation"
in previous behaviour and activity,
and of Ihe role played by the organ-
isation of Ihe understanding of the
situation, particularly as applied to
man, with Ihe help of specific socio-
historical means (language, various
schemes, etc).
Inspiration, a state of specific lenSlon
and upsurge of the spirit, of human
creative excitement leadillg to the ari
sal or realisation of some scheme and
idea for producing a work of science,
an, or techno1ogy. I. is characterised
by man's elevated overall activeness,
unusual productivity of his activities,
a.warerless of readily accomplished crea
work, experience of deep emotion-
al lIlvolvement in creative work. Ap-
parent unawareness of Ihe creative
process during 1. results from maximal
awareness of Ihe creative work itself;
of extreme clarity of consciousness; of
peculiar influx and clearing up of
thoughts and images' and of extraor-
dinary acuteness of' memory, attell-
1
,
rioll, and pav,>ionatc will aimed at im-
plementing Ihe idea. Despite all
apparent spontaneity, r. gcnerally the
resull of intense prcliminary work.
Instinct, an cvolutionally t:stablished.
genetically dctt!rrnincd
of a representative of a biological spe-
cie9" for carrying oul a stereotyped set
of biologically purposeful actiom which
make it possible to obtain certain re-
sults without anlicipating them and
without preliminary instrtlclions on
how to achieve them. The term "I."
is commonly used 10 denote the most
COllservalive and stereotyped innate
automa/isms (in animals) and lillle-
realised, unconscious aspects of Ihe pur-
poseful behaviour against the back-
ground of a strong affect (in man).
The nOlion of I. is closely connected
with the idea of existence of inherited
programmes of behaviour typical of
a particular species which is aimed at
satisfying the vital nt:eds of the organ-
ism. It can be interpreted from three
viewpoints: (I) its gt:nelic basis; (2)
its neurophysiological mechanisms; and
(3) the torality of its behavioural man-
ifestations. Historically formed in an-
tiquity (Chrysippus) as a kind of anti-
thesis to Ihe notion of in/ellect, by the
early 20th century the notion of I. had
come a long way in its development
and concrete dcfmition in the works of
philosophers (Blaise Pascal, Erienne
Condillac, Herbert Spencer), biolo-
gists (Jean Lamarck, Charles Darwin.
Jacques Loeb), clinicisls (Pierre Janet,
Sigmund Freud), physiologists (Char-
les Sherrington, Ivan Pavlm), psychol-
ogisls (William Mcdougall) and nalU-
I 4',
(c. Lloyd-Morgan.
W. A Wagner)_ The t'ontradktnriness
and complexity of I. is explained by
the fact Ihat from the very beginning
thi ... notion fused a wide gamut {If fu-
ture key scientific concept'; concerning
behaviour motive, imuRe. uuiufI and
their and components. More-
over, Ihis fusion took on a form
which made it extremely difficult to
make their separale experimental
control. Por that reason, untill the end
of the 1950s the concept of r. for the
most part. was elaborated in two, rela-
tively isolated, directions--psycho-anal.
ysis (Sigmund Preud and his follow-
ers) and comparative ethology (Kon-
rad Lorenz. Nikolaas On
the basis of vast empirical material.
these two groups isolated in the I. struc-
ture such functional elements as "fmal
aelS", "complexes of flxed actions",
"substituling" forms of activity, "key
stimuli" and "critical periods" of their
'imprinting" (in a number of aspects
consonant with Ihe ideas of Ivan Pavlov
and N. A. BernSlein). This played an
important role in overcoming
ourist trends. At the same time. Ihe nar-
row phenomenologism, and, in a num-
ber of cases an outright reactionary
character of the methodology of I. in-
vestigators (lack of stalisfics and con-
lrol. attempts 10 ascribe to I. a mono-
poly role in human behaviour. claims
on socio-biological generalisations, and
so on) could not but erect certain bar-
riers for assimilating the positive as-
pects of these achievements. The suc-
cesses scored in endocrinology, behav-
ioural genetics, anthropology, behav-
ioural ethology and comparative phy-
_____________________________ __
-
-
siology of the sensor
played a major part in the
ciplinary inlegration of ,the on
the nature of I. The dlsco,"ery III the
c\'olulionall\' masl ancien!. sub-corte\.
'<e..::tions of "the hypothalamic of
"pleasure" and "pain" (James Olds,
Jose Delgado), as well as reclicular
centres controlling the functions of
breathing. sleeping, wakening. satisfy-
ing thirst and a number of other inte-
gral inSlinCb of similar aCls (Horace
Magoun, and others). has also contr i-
buted to the extension of the knowledge
about I. Ai: a result of the synthesis of
these data in modern psychophysiology
IPyotr Anokhin. Pavel Simonav), a
general idea has been formed of I. as
a complex. "(>e'ies-delermined hierar-
chically-organised mechanism of "dis-
charging" the dominant biological mo-
,ivatltlns in which, with the develop-
ment of a new cortex. the boundary
between the innate and the acquired
is becoming ever more relative.
Instincti ... e Behaviour of Animals. the
totality of the components of behav-
ior !.trving a!) a b3!>is of animal aCliv-
ities inherited, inbred and common for
all representatives of Ihe species which
has been formed in the process of de-
velopment of a panicular !.pec:es. i.e.
m In the process of in-
dividual dtvel?pment, i.c. in onlogene-
m, I.B. of A. IS formed in combination
and interaction with the processes of
learning hee I.arning by Animals).
does nOI is prel>erved
WithOut pert()chcal rein/orct'ment and is
notable !.Iability. limiled individual
.:hangeahlhly and autonomy in rela-
lion to thc shMHcrm (hangl ... III the
anllnal habitat. Thc rdali'!.: "Cll[lt'.
dien.:v" {}f LB. of A . dirc.:tl'd tnwards
Ihe sun' ivai of thl' and thl' ':(lll-
tilluatioll of thc !!CIIIJ\, has dc\"clolled
as a result of \t"'le.:tioll. instillc-
ti ... c acts forming LB. of A. include
sets of predsely coordinated move-
meills. po!.es. sounds, skin reactions
(secretion, changes of coloration) , etc.
The adaptability and efficiency of
LB. of A. I!. sec ured by "innate releas-
ers"-neuro-sensor systems tuning in
the analysers to the perception of " key
stimuli", which is conducive to their
recognition, integration of the corres-
ponding sensations and desinhibition
(or acJiI'alion) of the nerve
involved in this acl. The key stimuli
are simple signs of the biologically
meaningful .plants, objects of
inanimate nature (their form, size, mo-
vement, colour, smell, etc.) or space re-
lationships, correlat ion of the parts, re-
lative size. etc.).
Instrumental Actions of Animals, a spe-
ciflc form in which animals handle
objecls when one object (instrument)
works on another object or animal.
This resulls in mediated (by the in-
strument) physical relationship between
the animal and the affected object.
I.A. of A. are observed in few insect
species, in birds, and in mammals
(slightly more often in apes, for in-
stance, when the latter smash food
with a Slone, comb themselves
WHh some foreign object, establish COII-
tact by means of some object, or throw
an object in the direction of an ene-
my). Sometime:.:, the objecl is prelimin-
,
arily adaptl'd for me a" all imple-
ment. LA. A. of highly developed
apes COll tributed to the origin of labour
activity in 3111.:il:lIl humans. In labura-
tory conditions, I.A. of A. are used
to study animab;' psyt.:hic capabilitit. .... ,
for inst3nt.:e, tho\C pertaining to their
intellectual racultie;,
Integrity of Perception. a properly of
perception con!.isting in Ihat every
objeci and, moreOver, spatial objective
situation are perceived as a Slable syste-
matic whole, even if some parts of
that whole are unobservable (at the
momenl, say, the back side of an
object). The problem of I. of P. was
initially studied experimentally by re-
presentatives of GeMalt psychology.
However, Ihey presemed it as the orig-
inal Cestull property determined by
laws of consciousness. Soviet psychol-
ogy believes that I. of P. renects the
integrity objectively inherent in the per-
ceived. The image that forms during
the reflection of reality is highly re-
dundant. meaning that a given totality
of image components contains informa-
tion not only about itself. but also about
other components, and about the image
as a whole. Por instance, an observer
who in certain perceptual conditions
could see a passer's-by head and shoul-
ders, would perceivt' the posture of his
arms, torso, and even type of gait. The
distinctness of Ihat perception would de-
pend on anticipation of elements that
callnol be seen at the moment.
Intellect, a relalively stable structure
of [he Illental abilities of the individ-
ual. A number of psychological con-
147
cept'l of I. identify il with a systtlll of
mental with the:- style- 1111\1
Mrategy of problem ,"olving, with the-
effl\acy of Ihe indi"'ldual appruach to
a particular silIlution rcquinng 1.."1'[I,lIi.
tive a<':livilY combi ned with the cfI}:lIi
th'e slyle. etc. We<;tern
usually interpret'S I. a'l a bi{}-psyd:olog
ical adaptation to the existing life cir
cumstances (Willian Stern, Jl:an Pia
gel). The flrSI allempls to study the
productive, creative componcnls of I.
were made by of (Je
stall ps},choiof<Y (Max Wertheimcr,
Wolfgang Kohler) who elaborated the
concepl of insiKhl. In the early 20th
century, French psychologis!.s Alfred
Binet and Theodore Simon suggc:.sted
thai the level of mental giftedness should
be established by spedal ttsts (see
Intelligence Tests). Their work<. initiat-
ed the currenlly wid6pread, pragmatic
interpretalion of 1. as an ahility to
tackle specific tasks, to effectively take
part in social and cultural life. and
10 effecti\'ely adapt oneself. In their
interpretation. they put forward the
idea of the exi!.tence of basic I. struc-
tures independent of any cultural in-
fluences. To improve diagnostic meth-
ods. various studies have been made
(usually by the factor analysis) of this
AI Ihe same time, differenl
authors single out varying quantities of
the basic '"factors of 1:- from one to
two to 120. This fragmentation OJ I. into
a multitude of component!. impede ib
comprehension as an irlll:gral whole.
So,<iet psychology proceeds from the
principle of the integrity of I. and its
connection with personalilY. Much
attention is paid 10 the study of inter-
148
reialionship belween practical and theo-
reli..:ai I.. and its dependence on Ihe
emotional and "olilional personality
traits. The unsoundness of racisT 3s.:;er-
lions about inbred differences between
various nations and social groups was
exposed. Proceeding from the Marxist-
Leninist mt'thodology. SO\' iet psycholo-
gists recognise Ihe dependence of hu-
man menial abilities on Ihc socio-eco-
nomic conditions of life. The deter-
mination of Ihe conlem of I. and Ihe
peculiarities of the methods of measur-
ing if depend on [he nature of the
corresponding socially meaningful
sphere of activit}' of the individual
(learning. produclioll, politics. etc.).
The !erm "artificial I." is being used

more and more frequently due 10 Ihe
successes of the scienlilic and techno.
logical revolution-the development of
the theory of informa.
tion, ,and computer technology. Com-
paratIve is dealing with the
mlellet'l of animah,
Intellect of Animals, the highest form
of menial activity of animals (mon-
keys, and other \ertebrates) cha-
by the reflection of not only
the object components of the environ_
ment but also their relationships and
connectIOns (situations). L of A. is also
marked by nOlHtereotyped solutions of
complex problems by various means of
and use of differenl operations
maMered as.a resull of previous indi-
expenence. Th.e transfer Occurs
to b<:,th, the SImIlarity of objects
an the of relationships be-
tween them. The grOundwork for the
<;olullon of a problem is laid b
y $pe-
- -
ciftc. prciiminar, ac tIOns divorced
fmm an\' immediah.' biological mean_
ing. sometimes a\ a for or pre-
paration of a tool bee In'ilrlll1l'lIIal
ActiollS of ,\/I;ma/s). I. of A. is practi_
cally indivisible from complex skills
(see U'arnilll!. by A/limals) and is
rooted in intensive and variable mani-
pulation Mallifmlalioll (hy Alli-
I, as well as a broad sensory
(visual) generalisation. L of A. is re-
vealed in thinking, which, in animals.
is always of a sensory motor nature,
is releva11l to the object and fl11ds ex-
pression in practical analysis and syn-
thesis of relationships to be estab-
lished between various phenomena (and
objects) directly perceived in a spe-
cifIC situation. It is entirely biologically
governed-the fact which determines
its qualitative distinction from human
thinking. with even anthropoid apes
lacking abstract conceptual thinking
and comprehension of basic cause-
and-etTect links.
Intelligence Quolient (IQ), relation of
Ihe so-called menIal age (MA) 10 the
real, chronological age (CA) of a given
according to Ihe formula:
IQ
MA
CA
100%.
The mental age is determined by the
results of lesting with th e aid of one of
the intelligence (see Intelligence
Tests). The majority of diverse tests in-
cluded in intelligence scales comprise
tasks the fullilmeru of which implies
the mastery of logical. logico-percep-
tual and operatiollS, general
level of mformalion orientation in

pracHcal siluations, voluntary memory.
-
etc. When comtrU\;ting age
'Kalc\, a psychologi'>t, guided by expe-
rience and intuition, \clecl'> ta'>ks which
by the material they include (term!>,
notion,>. Waphic: d<'pidiom, t:,I.c), and
nature of the stimulated melllai ueliollS
should be ,>olvablc by the individuals
of the ages embraced by the scale in
a given social community. This is usual-
ly expcrimelllally tested on repre!>enta-
tive age samples. The procedure of ob-
tain ing the IQ is a,> follows. First the
subject is given tascks which corres-
pond to an age a year earlier than his
own; Ihe idea is to obtain from him,
following a "lowering" age scale, five
correct answers in succession. In this
way the intellectual "base age" is re-
corded. Further he should be set tasks
moving "upward" on the scale until
live incorrect answers in succession
are received. The test ends with Ihis.
Then "base age" teslS score is added
to the score of correct replies. A spe-
cial table is used to determine to which
mental age the obtained resull corres-
ponds. After this it is calculated ac-
cording to the IQ formula. In inter-
preting an IQ we should bear in mind
that this quotient does not measure
any mental or intdlectual ability that
could be characteristic of all social com-
munities: still less founded is the claim
that it could be used [0 diagnose SOJlle
inborn or hereditary "general gifted-
ness".
Intelligence Tests, a teChnique of IJS),-
c:hodiugnosi,\' that have become wide-
spread in the United States and some
other Western countries and are design-
ed to reveal the extelll to which sub-
149
jech have ma')tcrcd act;oll\ utilislllg
mainly verbal, numer;l:al and graphic
material. The origin of LT. is
Iy a.<uocialed with a of clI;!'o
vised by the French P'>ychologi.\t Al-
fred Binet and hisc colleagues. Test re-
sults are often in intelligence
quotients. At present, many investiga.
tors are inclined to infer that I.T. estab-
Ibh the degree to which an individual
has been brought within the reach of
the culture of a social community re-
presented in the I T. and in the lest-
ing procedure per w. In determining the
actions to be performed and the ma-
terial to be used, the 1.T. authors ac-
tually proceed from their common idea
of the demands made by the social
community to which they belong as to
the imelleclual development of the
"a\'erage man" from that community.
AI the same lime, they view l.T. simply
as a premise for successcful adjustment
to Ihose requirements. Interpretation
of I.T. results has become a controver-
issue in Western Europe and the
United States, since subjects belonging
10 dominant classes show
higher results than tho!>e from exploited
classes and oppressed ethnic groups.
Reactionary psychologists claim that
these distinctions are allegedly geneti-
cally predetermined. 1.T. are also used
in clinical pra(;tice for general and
ditferentiated diagnosis of persons with
anomalous mental development.
Intenl, orientation of
thinking towards a certain objec!.
Intention, a consciolls determination 10
.:omplete an UCliotl in conformit)-, with
l."iO
I plannt'd programme aimed al achiev.
m, a presumed result. When one ex-
p"ts the (ulhlment of complt:x.
un;:- or stren.UOUS acllOns.. J.
would come Oul as an elt:ment of lOner
preparallon. 10 achie\(' them (see
Wlm.
Inl""action of a
'ion 01 the unity of the sen!>orial .. r
here
.
Changes In the fum;ti(lnal of one
as a result of \timulation by
Ir..a'htr heell mO'St fully.
SUI p'1cnnm'ena were de'>l:ribt:d as
earl- R.\ the 18th century by the Rus-
Sian sc, ::1list \1 ilthail who
.,.)(1ked for -e.eunl explanations in phy-
..\bundan experimental material
)f1 I. 0' A. Icc lTulated hy different
r ::c2rchers IIIoas 5ystemattsed b) Ihe So-
tlhysiologm Sergei Kravkm'
11MB!. '- of A. also in juint
'Work Of analysers Ihat provide the
suh-e 1 wilh "IrMrnttti.,r. on 3\(>e\:lS of
the surrounding which no
sm,le Inal affords inform a-
110.1 ... !. 1)11 ocul.ar assessment of an
001'" resulling from Ihe
.. 1 wort. he vr;uII and propriol:ep--
n_ Irl pathology, I. of A.
I"\ay be disturbed $0 a .. 10 reflect the
dlSlnl1.gl;ated .... ork of Ihe (.:t:ntral nt:r-
vo and tttISOry sysIel11:>. Rt:\'ealed re.
I :1r't:, n 'l\lUrbed L of A. are
o dlagr 0.)(" .:list-a'\(:$, Pe..:uliar forms of
I. of are 'n the (<,ee
5,r.,U :hmu)
._-
pr(k;e,.\e<\ and rhenomena 10 Ihe im-
pact of one pcf:'on on and
for an explanallon m 11 of
the es-.tllce, and development of
inlerpenrmal I. is based
on the worK-) of tht: American socio,
psychologist George Mead. In I., social
Interaction is under"tood exclusively
as a direct communication (2) ("ex-
change of !>ymbols") which is di.o>tingui
shed by the ability of man to imagine
how he perceived by a partner in
communication (I) (an ability to
-'take the role of another") or a group
(a other"), and to cor
respondingly interpret tht: sitllation and
con,truet hi':. own actions. From the
viewpoint of I., penollalily develops
if' the of interaction with other
people in society which is interpreted
as :I of direct communication,>,
the ,>tructure of the personalily contain-
ing the ensuring his act;
well a .. control over it ac-
cording 10 \O<.:ial norm.':., Ihe roles and
\OCial of the interacting par
ties. The ba\ic philo'loophic and metho
dolvgical \hortcoming.s of I. from
the p\ychologi\ation of the development
of \ociety and social relations. which
art: reduced to lace-to-face communi-
cation and intcrper..onal relations. The
laller are examined in isolation from
the content of activity and regardles of
their socio-hi'lolOrical conditionality.
The cmotional a .. pecb of human inte-
raction arc ignored as well.
Interest. a form 01 the of
the. cognitive n('c'd the orien
lutlon of a pt'rwmulity toward,>
Ing the 80,,1-\ of Q(:I;\'ilY. thu.s fadli-
-
, . - -
tallng orientatlUll and familiari. .. ation
with new fall", a more
and profound reflection or the reality.
Subjectively. I. ibelf in the
emotional tenor which colour1i the pro-
ces. of cognition, in al/entian paid to
the objeci of I. of I. doe"i
nol extingui:>h II but lead\ to the erner
gence of new I's corresponding to a
higher level of cognitive 31.:"livity. In the
dynamics of it'i developmenl. I. can
turn into a propen.\lly, as a m(l.nifesta-
tion of the need for carrying out the
activity calling forth I. There is a di
'itinction between an unconscious I. pro
yoked by the attra(.:tLveness of an
objel.:"t, and a con'cious r. in an objed
regarded a'i a means of attaining the
goal of activity. The steadine'>-s of I.
is reflected in j" duration and in ten
'illy. Thi!> IS conflrmed by the
\urmounting of obstacles in the per
(orming of an activity which, in il<;elf,
dQe\ not eXCite I., but who.-.e perfor-
mance 1$ a condition for the allainmenl
of the per.ons activity of interest. In
the final counl, thc or nar
rowne! of I. b determined by its coni
ent and meaning for the per:;onality.
Interference. the deterioration of the
relenlion of memorised material as a
result of the impa..:! (superimposition )
of other material with which Ihe sub-
ject operates. I. is studied withi n the fra-
mework of research mto memory,
the proces .. es of learni ng (in connec-
tion with the qu .... of skill). A di-
stinction is made between retroactive
I. and proacliL'1! I., depending on the
sequence of and interfering
material. Depending on tht: nature of
151
interfering male rial, restarchen identi
fy \'erbal I., motoracou-\tic I.. visual
I., etc. Experiments dealing wilh the
interfering impad of one material on
another reveal a deterioration either in
or quality of the material repro--
duced, or an increa<;e of the time needed
10 solve the problem as is the case in
."eleclivt' I. The concept of I. underlie"
a number of p\ychological theorit:' on
forgetting. The prevalent point of view
explains I. as proceeding from the reo
nex theory of Ivan Pavlov. Accord
ing to the French psychologist Marl.:"el
Foucault (1928). the interfering impact
of material on respon ...t:S is by
proRressh'e (for proactive I.) or re
gresslve (for retroacllve I.) iflller
inhibition.
Interference. Proactive. a phenomenon
of mnemonic activity in which tht: re-
tention of male rial being learned l'i
weakened under the impact of pre-
viously assimilated (inlerfering) mate-
rial (see Interference). I.. P. increases
with the growing degree of learning
of interfering material and Ihe expan
sion of its 'iolume, a\ well a.'> with the
growing degree of \imilarity between
the material being learned and the in
terfering material. I..P. is revealed in
experiments by comparing the
of reproduction (or repeated learning)
by experimentai and control groups.
Interfer ence, Relroacti ve, the deteriora
ti on of the retenti on of previously lear-
ned material by the learning of,
or oper ation with, subsequent (inter
fering) male rial (see Interference). It
15:!
c. t!Slabli!>hed Ihal the relali\'e magni-
ludt: of I..R. del:reases with the allain-
of a stable criterion of
of the initial material. LR. incre3!;es
..... ith the growing similarit}" bel ween as-
similated and interfering material and
reaches ils highest level when these
materials coinl:ide. With Ihe growth of
Ihe volume of memorc.ed material and
a constant volume of mate-
rial I.,R. gradually decreases, while
with a constant volume of memori!>ed
material and a growing volume of sub-
sequent material I.,R. increases. L,R. is
determined by use of methods similar
to those employed in measuring proac-
ti,e interference (see Interference,
PnJ(,/di\'d. thaI is by comparing the
reo\ult\ of reprodul:tion (or repeated
karning) in experimental and control
gro.:ps.
Interference. Selective. a phenomenon
or mnemonic hee Memory) activity
resulting in the retardation of an answer
to a qUeslion stemming from an invo-
luntary inf'lut:nce on it of the meaning
,tht: Interferem:e). I.,S.
vI .. ldly it')Clf in the solution of
tht: problem of identifying the colour of
the leiters of a particular word, \!spe-
c ally when word is the name of
!he lolour. Similar elTects are
11\ many other for instance, when
II IS nectl'\ary to answer whether the
word .. ".low" or "high" are pronounced
In a high or low voice; when it i\
net,:es\aryIO name the picture of an
whu,:h the inscription of
IhlS or another objccl, etc. The I.,S.
phenomenon 1$ used in the of the
of comprehemion.
Intergroup Discrimination, eSlablish_
ment of between one'l> own
and another RfOl/p. This process fre-
quently a clearly defmed eva-
luative colouring inherent in intergroup
perception (see PerCt'ptioll,
woup) a\ a whole. In certain
tions intergroup differences may be de
liberately strbsed and exaggerated. The
most result of 1.0. is the
tendency 10 establish positively valued
differences in favour of one's own
group (see Illgrollp FUI'ollrirism),
although examples of a reverse ten-
dency are also quite frequent, i.e. esta-
blishment of positively valued differen-
ces in fa .. our of some other group.
In its extreme expression the former
tendency may resuh in the appearance
of tension and hostility in intergroup
relations, Ihe latter-in a weakening
of intragroup ties, de\'aluation of in-
tragroup values. destabilisation and
disintegration of the group al> such.
We should distinguil>h between J.D. as
a psychological plienomenon, on which
the cognitive mechanisms of idenli-
ncation and dilTerentiation are based,
and 1.0. 3!; a ::;ocial phenomenon which,
contrary to the asst:rtions of a number
of bourgeois authors, is determined
not by psychological, but by <;ocial,
economic, political and other fac-
tor::;.
Interiorisalion, the formation of inter-
nal structures of man'::; psyche owing
to the assimilation of tlw structures of
external social aclil'ity. Tht: notion of
I. was introduced by French psycho-
logists Pierre Janet and Henri Wallon,
the Swiss psychologist Jean Piagel.
-
I. was inlerprctcd by the re-
pre:>cntalives of symbolic interu.(."lio
Concerl:> 10 I. are 11\
p.\ydlOwlUly\i,\ for explaining how in
o"rogI'IH'.\i.\ and under the
impact of inter-individual relation\
"growing" into the structure of the
psyche, the ullconsciou\ (individual or
colleclive) is being formed, which, in
its turn, determines the structure of
COIIKiollSrless. So .. iet psychology inter-
prel'> I. within the contexl of the Mar-
xist understanding of psyche, as the
transformation of the ::;tructure of ob-
ject-oriented activity into the struc-
ture of the internal consciousness, I.
should be distinguished from any forms
of receiving sign information from the
"oulside", processing and storing il
"inside" the psyche (perception and
memory).
Interpersonal Choices, Motivation of,
a relatively .slab!e Slructure of motil'es
for choosing a partner for communi-
catio" (I) and joint actil,jties, which
forms the basis of inlerindividual pre-
ferences. When studying I.C..M. atlen-
tion is concentrated not on this or that
character of .sociornelric or referento-
metric choice.s in a grollt> (see Socio-
metry; ReferenfOllletric MethOtl) , but
on their inner foundations as a link
mediating choices and group differen-
tiation. An analysis of I. C.,M. prm'ide.s
an opportunity to obtain correspond-
ing data (indices) by {'orrelation of
a .serie.s of rank-ordered inlerpersonal
preferences made by the .subject. with
his ranging of group Illt:mber.s by \'.1-
rio us ba\e!,.
153
Interpersonal Interaction .see Interpn
,Wjrwl Relation.\.
Interpersonal Relations. .subjectively
experienced ties belwet:n people, whi(h
are objectively manifested in the nature
and of interper.sonal interaction,
i.e. mutual innuences in the
of individuals' joint aclil'ities and wm
munication (I). I.R. are a .system of
orientations and expectations
of group members with to each
other, which is determined by the con-
lent and organisation of joint acti,i-
ties and I'a/ues, on which human ('om-
municalion (1) is ba.sed. \10reo .. er,
there may be di.onance b<::tween the
subjectively experienced and obJect i-
\ely existing ties of an individual with
other people. In with different
de\elopment (st:e Lewd of Group
Del'elopmenl) I.R. are distinguished
not only as to QuamilY, but also as
to quality. Thu\ in a collectil'e Ihey
comprise a l'omplex hierarchical slruc-
lUre, which de\'elops along with its
inclusion in socially signifICant aCl;" ilY
The experimental of I.R, is im-
plemented by social psychology with
Ihe aid of special tedlrliques (see So-
ciomelry; Referentonlt'triL' Methoo:
Methods of Perwnality Study).
Intervening Variables, a concept in-
troduced by ll(>obehlH'iOllrisis to over-
come the limited interpretation of beha-
viour as a process reduced to tht: for-
mula -rellction". 1.V, were
understood to bot compO-
nents ("meaning', "goal", "moti,e",
map", etc) to
direCl observation and playing the role
154
of medialicon be(ween the stimulus (as
an independent variable) and the reac-
lifOlI (as a dependent) ,"anable). In
addition to Edward Tolman's purely
interpretation of I. V ..
Clark. Hull advanced a theory abelU!
their presence in the organism in the
form of factors 10 physiolo-
gical analysis.
Interview (in psychology), a means of
llbtaining socio-p!>ycho\ogi.:al informa-
tion with the help of \erbal question-
ing. It is po<;sibie to discern three major
St3gc:s in the of I.: (I) the ap-
plication of 1. in and
(lS),chott'chllin which has subsequently
led I<l the of psycho-
logical consultation services: (2) the use
of I. in specific socio-psychological re-
Karch when, for the first lime. there
aTOS(' a problem as regards the
of \arious of conducting I. and
the validity of the information received;
(3) the prt'sent stage i.s characterised
b) the ,oordination of practical, theo-
retical and methodological problems of
I. for applying it as a specific method
of obtaining information on the basis of
v"hul communku/ion (2). There are
two, kind:. of I.: free (not limited by
subjl:ct and form) and standardised
klose in form to a que.\lionnaire with
the put in private). The boun-
daries between these two kinds of I. are
qUlIe mobile and depend on the com-
pkxlty of the problem. the aim and the
$Iage of IIlve;tigatioo. The degree of
freedom of the participants in I. is de-
iermllled by the availability and the
,orm o.r the level of the in-
ormahon rt:t:t'lvedby the content and
the complexity of the answers rel.:eivect.
The interviewcl may fmd himself in
one of the following situations: (a)
the respondent knows why he is going
10 act in a particular way; (b) the res-
pondent is lacking information on the
reasons bf:hind his actions: (c) the I.
is aimed at obtaining symptomatic in-
formation, although it does not seem
so to the respondent. One or another
of these sLluations determines the use
of various methods of conducting I.
In the ftrst case it is sufflcient to re-
son to an orderly, purposeful question-
naire. The other two situations require
methods involving the respondent's
cooperation in the search for neces-
sary information. The pertinent exam-
ples are clinical (see Interview. Clilli-
ca/) and diagnostic (see Inter"iew,
Diat.:nostic) interviews.
Interview. Clinical, a method of thera-
peutic inteniew while providing psy-
chological assistance. In psychiatry.
and mec/icuf psychology
I's,C. are used to assist the patient in
realising his inner problems, conflict:)
and hidden motives of behavior. LC.
is one of the freest forms of interview
since behavioral reactiom are practi-
cally inexhaustible. In such interviews.
the P'Sychologist is interested not only
in the obvious content of the patient'S
answer (facts, opinions, sentiments, '10-
associations, ideas) but also
111 hi.<, behaviour (the tone stammer-
. ,
mg, gestures, etc.). A substantial re-
quisite for a successful I.,e. is the
establishment of a rapporl between the
participants, which requires from the
psychologist great patience, adaptability
t('l the prcvaknt of the pa-
tienl, and In some ca
ses Le. com have an immediate
cho-therapeutic efTect when the patient
not only comprehends the root-causes
of his difficulties but also determine!.
ways to overcome them. The general
strategy and the course of I.,C. are
based on the preliminary data of a diag-
nosIS.
Interview, Diagnostic. the process of
obtaining information on the characte-
ristics of a personality, a process which
is used al the early stages of psycho-
therapy. 1.,0. serves as a means of
establishing close personal contact with
the interlocutor. 10 many situations of
clinical work, 1..0. is an important
means for penetrating the inner world
of the patient and gelling to know
his problems. Since the ilHerpretation
of the interlocutor's behaviour can lead
to inadequate conclusions and distor-
tions, high demands are placed on the
interviewer: he has to have an exten-
sive reserve of behavioral reactions
to the respondent's answers, that is.
reactions expressing his intere'Jt, impas-
sivity, disagreement, understanding, etc.
The diagnostician must know the voca-
bulary of the patient; the choice of ex-
pressions and turns of speech should
be measured against the age. sex and
environmental background of the pa-
tient. There are two kinds of 1..0.: (1)
controlled. from fully programmed (as
a kind of questionnaire with an inva
riable strategy and invariable tactics)
to completely free (a stable strategy
with totally free tactics); (2) uncon-
trolled ("confessional", with the initia-
,
-
belonging 10 the
A I.,U. al1ll ..... ' a quantI-
tative expression of result.'i and does
not take much time. Among it.'i short
comings are: the supre$-')iotl of the spon
taneity of answer!.; the of emotto
nal contact with the patient; the at.ti-
vation of protection mechanisms.
is why 1.,0. is very rarely in
clinical work.
Introspection, see
Introspcccive Psychology. a number of
trends in psychology using' as the sole
method of studying psyche the
tion by the subject of the content
and acts of his own
I.P. originates from the teachings of
Rene Descartes and John Locke. ac-
cording to whom human (onscioll ....
ness is apprehended in a way es-o;en-
tially differem from that of cognising
the outside world, that is. by intro-
spective contemplation or internal ex-
perience whose objects are inll1Res.
thoughts. emorional experiences. In the
period of the formation of psychology
as an independent science this method
became the guiding principle for the
German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt
and his school combining introspection
(see Sell-ohservutioll). wh ich was un-
derstood as an internal perceptioll by
the subject of the mental processes
realised by him, with the experimental
method (see Experiment). It was sur-
mised that the unreliability of usual
(non-scienlific) seil-observiltion could
be overcome by the training of sub-
jects who were developing the skill of
self-account of what they directly
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toil IS Jlstinc-: rn'm pln-"'I.:al rC'a-
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158 ________________________________________ _
binlogil.:ally significance (bioge-
nid: i's of biologk:8l1y mdlrect slgnl-
bcance (ablogenic): and l's of unclear
(ambiguous) biological
"biogenic I's (when the orga/lls
m
. IS
!>ensible thereW) lake the form of
nals, since they orient the .org,;,,"l:w"
10 biogenic and ambiguous I s. I s 111-
elude material agents of varying narure
(ph ysical, chemica\.
which are perceIVed either by specia-
lised end organs of different analysers,
or by cells of certain organs
and tissues. I's change in intensity from
mimmal (suffICient to cause a sensa-
linn) to maximal (in which a given
sensation is still retained), manifesting
themselvt':!> as threshold sensations in-
vohifl8 the lower and upper absolute
thresholds (see Sensation Thres-
hold). l's may also be adequate (gene-
lic.ally related 10 corresponding analy-
and inadequate (unrelated, but
causing sensations spednc for a givell
analyser). For imitan.:e, both light and
mechanical and electrical effects on the
rei ina cause sensations in the
eye.
Id, see Freudianism.
Lange in the
James-Lange Theo-
ry of Emotions.. pro-
posed independently
b)' the American psy_
chologist William
James and the Da-
nish philosopher Carl
1880s-1890s. According
10 the theory emolions are caused both
by changes in . the motor voluntory
sphere and by ulvoluntory in
the visceral (v8S(ular e ndocrine eIC.)
sphere. The sum tOlal of sensations
connected with these changes is called
emotional experiellce. According to
James, we are sad because we cry, we
are afraid because we shiver, we are
happy because we laugh. James linked
emotions with a broad range of peri-
phera! changes, while Lange only
linked emotions with the vascular and
motor systems: Ihe innervation ratio and
vascular diameter. Therefore, periphe-
ral organic changes, which were pre-
viously viewed as the result of emo-
tions, were argued to be their cause.
This theory was an attempt to present
emotions as an object accessible for
practical study. However, by link.ing
emOlions exclusively with bodily chan
ges, it came to regard Ihe former as
phenomena having nothing to do with
needs and motil'es, depriving emotions
of their adaptative meaning and ne-
glecling their regulative functions.
The voluntary regulation of emotions
received a rather primitive interpreta-
tion: undesirable emotions (for instance,
anger) call be suppressed if one shiflS
In action characteristic of desirable
emotions. The basic objections advanc-
ed against this theory in psychology
are concerned with the mech anistic
interpretation of emotion1) as a totality
of sensations caused by peripheral
changes, and with the interpretation
of higher sentimellts. The critique of
James-Lange theory by physiol
o
-
glSlS, such as Charleli Sherrington and
Walter Cannon was based on data re-
--
ceiVl>d from experiment'" on .1I1imals
which proved that the same organiC
changes accompany different emotions
and that conditions have nothing to
do with emotions. Lev criti-
cised Ihis theory for its opposition \If
"lower" elementary emotions 10 higher,
exclusively hUll13n feelings (aesthetic,
intellectual, moral, etc.). as
non-material grounds.
Joint Activities (in social psychology),
an organised system of activeness in-
volving interacting individuals and
aimed at purposeful production (repro-
duction) of objects of material and
spirilUal culture. The distinctive fea-
tures of J .A. are: (I) spatial and tem-
poral co-presence of all panicipants.
making it possible to establish direct
personal contac!!., including exchange
of actiom;, information. and mutual
perception; (2) presence of a common
gKd, i.e. an anticipated resull of J .A.,
which would meet common interests
and help fulfIl the needs of each indi-
vidual involved in J.A. Being a proto-
type of the result of J .A. and at the
same time its starting moment, the com-
mon goal is a const ituent feature of
J.A.; (3) organisation and leadership.
either embodied in ont" of the group
participants entrusted with special po-
wers, or di.<;tributed among group mt"m-
bers; (4) division of J.A. among i!!.
participants. del*nding on the nature
of the goal, means and conditions for
achiev ing it. alld composition and ::.k.ills
of the performers. implies inter-
dependence of group members, which
is expressed t'itht!"r in the fmal product
159
-
of J.A., or in Ihe production proc:css
itself. In the first ca-;e, individual
rations are pt:"rformed in a parallel
way and do nOI depend on the seqUt:m:e
of actions performed by other group
members. In the second they art'"
Interconditioned and hie-
rarchi.sed) since thev mUSI be aclual-

ised simultaneously as functionally dif-
ferent components of a composite ope
ration, or in a strictly defined order.
when the outcome of one opt!ralioll
causes the saart of the ne);.t one. An
instance of highly specialised J.A. is
collective research. which presuppose::.
a ramified system of social roles ior
its participants {see Collectile. Scienti-
fu:}: (5) forming of interpersonal rela-
tions in Ihe course of J .A. These rela-
tions develop on Ihe b:bis of objective-
ly present interactions of iun.:tional
roles and Wilh time become relatiHly
independenl. Being originally .:ondi-
tioned by J .A., interpersonal relations
in turn affect its process and resulls.
Marxist social psychniog)' regard'S J.A.
as the main condition of socio-psycho-
10gK:al integration (see Group
tion) of the indiyiduals ilnolved there
in, as the prime foundation for the
formation and development of rela-
liOilships between individuals. Being an
essential element for performing J.A. ,
these relations cannot be fully under-
stood outside the contextual, structural
and functional characteristics of LA.
An inlegral system of interacting indi-
viduals is a way of actualising J.A ..
and the group itself acts as a combined
subject of specific J .A. in the l'ontext
of concrete social relations. In fact, it
is the socially conditioned principles of
,,0
and reproduction of J.A.
th8tlead W the emergence of a group as
a unit. The
active nature of j(rvup formallon. IS
revealed distinctly, m studIes
of work. whICh IS the on-
ginal form of any jA All manifesta-
tions of Joint work acll\'ll1eS essen-
tially social. The ob,J<!c\ of Joml work
activities, which directs the acllveness
of group mt;>mbef\, !Urns into a motive
force for them as a result of the il1/>-
of ib social significance.
ThiS predetermines change in the psy-
chGlo)!ical structure of indi\'idual activ-
il\', namel\. the o;<par3lion of its goal
and mOli;e. whose connection now
take<; (In the form of LA. and is com-
prehended by the panicipants through
theIr relationshIps. Objectively. J.A. are
mul1lpurpose in character. this being
due 10 intro- and intersystemic connec-
liOlI5. The fact thaI indi ... idual aCls of
a ...-ti, iy condllion Ihe eXbtence and re-
production of both the indil'idual him-
wlf and tht of group acti ... -
lIy a, a whole. i\ indi.:alive of mu-
tual penetration and mutual enrich-
ment of individual a<:li\'iIY and J .A.,
of 1I11eraClion of individually-motivated
and J .A. condi-

Judgement. a logical form of lhinkillg
(see COlla'pl: "'fnella). J. con.
two notions: the subject and the
predicate. Logio.: works out J. classi-
and fl'Iychoiogy the de-
velopmenl of J. a\ a form of a!Y.;lract
thinking. and also impaired 10.
gll'al Ihlllkmg. Psychological literature
IOlerpreti the psychological mecha-
-
ni,ms underlying il1terconceptual rela.
lions.
Juridical Psychology. a branch of psy_
chology Ihat sludies the regularities
and me.:hanisms of human mental aCliv_
ity in legal relationships. Initial labo_
ratory research in J.P. was performed
in the latc 19th and early 20th centuries
under the influence of advances in
experimental psycllOlo8Y Principal
efforts were aimed at studying the psy-
chology of testimony and interrogation
(Alfred Billet. Hans Gross, Karl Marbe.
William Slern). of "diagnosing impli-
cation" in a crime (Carl J ung). of
court and investigation proceedings. and
the psychological foundations of voca-
tional selection and training of lawyers
(Hugo Munsterberg). In the USSR.
intensive research in J.P. was started
in the I 920s. Soviet psychologists per
formed numerous :;tudies on criminal
and convict psychology; underworld
liie; regularities in giving testimony and
the cau!)eS of errors therein; and the
theory and methods of forensic psy-
chological expert examination (Mikhail
Gernel, Mikhail Kochenov, Alexander
Ratinov). Original experiments were
also performed for detecting crime
traces by psychological methods (Ale-
xander Luria). The system of con-
temporary Soviet J.P. comprises crimi-
lIal psychology, which studies the psy-
chological mechanisms of criminal be-
haviour and Ihe criminal's personality;
forl'mic ps),cllOloIO'. which encOIII-
passes a wide scope of problems associ-
ated with court proceedings (see also
Forl'nsic Psychological Expert Exam-
illotion): correctional psychology. which
I
,
studies issues c':'lIcerncd with corrective
training of crunlllals: and legal. PW-
chology. which studies legal conscIOUS-
neSS, its educational prtnclples, and. fae,-
tors causing corrupt legal consclo.
us
-
neSS. J .P. uses all basic
techniques (experimellt: obseTl'allo
n
,
talk. qllestiOllllaires. testIng.' etc.),
also develops methods tYPical of
fIeld of knowledge, e.g.
of data concerned with a gIVen ertmmal
case.
Keenness of Observa-
tion, a characteristic
feature of the indi-
I'idllal expressed in
the ability to notice
substantial features
of objects and pheno-
mena, unobtrusive features inclusively.
K. of O. is acquired with accumulation
of life experience and implies curi-
osity and inquisitiveness. To develop
K. of O. is an important task in form-
ing adequate perception of reality.
Lability, a maximum
number of impulses
which a nerve cell or
functional structure
can pass on without
distortion in a unit
of time. The term was
proposed by Nikolai Vvedensky. In dif-
ferenlial L. is a key
property of the nervom s)'stem. which
\10915
101
charach:rises the speed of the appear-
ance and cessation of pro-
ce'loSes.
of
Laboratory Experiment_ a Iype
experiment conducted in specially set
rooms which ensures a partIcularly
strict control of independent and de-
pendent variables. Thanks to these con-
ditions the results of L.E. are usually
distinguished by a relatively hig.h degree
of reliability and authenllclty (see
Validity). Noted occasionally among
L.E. shortcomings is a low degree of
"ecological validity" _correspondence
10 real life situations.
Language. a system of signs
as a means of human commlllllcalion
(l) and mental activities (see
ing), a way for personal!ty to manI-
fest his or her self_conSCIOusness and
to pass informal ion down from
tion to generation and store It. Histo-
rically. L. developed on the basis of
labour. men's joint acti\'ities. --Lan-
guage is as old as consciousness. lan-
guage is practical. real consciousness
that exists for other men as well. and
only therefore does it also exist for me;
language. like consciousness. only arises
from the need. the necessity. of inter-
course with other men:' (Karl r-.larx,
Frederick Engels, Collected Works, Vol.
5, Progress Publishers. Moscow, 1976,
p. -4-4.)
Leader. Informal, (in social psycho-
logy) (1) of a group recognising his
or her right to make decisions in im-
portant situations: (2) individual ca-
pable of playing the central role in
Joint actiHUn and re@ulal-
in, relations in a group (ste Inlerper-
L. ma\' be the formal
or informal head of a group. SingJed
out IBQris are the following
dIStincTions L. and manager:
(I) is usuaJi.,.- appointed of-
Itcially. whilr leader may emerge
spontaneously; (2) manager endowed
wilh cenain right'> and responsibili-
by law, while L. may nOI be:
(31 manalCf is with a definite
ty$Iem of offlciaUy e!olablished sane-
'ions f$ee Sociul). using which
he (an lnf1urnce his subordinate .. ;
L d.,..., noI f4J manager
reprcKnlS his ,fOUP in external orga-
nisltion and solves questions linked
.. 'h orl'Jcial uternal rdatlons; L.
may l:Ie 1M n his activily to
baar.; mlra.g"lup relalions; (5) ma-
naler as !;;'inc (rom L. bears respon-
ability before the law for the state
if afb.l:"':! withi:1 'ht ,,"oup. If formal
ica6c )f a ,roup and its informal
lel'kr are two persons. be-
t,hem fa..:ilitate joint
ac Ion In h.afln1)nmng the !roup's life
c:- ln the contrary. rend them a con
n.; .;1, 1St ... Contlie/), whirh
tnhe 'In.1 .nalysis is determined b
Ibe lev" )/ group d .. rellJpmt'nI
uadershlrr Slyk of
Lucier pt'nOn ofncially
tn (:med Ihe fun..;tic'ls of manage-
and ".msalion 01 the achy i_
:,f (;_'IIkcli". l.. eM.) bl':3rs kgaJ
"por1slbihty 0-- thl." fun..:tioning of a
!;I'WP bd'ore the aulhority
h
bod, Ihll h.1d .ppoinled ,dected)
1m and """'7
75
s . 1 ... . IInct Y deflned nr.hlS
for punishing or rewarding his subor_
dinates in order to influence their pro-
duction (reJ.earch, creative. etc.) re-
sults. Unlike a leader, informal
L.(M.) has oflicially stipulated
and dutIes. He also represents his
group or collective in other organi-
sations.
Leadership, relations of domination and
and following
tn the system of Inlerpersonal rela-
lio/1.\ in a group. Relevallt studies have
distinguished different of L. and
worked out a number of theories of
L. The theory of leadership roles
(Robert BaleS) examines the role of
a --a task-oriented lead-
er . and the "socio-emotional spe\:ial-
I .. t. who solve'!. human relations
problem ... The supporter .. of the theory
of personality traits con .. ider L as
caused by leadership traits and
capabililio responsible for recognUiing
a p..-rson as a leader. Studies con-
ducted in accordance with this theory
con(cntrated on revealing the lIl>f'Cilic
quahtle .. of leaders, A variant of such an
arpr(la..:h i, the chari\lilatic concept of
L., accordlllg to which L. has been be-
..towed on outstanding indi\'iduals as
\Orne heavenly gift (chari\ma). The
supPorlen of the interactive theory
preSume Ihal a leader may be any
per..on who o..:cupies a certain place
III the "y'tem of il1ferpnwnul ;nurac-
IIIIn.\. The question of who specifically
lln L. must be de..:ided with consid-
eralwn for the indi\' idual traits of
the candidate for leadcr. and the per\O-
nal charao;teri!;lics of other
of Ihe- group lind its strUlture, the ob-
tammg situation and the being
carried out. The situational theory
of L. (or the group--dynamic approach)
asserts that L. is primarily the
product of the situation obtaining in
the group and that in a very favour-
able, or on the contrary, extremely
unfavourable situations for the group.
the lask-oriented leader achieves beller
results than a person-oriented leader.
In a relativdy favourable situa tion the
person-oriented leader will be more
successful. The synthetic (or integrat-
ed) theory accentuates the intercon-
nection of the main components of the
proce!)!; of organisation of interpersonal
relations: leaders, followers (or those
being led) and situations in which
L. IS being effected. The supporters of
the above-mentioned L. theories un-
warrantedly tramfer the results of labo-
ratory ('xpcriments tu the .. phere of
real phenomena of .. acial life. Soviet
is predicated on the socio-
historical cauloality of L. phenomena.
As the studic.., of Soviet psychologists
.. ho ...... the 11'1'('/ of Rrollp del'I'lopmI'IIt
of substantial importance in under-
.. tanding L and its efflciency. In a
('tll/eetivl'. owing to Ihe presence of
\'ullll'-orienlutiOlIUI tlllily the allegedly
unavoidable. from the Western psy-
chologf;ts' viewpoint. counterposing of
a leader and a "pcrsoll-
oriented" leader. is removed.
Learning, the pro,e"', alld of ac-
qUIring individual experiencc. The
notiun "L." initially originated ill Alli-
mol p\ycholoKY in the worb of the US
Edward Thorndike, and
L. diffcrs from "tudy as the
163
acquirement of experience in activity
guided by cognitive motives and objec-
tl\-6 (or motives alone). By L. human
beings can gain any experience (know-
ledge. capabilities and skills). and ani-
mals-new forms of behaviour. Like
any gain of experience. L. includes
the unconscious processes of compre-
hension and fixation (involuntary me-
morising) of Ihe material. In animals.
L. is the principal form of gaining
experience. and it occurs either
gradually (in repeating behavioural
aCls) or at once (imprinting). Goal-
directed L. in animals exists only in an
embryonal form (inspe\:tion of a novel
situation for the future, imitation) (see
Learning by Allimals). In human be-
ings, the role and signilicance of L.
change in the process of onlogene
In the preschool age, L. is the
main way of acquiring experience;
subsequently, it r('cedes to the back-
ground to be replaced by study, by edu-
cational activity. even though it does
not lose its signili(ance altogether.
A major factor in L. is the place of
the assimilated material in correspond-
ing activity. A would a(quire
a beller knowledge of some things
if it is the target of his or her activity.
According to some theories, there is
a single mechanism of L. (by human
beings and animals. in L. and study);
according to this mechanism diff-
ers. In Western Europe and the United
States; thc former gfllup includes theo-
ries of (Edward Thorn-
dike. J. Watson. and others), which
interpret L. as a process "eparate from
mental phenomena and cognition. It ill
a process of chance, blind a..-;ociation
of and oclion.( based on rea-
dine"" {'.\'t'n-iw, ft'inforcemenl, or con-
tingency in time.
Such theories contradict subsequently
established facts showing that L. is
without reinforcement or exer-
cise. Theories which regard L. as a
proct'$!; in which mental reflection of
the conditions of activity and behaviour
analogous to pa.ssive establishment of
new connections (A.,social/ism), recon-
struction of initially integral experience
in the form of patterns (Gestalt psy-
choloK),) or plans (l\'eobehal'iourism)
should also be assigned to this group.
Again, the laller to a large measure
comprw Jean PiageCs theory (see
Genel'u School of Genetic Ps)'chology) ,
and also the theories of some repre-
'>Cmatives of the informational approach
and cognitive Iliychology. Soviet psy-
chologISts and several authors in the
United States and Western Europe
proceed from the view that L. mecha-
nisms in human beings and animals
They s,ay that in humans,
L. hke stu.dy, IS a cognitive process
of 1I1ternaits1I1g various practical and
theoret!cal in animals it in-
volvo. mtenswe changes in thei r innate
specIfic expenence and its adaptation
to concrete conditions.
Lea,:"ing Abili.ty . individual speed and
qualIty, of .asslmllation of knowledge
and skills m the course of I .'
General LA earnmg.
. , . as an ability to master
any. malenal IS distinguished from
L.A. as an ability to master
SpCCluC ty'""'"' of ,. I
sci, ,..- rna ena (various
Then<.;t'" arts,. and practical activities)
e ormer IS an indicator of .
gene-

ral, and the latter of s)lCcial Rifled_

ness. L.A. depends. ':)11 the level of de.
velopmerll of processes (per _
ceptum, Inltlgmat/On, memory, Ihink_
il!!:, at!entioll, and on the indi_
VIdual s mot,vatlonal-and. volitional
and emotional spheres, a nd also On th
development of their derivative
ponents (underslanding of t he COntent
of material to be learned from
and indirect explanations, and master_
IIIg of t he ma terial to a degree when
one can apply it actively). L.A. is
dete rmined not only by the level of
development of active cogni ti on, i.e. by
what the subject can learn and master
independently, but also by the level of
"recepti.ve" knowledge, i.e. by what
the sub./Cct can learn and master with
the help of another person who al-
has corresponding knowledge and
skills. Hence, L.A. as an ability to
learn and master given material is
from the ability to cognise
mdependently and cannot be fully
assessed by its development indicators
alone. The maxi mum level of L.A.
is delermined by the individual's abih-
ity to learn by himself.
Learning by Animals. t he acquisi tion
in oll togenesis of Ihe
md,vidual experience of an animal
and improvement and modi fi ca tion of
!he innate (instinctive) foundation of
liS mental act ivity in line with t he con-
crete habitat of the species. In the
pro.ce.ss of learning, anima ls develop the
IIIdlvidually variable, te mporal compo-
nents.of behaviour which impart it the
lability (mobility) and varia-
bllety needed for survival. This results in

the forming of a single behavioural act

involving both innate (typical of the
given species) and acquired (indivi-
dually variable) components. Sensory-
motor training and habituatioll to long-
acting or systematically repeated exter-
nal irritants are the most primitive
forms of L. by A. In its basic form,
i.e. a skill, L. by A. is characterised
by the development through exercise
of more or less automatised motor
techniques ensuri ng the solution of a de-
finite biological task. The content of
skills is determined by the nature
of obstacles overcome during the course
of their development, while the de
gree of their perfection is determined
by the differentiation and generalisation
of the perception of conditions in which
the skills develop. In training animals,
skills are developed under man's pur-
poseful influence in line with his
scheme. In animals, the required move-
ments are reinforced (normally by
giving them food) and contingent
with man-made signals while undesir-
able movements are blocked (by pu-
nishment). When maintaining contact,
L. by A. sometimes occurs in the form
of imitation (see Imi/atioll by Alli-
mals). Most often, such L. by A. (imi-
tational learnilll) remains within the
framework of species-and-type mani-
pulation \see Maniplliatioll (by Ani
mals) I and plays a certain role in
formi ng the behaviour of young ani-
mals (assimilation of experience of
adult species). A special form of L.
by A. is imprinting.
Learning, Social, a term introduced by
behaviourists and signifying the acqui-
1M
-
sit ion by an organism of new forms
of reactions by way of imitating the
behaviour of other living creatures or
observing them. L..S. was explained in
principal terms of behaviOllrism (sl;
/IllilIIS, reaction. reinforcement) and
experimentally studied on animals.
For instance, a white rat followed
another in a labyrinth only if the lat-
ter's I'eactions were reinforced by food.
Subsequently, this approach was sup
plemented by the introduction of cog-
nitive factors. Man was recognised
to have the ability to represent exter-
nal influences and actions thereto sym-
bolically, in the form of an "inner
model of the outside world" (A. Ban-
dura). Due to this, even in cases when
the individual does not respond openly
and does not receive reinforcements,
he, by watching reinforced actions of
others, learns to imitate them. In these
conditions, the acquisition of new reac
tions is a less protracted process than
in developing usual skills. In experi.
ments on L.,S., children were shown
films wilh patterns of behaviour that
had different consequences (either po-
sitive or negative). Depending on the
nature of the observed consequences
(reward or punishment). the testees
imitated the pattern ;n varying degrees.
Although in this version, the conception
of L.,S. does allow for a choice by
the subject of a response action, it is
on the whole mechanistic and repeats
the general faults of behaviourism .
Leipzig School, a group of psycholo-
gists headed by Felix Krueger, whO,
working in Leipzig University in the
19205-19305, adopted as a basic notion
.. 6
-
of vie ..... ed as Ih,e
''t(llali,,,'' of an indl\'idual. whIch IS
studied' primarily by the phenomenolog-
ical method. L.S. came QUi agamst
Gestalt psychn/(lIlY on the basis that
mam' menIal and socio.cultured phe
nomena cannot be: derived from Gestalt
laws as a percl."ptual structure (see
Perception), but represent a specIal
inlegrai t.tfJerjena inherent in the in-
nermost depths of personality. L.S.
tended towards irrationalism in its inter-
rretation. Proceeding from the idea of
devdoping Ihi.'i integrity, L.S. used it in
an eXpffimenlal analysis of illusions, of
"Dual and audio perceptions (see fIlu-
SlOllS of Perception). It was estab-
lishtd. specifically, that the distinction
thmhold fer changing integral objects
IS lower than that of separate irri
I4nts, L.S. is sometimes called the
sccmd L.S .... for prior to il Ihe school
of Wilhelm Wundt sel up in Leip-
ng Uni"erslJy in the last third of the
19th ttnlury, which owing to the
.at of upenmental methods exerted
an enormow inftuen("e on Ihe forma-
"ion psyc"lolo,y as an independenl
brand; sc.ence.
U"d of Aspirations characterises
0) the k:"d of difflculty, whose at-
:alnment IS the common ,oal of a num-
ber of adions (ideal goal):
(2} the ;;hOlce by an indi"Jdual of the
of h. nex, action, the said goal
'>eml cot1l."e.ived as I l"t"sult of emo-
lona' qf or failure
several prenoU3 aClions (L. of A. at
lIVen IIKltneno: and (3) the desirable
. IeU ... ppraisll .Self level.).
The mdiYltuar, desire to heighten his
self-appraisal when he is free to chOOse
the degree of difficulty of his next ac-
tion would lead to a be-
tween the tendency to increase one's as-
piralions to achieve maximal success
and Ihe tendency to reduce Ihem in
order to avoid failure. The emotional
experience of success (or failure) from
having (or not having) achieved a L.
of A. would entail its shift to more
difficult (or easier) tasks. If, after suc-
ceSS, the indivKlual chooses a less diffi-
cult goal and, after failure, a corre-
spondingly more difficult one (which
would be an atypical change in L. of
A.), that is indicative of an unrealistic
L. of A. or of inadequate self-appraisal.
People with a realistic L. of A. ace
self-confident, persistent, highly pro-
ductive, and self-critical as regards their
own accomplishments. Inadequatt: loclf-
appraisal may lead to highly unreal-
istic (exaggerated or belittled) aspi-
rations. In behaviour, this is seen in
choosing too difficult or too easy goals,
in increased worry, lack of self-con-
fidence. avoidance of competition, un-
critical view of one's own accomplish-
ments, mistaken forecast, and so on.
Level of Group Development, the ex-
tent of development of i'Tterpersonal
relations which results in group-forma-
tion. Unlike Western psychology.
regards the time of group existenct:,
presence of domination-submissiO"h re-
lationships, number of group interac-
tl.ons. a.nd number of reciprocal so-
CLOmetrlC choices (see Sociometry) to
be tht: indices of group-formation,
psychology accounts for a
combmatlon of two facton; in revealing
L. of G.D., namely. the degree to which
interpersonal relations are conditioned
by the content (goals. \'aluf's, organ i-
satiOl\) of joint activities and the social
nature of these goals and values (either
corresponding to or preventing a given
socio-historical process). Hence. col-
lectives and groups that resemble them
in terms of structure and social psy.
chology may be assigned to higher
L. of G.D . and groups based on aso-
cial factors (various asocial associa-
tions) and diffuse groups (see Group,
Diffuse) without common goals and
values to lower L. of G.D.
Level of Movemenl Construction, Con-
cept of, see Physiology of Active-
I1f'SS.
Libido, a central notion of Freudia-
nism which signifies the "in-depth"',
unconscious psychological energy of
\.. an individual which is rooted in the
,.. sexual instinct. L. is set:n as a domi-
nant moti\'e of human bi!hal'iO/lr,
which is manifested m a socially
acceptable form due to sublimation,
repression and other forms of "psychO-
logical defence"' (see Defence. Psycho-
logical). In Carl Jung's psychoanalyti-
cal concept, L. is a person's irration-
al drives lacking sexual basis which
determines his behaviour.
Lie Detector. polygraphs used for an
objective analysis of physiological
parameters characterising a person's
highly emotional statt:s. L.O's were. de-
veloped in the used
in legal practice In Interrogallng
lawbreakers. Transducers attached to
'67
the subject record the galvanic skin
response (changes in the skin's electric
resistance), the encephalogramme (a
graphic record of the electrical activ-
ity of the brain). muscular tremor, elc.
During the interrogation the data
gained from all the devices is recorded
on a single tape, enabling an expert
to evaluate the emotional state of the
interrogated person more precisely
than if he had simply observed the
latter's external behaviour, since it is
practically impossible for an untrained
person to voluntarily control his vege-
tative reactions. The findings thus ob-
tained cannot be regarded as a reac-
tion to the conjectual emotiogenic
situation, since they may be a reaction
to Ihe procedure causing fear, anxiety,
depression, etc. It is impossible to
distinguish between "genuine'" emotIOns
and those resulting from the use of
these devices. This was the cause of
numerous legal errors which evoked
a negalive altilUde towards lie detector
tests. A method of recording the
"'affective signs'" of a crime (see Con-
tiguous Molor Technique) was elabo-
rated in psychology prior to the ap-
pearance of L.O's.
Lie Telling, an individual psychologi-
cal trait which takes the form of con-
scious distortion of the real stale of
affairs, a slriving to create an incorrect
impression of facts and events.
contradicls universal human reqUIre-
ments stemming from people's n.eed
have a correct idea of Ihe SQClely In
which they live. of the deeds of those
around them which they must assess.
of the circumstances in which they
108
find Dislinguished from L.T.
should be distorted knowledge resuiling
from Ihoughl, inabililY [0
differentiate between one's wish and ac-
tual facts (in chitdren-"imaginary
L.T."). Mendacity-pathological lying
which is usually connected wilh uncrit-
ical belief in the reality of (he imag-
inary-is a special case. As a social
phenomenon L.T. is usually observed
in an 31mosphere of hostility, compeli-
lion and suspicion between people.
Differentiation of L.T. and an evalua-
tion of its concrete manifestations is
given a correct understanding
of the motives and causes of Ihis phe-
nomena. As a Iype of relations and
a Iliychological feature, L.T. is over-
come in the course of education based
on IrUSI between the lutored and lhe
luters.
Lingl8stic Relativity, Hypoc:hesis of,
Edward Sapir's and Benjamin Wharfs
hypothe.is on the determinalion of
and thinking by structures
a .languogt. According to L.R.,H.,
skills and norms unconscious-
ly (see The Unconscious) determine
the .Images ("pictures') of the world
carned by the bearers of this or that
language. The differences between the
smages sncrease with the language's dis-
tance from each other, for the gram-
matical structure of a language impo
a method of categorisation and
lion of the surrounding world
formative role of Jang",g. ,on 0 0
l . coglll-
sve also recognised in
psychology, which studies the
;ne satsng influence of language mean-
rrg.f )n the of 0
calegon'lation in

thought, perception, mt'mory, <1(/('11 _

lion, etc . but in L.R .. H. th is role is
absolutised, resulting in an incorrect
notion of cognition "fenl.'ed off"
through language structures, from
real world, in the alienation of mean_
ings from social practice and an erro_
neous thesis on the identity of lan-
guage and thought. However. nOI only
language meanings but also meanings in
the form of perceptual symbols, pat-
terns take pan in cognitive processes

meanmgs may also be expressed
in the form of symbolic actions. The
absence in a language of words for
expressing a number of notions does }I
not signify the impossibility of their
existence in consciousness. Along with
everyday speech there also exist scien-
tific languages which use formulas,
diagrams, plans, thereby removing the
specifics of categorisation which result
from the national peculiarities of a
language. Serving as an impulse in
the study of the interconnection be-
tween language and cognition, L.R.,H.
posed a number of important linguistic
and psychological problems. without,
however, giving a methodologically
acceptable solution to them.
Localisation of Higher Mental Func-
tions., assigning of higher mental func-
tions to specific brain structures (see
Brain). The problem of L. of H.M.F.
is being worked out by neuropsychol-
ogy, neuroanatomy, neurophysiology
and others. The history of the study of
L. of H.M.r. goes back to antiquity
(HipP:Ocrates, Galen, et al.). The repre-
sentatives of narrow localisation ism
examined mental functions as a single
whole that is indivl-;iblc into compo-
nents of "mental abilities", carried out
by limited areas of the cortex -yartic.
ular brain "centres". It was cOlI!:ildercd
that impairment of the "centre" re-
sults in the failure of a correspond-
ing function. A logical result of the
ideas of naive localisation ism were
Fran7. Gall's phrenological map and
Karl Kleist's localisation map. These
twO maps presented the work of the
cortex of the henmphcres as the sum
total of the functions of different
"centres" of mental abilities, Another
trend, anti-localisation ism, examined
the brain as a single indiiferentiated
whole with which all mental func-
tions equally linked. From this it
followed that impairment of any re-
gion of the brain results in a general
disturbance of a function (for instance,
in the lowering of intellect). whereas
the degree of a function disturbance
does not depend on localisation and is
determined by the mass of the affect-
ed brain. According to the theory of
the systems, dynamic L. of H.M.F.,
the brain, a substrate of mental func
tions works as a single whole, con-
sistin'g of a host of highly differentia!ed
parts each fulfilling its own speCific
role.' It is not the entire mental
function, and not even its separate
links bul those physiological processes-
(factors) which are accomplished
in corresponding structures that should
be correlated directly with brain
structures. Disturbance of these pro-
cesses leads to the appearance of initial
defects involving a whole series of
interconnected mental functions.
169
-
Locus of Control, a quality
ing a person's predisposition to aurib-
ule the responsibility for the results
of activity 10 outside [orces (ex-
le(llal L. of C.) or to his own capa-
bilities and efforts (internal L. of C.).
The notion of L. of C. was proposed
by the US psychologist Julian Roner.
L. of C. is the stable property of
indhidual formed in the process of hIS
0
socialisation. A special questionnaire
has been elaborated and a complex
method developed for the determination
of L. of c., which makes it possible to
reveal a link between L. of C. and
other personality characteristics. It has
been demonstrated that people pos-
sessing an internal L. of C. have more
self_confidence, are consistent and more
persistently pursue their goa!, are more
inclined towards self-analYSIs, are. bal-
anced, amiable, good-natured and II1de-
pendent. A disposition for an
L. of c.. on the contrary, IS mani-
fested along with such as
certainty of one's capablhlle5,
temper, a .to postpon.e. 111-
definitely Ihe reahsatlon of
anxiety. suspiciousness, conformity and
aggressiveness. It has been proved
experimentally that internal L: of C.
is a socially accepted value. (an Internal
L. of C. is always ascnbed to the
ideal Self).
Longitudinal Study. a prolonged and
systematic investigalio.n of . the same
subject. which makes II poSSI?le de-
termine the age range and
fluctuation in the phases of a person s
life cycle. Initially L.S. (as a
of longitudinal cuts)-took shape In chIld
170
and dt'\'elopmt'ntal psychology as an
alttrnativt to lht prevailing mtthods
of dtttrmining tht subject's condilion
or dt\'dopmenl Inti (by the method of
cross cuts). Tht proper value of
L.S. was associated with the possi-
bility of forecasting the further course
of mtntal development and the estab-
lishment of genetic ties between its
phaV'S. The organisation of L.S. im-
plies simultaneous use of other methods,
such as observation, tt'sting, psycho-
graphy, and praximetry. Recently in
child and age psychology in con-
ntction with the active development
of exptrimental study and educa-
tional programmes it has been dis-
closed that tht traditional type of L.S.
is but of a limited significance, and it
has betn established that it may be
eflicient if it is carried out as an
investigation of different variants of de-
ydopmtnt.
Love, (I) a high degret of a positive
em.otional allitudt, which singles out its
object among others and places it at
tht centre of the subject's vital
nulls and interests (L, of fatherland
mother, children, etc.); (2) a
Inten,se and relatively stable sentiment
phYSiologICally conditioned by sexuai
needs and expressed in a socially
formed 10 be, by one's
ptrsonal-Signlflcant features most full
represented in the life 'of anoth:
er ptrson (see Personalisation) in a
way that would arouse in him the need
for a .reclprocal sentiment of the sam
intensity and stability Th -'
f L ' . t sentiment
o ,IS profoundly intimate and ac
companied by situationally conditioned
and changing t'molions of tenderness,
ecstasy, Jealousy, and others, whiCh ar
on a
mdlvidual traits .. As a generic notion,
L. embraces a Wide range of emotion_
al phenomena, distinguished by their
depth. strength, object orientation
etc.-from a weakly expressed
able auitu,de (see. Sympathy) up to
overpowenng feelings, reaching the
of passion. The fus ion of an
mdlvldual s sexual need, which in
the final count ensures the COntin-
uation of the race, and L., as a su-
preme p.'ov.iding optimal op-
ponunllIes for an individual to be con-
ideally represented in a sig-
nificant olher, does 110t permit practical-
ly separating one from the other in re-
flexion. This circumstance explains the
fact that different philosophkal and psy_
unwarrantedly
absolutiSed either the biological basis
of L., reducing it to the sexual in-
stinct (L. as sex), or denied and
the physiological side of L.,
il as a purely spiritual
(Platonic L.). Though phy-
SIOlogical needs are a requisite for the
and suppor! of the feel-
109 of L., however, in connection wilh
the that the biological aspect of per-
sonalily appears ill a rransformed so-
Cial. aspect, L. in its inlimate
characteristics is a socially and
hls.loncally conditioned sentiment,
umquely reflecting class relations and
featu res, and serving as a moral
basIS of the institution of marriag'_
1 --
nvtS!lgatlon of the o1llogenesis and
of L. shows that it plays
a big role in the genesis of personal-
\

--
ity and in the formation Ihe Self
concept. II has been established that
frustration of the need for L., results
in a worsening of the somaliC and
psychological condition. There is a
tie between the individual sentiment of
L., the traditions and norms of society
and the specifics of family educa-
tion-both these groups of variables
are the source of the subject's inter-
pretation of his state. Numerous at-
tempts have been made in psychology
to investigate L.'s internal structure as
a whole and the correlation of its
individual components wi th the differ-
ent characteristics of an individual.
The most important of the obtained re-
sults is the establishment of a correla-
tion between the ability for L. and
the subject's altilude towards himself.
This and a number of similar facts,
al'mg with the role of L. in setting
up a fami ly, make the problem of L.
exceptionally importa nt for psycho-
therapy and psychological consultation,
for the education and self-education of
an individual.
Man, a crealUre rep-
resenting the hig-
hest level of life's de-
velopment, a subject
of socio-histor ical ac-
- -
IIvlly. As a subject
and product of la-
in society, M .. is a system where-
m the physical and the mental the
- .
geneticall y condit ioned and the acquired
during life, the natural and the
social form an inseparable unity. As
171
-
-
Marx. wrote, "the eSUTlce of i'J
no inherent in each slTlgle
individual. In its reality it is the en-
semble of the social rt:lations." (Karl
Marx, Frederick Engtls, CoUnted
Works, Vol. 5. Progress Publi.,he'fS,
Moscow, 1976, p. 4). M. is studied by
several sciences, e.g. anlhropology,
sociology, ethnography, pedagogy,anat-
omy, physiology, etc. Marxist-Leni.nisl
philosophy gives the most generahsed
and, al the same time, the most con-
crete historical characteristic of M. Psy-
chological science studies his psyche
and its development (see Sociogene-
sis), tUs individual psychological fea-
tures (see Individuality;
the roles he performs in social life.
his activities and communication (I).
Virtually all psychology is concerned
with M. as an individual involved in
social relationships. with his develop-
ment in the course of instruction and
education, and with his moulding in
activity and communication, primarily
in labour.
Ma nagement. see Leadership; Leader
(Manager).
Manipularion (by Animals) . a mani-
festation of motor activity embracing
all forms of active shifting of elements
of the environment in space by ani-
mals (as counterposed to locomotion-
movement in space by animals them-
selves). With the higher animals M. is
achieved primari ly with the aid of the
mouth and the front limbs (investiga-
tion of items, eating, defence, con-
structive activity and others). M. and a
manipulalOry solution of a lask gives
an animal Ihe nwst profound. di\'erse
and Sipliflcallt data 011 obJt'Ct t-ompo,
nlents of the t'1l\'ironment and the pro-
Cc<;SCS taking tn it. In the course
{)f t\'oltJlion the dt'\'elor-
ment of M. pla,n'd a major role in
the dl'\,elopml'rll of tht' cogniti\'e abil-
ities in and became the ba'iis
fllr fMllling their intdll'rl. In
ISt'd prirnatl"i the of man
M,. (If "biologically neu-
tral" 110jl'Ct', wa, tht' for Ihe
ellll'rgl'm.:e of lahour adivity.
Marginal Stalcs. ,light, obliterated
forms of mt'ntal do\e to the
(omentjollal houndary hetween men-
tal ht'alth and pnmoulll'ed pathology.
The sn1pC {II these dl,\nrder.. i,\ \'ery
"'Ide. There are \t.S. 1I1 the narrow
and brl.ad sense. \1.S. In tht' narrrow
Ifll.ude {l}YChof.wnie,\ without
acute P'iYI dl\lln,il''' (reactive
SlatM. f'.\\,hopull!y. and
mental JISOfJl'n III extn.'me
\1,S. m Ihe hroad mdude slOW'
sluUish forms of s\"hiwphrenia. mild
forms of ";Ircular I"yrhmi.<; kydolhy-
mla), chr{)ni(
fWlthllut proll{\unt'ed degra,
datl:lnl el(. when no
psychil' Generally,
\-IS .rC' (hararll'n')t'd hy prl')el1Ce
p!>vrho'O,x-lal fd(\M, which play
dommb.nt rllit' In Ihelr rorrning and
t'mfJOr.nly Ihe
and IIIteKralt'll Slalt'. Peoplt'
1'1 \1 ... . re-qulre -dali .....' n"
h . '"'- ,\y .. "o-
and aid
by mcdlC.l,n'ilIlUlions and n.mult.
Inl C'.. ntres, I.ooftdcnu' phon('$" el("
()<"ICfltcd '0 hleallh) peoplC' '
Mass Communication, sy ... lemati( di ....<;e_
mination (with the aid of technical
mean, of c,irculalion) of specially
prt'pared socIally slgrllflcant messages
among large, anonymous, dispersed
audielll:l'''' with the aim of inOuencing
the utltful!e,l. evaluallon .... opinions and
hellm'jour of people, M.e. is an im-
portant ,ocial and political inslitution
of modern society, aCTIng as the sub-
..,y"em of a more complex "'ystem
cOllllllllni('u/iofl (2) and fulfll1illg on a
wide sc.ale the fUllction of ideological
and political inOuence, support of a so-
cial community. Its infor-
mation, education and entertainment ,
conacte content depends primar.
JJy nn the di,tincli\'e feature .. of a so-
cial .. y\lem. Peculiar to M.e. b Ihe
imtilulionaliwd character of ...
and feedback lag. Complcxe ... of te .:h-
n;(al equipment whidl rapid
tran ... m"..,lon and ma\.., circulation of
verbal. pIctorial and mu ... ical informa-
tion (the prloss, radio, cine-
ma. audio- and video-re(ording'l,
are \ummaled by the term rna\ .. (om-
municalion mean.... On the S(lCIO-
plane, M.e. pm!>csses a
of important additional oppor-
tUllllle\ a, (ompared with more tradi-
tional types of communil'alion (in-
tcrper\l)Ual and public). Praclice
shown that the M.e. effect
largl'ly on whether tht' psychological
dlaracteri..,li{'\ of the audience arc
taken into nln\ideralion: uUentioli.
n'ptH"', clImpn'hl'lI\ion, and memori,.,
InR of the me ....,age .... The dependt'n.:e
()f Iht' PwclHllogical ... ing of
rnUllicall0n on the spe.:ihn of M.e. in
gClleral and of t'al'h meam
I
on the organl ...ation of the flow of
information. on the specifiC inlerest,.,
of 'o'ar;ous ,Ollp,., within rhe audience;
corresponding interference and bar-
rien: ways of overcoming them, etc.
are being studied by psychology, so-
ciology and the semiotics of M.e
Mass Panic, a form of ('rmwl (mob)
beha'o'iour. psychologically character-
ised by a slate of mass fear of real or
imaginary danger. a fear (hat grows
in the course of mulual COfllu,\!iofl
and inhibit the ability 10 rationally
tht' existing \itualion. mobili5e
OIH . ... volitional rl'Sources bee Wil/)
and organi\e .:oncencd .:ountcraction.
An intera(ting group of people dege.
nera\l'S more readily inlo a panic
mob with Ic ... dcar or
.. ubjel"livl'ly meaningful common
goals and with lower group cohesion
and lower aUlhoril), of group leaders.
Qne would di.,li/lguish the socio-situa-
tional conditions (onducive tll M.P"
Iho.,e due to a gl'neral Im'fl/ill 1,.,11;011
(au\ing a of dn)(icty and anlil'i-
pat ion of calamitors c\'cnh (earthquil-
ke. war, military n)up dl'tal. etc.):
common psychologi(al facto" (sur-
pri ...e; fear cau\ed by warcity of l''o'idcn-
ce about the exact source of danger:
time of danger; and for countering
Ihal danger); and fal"lors
(fatigut', hunger, intoxication, el(.). A
dl'tailed \1 udy of the factors and
nisms in\trumcnlal to M.P. makes il
po ...... ible to de\'elop \pe(ifK measures for
prl''o'ellting and hailing M.P. whIch had
already \tarted. At the \ame liml'. rd-
t'vant knowledge is widdy u\l'd by
\pecial st'r'o'i..;e) in capitalist (ountnl'S
17.1
to evoke M.P. among political oppo-
nents (to flghl against "illegal" mee-
tings. manifestations. etc.), and also
in warfare.
Mass Phenomena. coinciding
ments and adopted stereo-
ly(JC!> and patterns of beha-
viour, linked with a more or less
simultalleoll!; psychic slale of people, as
a result of communicalion (2) in large
groups (sel! Grou/', Larj.W) , The mul-
tiform types of behaviour of a crowd.
mass hysteria and pull"'. fIl
mOllrs. fashions. and abo socio-psy-
(hological traits of peoples (sec Mond,
PIIMid, pllblic opillion. etc.. are (onsiJ-
ered M.P. The ... ystemati( sludy of
M.P. was begun in the framework
of twO independent trends 111 the
psychology: Ihe psy.:holo-
gy of peoples (Moritz Lazarus. Hey-
mann Steinlhal. Wilhelm Wundt) and
the psychology of the masses (Guslave
Le Bon. Gabriel Tarde, Vilfredo Parl!-
to). At rhe present lime M.P. is the
\ubjeci of invcstigation of Ihe psy.
chology of large groups. p.\ycl!olo/.:y of
propa/.:alUJa, and (ommercial psy
chology.
Materialism and Idealism in Psychology.
Ihe twO basic philosophical orientations.
whose snuggle ha, innul'llced Ihe
devdopment of p\ychological thought
throughout its enlire Matenal-
ism proceeds from the principle of
the pnmacy of material exi\It'llce.
and Ihe sl'condary nature or the
psy(hic. which seen a
deri'o'ati'o'l! of the oubide world, I11de
pt'ndent of thl! Whjl'l'l and
\
.(
y
174
IdOlI.m('!i.\. in the development
of scient if\(' knowledge about
a major is played by the discov-
of determined by
non-p!;ychological factors, such as the
em ironment and bodily substratum,
it is precisely materialism that is a
mOlive force of progress in psychology.
In ancient times materialistic ideas
were manifested in different teachings
on the soul as a pan of the elemental
force of nature: fire ( Heraclitus)

air (AnaximenC!, atoms (Democritus),
and others. Along with the views of
philosophers who explained psycho-
logical maTerialistically,
of great Importance were the views
of doctors on dependence of a

man s nature on the mixture of diverse
components in the organism (teaching
on te"'.peramenl). Such a naive
was unable
to explain a subject's capacity
10 grasp non-sensory (abstract) truths
to subordinate deeds to ethic ideals'
to one\ own consciousness
object of These real proper-
of .man s psyche were interpreted
\I Ldeahsm (Plato, Plotinus. Augustine)
J as Ihe by-products of a ' I .
m, . I' specla Im-
a erla soul h h
. W IC rules
over everythmg eanhly, material. h
an approach Il,nked idealist philosophy
closely wllh religion. In the New
ge the, r,emarkable successes of the
materialistICally-oriented natural .
ce stLmulated the flowerin sclen-
logical thought which bo
of
psycho-
most th e a r.ated its
17 h eortes III the
t century: on refie
eep'o x, on per-
l n a:i a product of th . ft
of external object:i on e'h
,n
buen.ce
. e rain,
----
on a.t.w ..'ialiol/.\ ami their 0- .
1
- gallic
mee _ affecI.\- .(passions).
All tht'se procc!).Scs were Interpreted
by Descartes. Hobbes and Sp
f h
. . 1II0za
rom t e malenalist point of .
. VIew
an undersiandlllg was developed
III 18th by French (La
Meline, Helvell us, DiderOl P,e
C
. . ,rre
abarllS) and English (David Hartl
Prieslley) in
pOSi t IOn 10 the views wh ich were
advanced by teac hings on the pri macy
o( ,.sensations in relation to eXlernal
objects (Ge?rge Berkeley, David
Hume), on Ideas as the primordial
acts of the soul (J ohann Herbart)
and others. In the mid-19th century:
_ new form of material-
Ism, It with dialectics, was
developed by Marx and Engels, who
the methodological prin-
cIples on the basis of which Soviet
ps.ychol.ogy emerged.
'!latenaltsm rejected diverse
theon.es which Ignored the activity of
consciousness, man's ability not only
!o Ihe world, bUI also to change
It tn. the process of socio-historical
practice. The dia lectico-materialist
ox I . ( p anatlon of psychic processes is
counterposed. t':' both t he idealist and)
the latter being a
va net!' of reductionism, reducing
psychic processes to' neur-a! phenomena.
the sa me time t here exists a dose
lie between the dialectico-ma terialist
to psyche and the spontaneous
of nal ural scientists. Thanks
to their. mid-19th century discoveries,
Ihe flrSI ImpOrlant regularities of psyche
were .
experimentally established
IWeber-Fedlller Law, t he laws of the
__________
visual perception (Hermann Helm-
holtz), types of reaction lime (Fran-
ciscus D.onders)' and other';!, which,
along wllh the discoveries in biology
(Charles Darwin) and physiology
(Claude Bernard, ivan Sechcnov),
. Ied 10 the. drawjng. up of
categorial apparatus, which resulted
In ilS6'ecoming an independent science.
Since the above-ment ioned process
took place under the influence of
idealist philosophy dominant in t he
capitalist countries of the West, il got
inadequately transformed into con-
ceptions stemming from an intro-
spectionist approach to consciousness
(Wilhel m Wundt, Franz Brentano).
In Russia, this process followed a
different direction in the consistently
materialist teaching of Sechenov,
who synthesized the achievemenl'> of
natural st udies of psyche in world
science. At the turn of the 20th century
a crisis developed in psychology, with
idealist philosophy having a negative
effect (Machism. pragmatism). Subse-
quent ly, the chief achievements of
psychology were determined by its linl$
with .l!!.l ysiology, cybernetics and- other
'scienct!:), -wne"re spont
tendencies are dQminant. Soviet psy-
chology consistently realises the philo-
so. of
laiectleal material ism.
Meani ng, a general form of the
reflection by a subject of the socio-
historical experience acquired in t he
process of joint activities and com-
mUflication (1) and exisling as con
cepts incor poraled III the patterns
of action, social roles, norms and values.
An image of the world, of other people
and of the subject himself appears
before the subject's colLfciousnes.s
through a system of M's. The individual
system of M's, as interiorised (see
standards, conditions
the ..:ognitive processes (perception,
thinking, memory, etc.) and the acts
of social behaviour. Control over the
processes of the subject's individual
aclhity is carried out through
system of M's. The bearers of M.,
along with the structures of Ihe natural
language, include such sign systems
as diagrams, maps, formulas and blue
prints, systems of symbolic images,
the "language" of the arts (painting
and architeclure, dancing and panto-
mime, etc.). M. reveals itself as the
conlenl of sigru, images. and actions
in a socio-normati\'e sense that is stable
for the individuals living in a partic-
ular cultural environment. The
sentation of knowledge in a socio-
normative form leads to ilS compre-
hension. By expressing an individual
experience (perception, thinking,
emolional experience, ell:.) in M. with
the aim of communication, the subject
thereby comprehends it. M .. combined
with the personalised mealling and the
sensory fabric, forms the structure of
individual consciousness (Alexei N.
LeOll1yev). The individual system of M.
devdops in the course of olllOgenesis.
Genetically earlier forms of M's have
been singled out, which precede its
most developed form-the concept
(Lev Vygolsky). In 'them, generalisa-
lion is al fIrst ..:arried Oul on Ihe basis
of the resemblance of the emotional
lOne of the objects (see Emotions).
I
".

- - - -
----
The<>e earlier forms aho include "every-
day ..... hich are generalisation
of individual experience and do not
enter into the systems relations with
other concepts. Generalisations. as a
form of M. used by a child. may not
coincide with generally accepted con-
cepts. However, it is imperative for
social interaction, communication and
reciprocal understanding thaI the indi-
vidual M's being formed should
coincide, as regards the object, with
Ihe socially acceptable forms. On a
fUtH.:tional plane, the M. of a word
repreSt!llls the unity of generalisation
and communication, of Ihe intellectual
and the communicative functions of
the subject \1. is a complex, hierar-
chically structured entity composed of
more splintered compounds, sometimes
called semas, semantk signs, the "atoms
of M", etc. Their identification and
the ascertainment of the relations be-
tween them. i.e. the !:>emantic analysis
of M. is the task of psyc!/O-
semantics.
Measu.rement (in psychology), the
of the quantitative charac-
teristics of psychic phenomena under
study. The concept of M. was intro-
dw.:ed al the turn of the 20th century
as a. result of the striving of all
sciences to apply mathe-
mallcal methods. In a broader sense,
M .. IS a particular procedure under
whIch numbers (at least ordinal
are assigned to objects ac-
cordmg to established rules. The rules
are set with a view to
estabhshmg a correlation between
certam properties of the numbers and
of the It i.., the pOs-
SIbility of correlation
that the importance
of M. 11\ psychulogy. In conducting M.,
the researcher proceeds from the
assumption Ihat everything which
exists reveals itself in one way or
another, or a!Tects something. The
multiplicity of psychic phenomena
and, factors of development in psychol_
ogy is comlTlonly called variables since
they vary in quantity depending on
individuals and time. The general goal
of M. is to determine the magnitude
of one indicator as compared with
other indicators by measuring its
"weight". From the standpoint of the
M. theory. it is imperative to discern
these aspects: (a) the quantity and
range of the variables (the number
of correct answerl:i, the range of
interests, elc.): (b) the frequency of
the manifestation: correspondingly,
the more often it manifests itself,
the greater is the imporlance of a
particular property: (c) the magnitude
and strength of the manifestation.
There are two basic trends in M.-
psychophysical and pl:iychometric. The
first is characterised by attempts to
bring into correlation, in experimental
conditions, real physical stimuli (objects
of different weights, intensity of light,
etc.) and the sensations evoked
III a person by these stimuli (see
The psychometric
direction is basically connected with
thecreat;on and application of psycho-
logical tCStS (see Testing) representing
a model situation helping to receive
patterns of behaviour and emotions.
Like any measuring instrument, the
)
,
t( .. mml be and reliable, valid
and adequate. All
are particular mathe-
matical hee al<;o Scale;
Scalillg).
Medical Psychology, a branch of
psychology which psycho-
logical regularities in
treatment and disease prevention. M.P.
sHldies the activity of doctors, medical
personnel, their altitude to a patient.
the psychology of patients and their
attitude towards each other, the role
of psychological factors in the origin
of psychosomatic disorders, iatrogenic
M.P. area of research includes
correctional work, specifically psycho-
therapy. psychohygielll', use of the
possibilities of psychopharmacology,
psychological assessment in the course
of the social and labour rehabilitation
of patients. M.P. is divided into twO
main spheres: (I) use of psychology
in a mental hospital, where the chief
task is to study the innuence on a
patient's mind of changes in the
structure and functioning of the brail/,
conditioned by ei ther acquired or in-
herited pathology, specifIcally genetic
anomalies; (2) lise of psychology in a
clinic for somatic diseases, where the
main problem is the innucnce of psychic
states (factors) on somatic processes.
In Soviet psychological sciellce. neuro-
psychology. pathopsychology. and
special psychology have becn noticeably
developed in the framework of M.P.
The elaboration by these M.P. branches
of problems of the brain organisation
of higher menIal functions. the cor-
relation of development and disilltegra-
12-091S
177
-
tion of activity, etc. laid the.
foundation for M.P:s active parti-
cipation in solving diagnostical. experi-
mental and rehabilitational problems.
The second sphere of M.P. is
which is determined primar-
Ily by the insufficient scientifIC
elaboration of questions linked with
the nature and mechanisms of interac-
tion of somatic (bodily) and
processes. Among the most important
is also the problem of studying doctor-
patient relations. At present
ogists, physiologists. doctors, biologists
and others pool their efforts to work
out problems in this sphere of
M.P.
Meditation, intensive. deep-going
reflection. preoccupation with an object.
idea. etc .. which is achieved by con-
centrating on one object and elimina-
tion of all factors that distract utlention,
both external (sound, light) and
internal (physical. emotional and other
tension). M. is a method of psychic X
training, which acquires diverse forms
depending on lhe cultural-historical
environment. The greatest number of
indications of M. methods have been
preserved in the East-in India, China
and the cultures associated with Ihem.
The Eastern types of M. (represented
by aH forms of in India, Taoism
in China) presuppose the religious-
mystic dissolution of individual con-
sciousne!;j in an impersonal, Q(.eanlike
absolute-a situation that is
by the image of a bunerny burning
in a candle flame. or a doH of salt
dissolving in sea water. Another reli-
gious-mystical dire,tion of M .. which
178
- --
cultivated by Christianity. inter
;:eSted it as a merging of twO
illes (human and divine). In the
ceowry techniques of M. were elabo-
rated in some schools of
anahsis, specilically in analytical
psychology. and as a. srstem of
psycho-physical tramlng, al. a
therapeutic effect hnked wl1h
any religious-mystIcal Ideas (Johann
Schultz.' autogenic training, a system
of "biofeedback", and others).
case of ill\'oluntary M., a J'lcrSl'1l
not set out with intent to rcmt'"mber
some particular material. Here. pro-
cesses connt'"cted with memory carry
out operaliom servicing other actions.
As a result. M. is of a relatively
spontaneous nature and is fulfilled
without special voluntary efforts,
Melancholic Person. a subject possess-
ing one of four basic types of tempe-
rament, characterised by a low level
of psychic activity, slow movements.
restrained motor action and speech.
and easy fatigue. A M. is distinguished
by high emotional sensith'eness, depth
and stability of emotions with their
slight external expression, with nega-
tive emotions prevailing. In unfavour-
able conditions a M. may devetop an
increased emotional sensitivity, reserve,
alienation. Ivan Pavlov considered
that representatives of a melan-
cholic temperament the inhibitive
process prevails, accompanied by low
excitability and inhibition.
Memorising, a general term used to
denote the process of keeping material
in memory. M. is a vital condition for
the subsequent recollection of newly-
acquired knowledge. The success of M.
is d,etermined first of all by the ability
to Incorporate new material into the
of meaningful relations. Depend-
Ing on processes are taking
place, dIStinction is made between
voluntary and inVOluntary M. In the
a preliminary selection of material or
the conscious application of any
mnemonic methods (see Mrlemonics).
It should also be mentioned , Ihat in
this case M. stili depends on the goals
and moti\'es of activity. As was shown
by the studies of Soviet psychologists
(Pyotr Zinchenko, Anatoli $mirnov),
involuntary M. is much more successful
when memorised material forms part
of the goal of the undertaken action.
The specifics of the problem being
solved also play an important role.
An orientation towards semantic rela-
tionships leads to a more profo-und
processing of the material and a pro-
longed involuntary M. Voluntary
is a specific action whose purpose IS
to record material exactly for a maximal
period with the aim of subsequent
reproduction or simple recognition.
It indicates a choice of methods and
means of M., thereby influencing its
results. A complex mediated struclure
is typical for this kind of M. The
drawing up of a preliminary plan,
the identification of semanti c reference
points, the semantic and spatial
grouping of the material, the presenta-
tion of the material as a vivid image,
and the correlation of the material
with accumulated knowledge are
among the commonly used
of voluntary M. Other things being
I
I
-
equal, voluntary M. i\ morc prodllf.:t ive
than involuntary M. and cn\ure\ a more
systematic !.:hara!.:ter, a l:onscious 3\-
similation of new knowledge and
con trol over this proce.s..s hec LeornlllK
Ability). Repetitioll plays an important
role among the M. mechani\ms. By
extending the effect ive duration of the
impact made by information, it serves
as a means for the development of the
highest socialised forms of memory,
above all, voluntary M. At the same
time, research indicates Ihat repetition
is not an absolute necessi ty for long-
term M. In fact, its role considerably
declines when an attempt is made to
memorise vitally important material
and data carrying a great semantic
load.
Memory, the processes of structuring
and storing past experience to make
possible its repealed use in acti"ity or
its recall to the sphere of conscious-
ness. M. links the subject's past with
his present and future, and is a major
cognitive function underlying develop-
ment and teaching. Studies of M. are
of interdisciplinary nature, since it
occurs at all levels of life in various
forms and includes not only retain-
ment of individual experience, but also
mechanisms of transmission of here-
ditary information. Recently, these
studies have expanded owing to the
appearance of computer technology
for data slOr ing and retrieving. Experi-
mental studies of M. were initially
started at the end of the 19th century
by Hermann Ebbinghaus. a German
psychologist, who used himself all a
subject to chart the quantitative law\

I ;1)
- -

of mCInOn\atlon, retentIon allli repro-

dUl:l ion of sequenl:cs con\l\ting of
nomense -;yllables. Thi'i approal'h wa'i
sub'>equently !.:ontinued in behaviouri\t
studies of verbal learning (\ct' 81.'1/(1
v;ourism). M. Mudies involving
complex meaningful material began
almost simultaneously. In the early
20th century, the French philosopher
Henri Bergson contrasted M. of
spirif', establishing comprehended
single events from the subJe{;t's
biography, to 'memory.habit', rt'.',ulting
from mechanical repetition. The role
of material organisation in memorising
was emphasised by Gestult
ogy. Psychoanalysis attempted to
explain forgetting phenomena through
"suppression" of unpleasant. traumatic
impressions from consciousneSs. Fre-
derick Bartlell. a British psychologist,
showed the complex reconstructive
character of the process of re{;ollecting
stories and its dependence on cultural
norms in a given so{;iety. The signifi-
cance of socio-cul1ural factors ill the
development of \'arious forms of
human M. was stressed by the French
psychologist Pierre Janet and the
French sociologist Maurice Halbwachs.
Soviet t basing 011 the
dialectical material-
l$tn, a concept of M. as a
purposeful aCliol1 relying on the use
of socially developed signs (st'"c Cui
rural-Historical Theory; Sign). In ad-
dition to voluntary memorisillJ.:, MmJies
were also made of iln olUluary memo-.
rising. For instance. Pyotr Zinchenko
and Anatoli Smirno\' invC.')ligated the
dependence of successful
upon its position in the slructure
ISO
------.
1J11il"it.\'. In ontogcnetic development
bt'e OnlO/.:'ntsisl there is a changt'
in methods of memorising and the role
of distinguishing meaningful, semantic
relationships increases. Various Iypes
of M., \'i2., motor, emotional, imaginal
. and verbal-logical, are sometimes des-
,-.> cribed as stages of such development
(Pavel Blonsky, Jerome Bruner, and
Jean Piaget). Analysis of M. and
perception disorders performed by
Alexander Luria, Hans-Lukas Teuber,
and Roger Sperry in clinic of
local brain lesions allowed them to
establish that in dextral persons the
processes in the left cerebral hemisphere
are usually associated with verbal-
logical memorising, and those that
take place in the right cerebral
hemisphere-with image memorising.
are based on changes
In the aC1lvlly of individual neurons
and their populations, and also on
more. constant changes on the bio-
chemical level (in RN A and DN A
moleculesl. These processes are
normally regarded as the substrate
of twO forms of M., namely short-
term and long-term M. (see Memory,
Memory. Long-term)
this having been confirmed by .'
expefl-
evidence about
the III quantity and methods
of st?f1ng and retrieving data in repro-
duction. Some analogy between the
stages of data processing by humans
and structural blocks of com
( Mn.l' puters
_ see _ "uelilng) had a noticeable effect
III poslllg the problem of M H
the functional structure of'M owever,,
h . revea s
muc greater flexibility. For inslance
Ihe absence of a firm correlation of
long-term 11Icmorl\llIg with verbal
repetition pro'-l ...... l' ... In ... hnrttcrll1 M
is cvidt'IKl'd by data which show the
possibility (\r ... un'c\sful rCl'ognition of a
hugt! mas.. ... (as many a ... 1.000 and
more slidcs) of complex
lUred visual material urban and
rural landscapes, ctl'.). The pOientials
of ima}!(' M. arc c:-.posed in cases of
outstanding memory described in scien-
liflc literatllre, above all those involving
so-called "eidelism". III psychological
analysis of M., it is impertallt to take
into account thai the lalter is an
element of the integral structure of
human personality. As a person's
motivations and needs develop, his al1i-
tude towards his past may change;
as a result, the same knowledge may
be stored in his M. in different
ways.
Memory, Long-Term. a subsystem of
memory ensuring durable (for hours,
years, and sometimes decades) reten-
tion of knowledge, and also of capabili-
ties and and characterised by a
great volume of l)tored information.
The main mechanism of data input
and fixation in M.,L.-T. is usually
regarded 10 be repetition which is
achieved at the level of' short-Ierm
memory (see Memory. Short-Term).
Yet, purely mechanical repetition does
1.1Ot lead to stable long-term memoris-
Ing. Besides. repetition serves as a
requisi.te for fixating data in M.,L.-T.
only 111 case of \'erhal or readily
information. Intelligent
mterpretation of new material and
the establishment of be-
tween that material and something
already knowli tn the !.ubjt, are of
decisive \iglllfKilOl.;e. The external.
superficial form of the memori'M!d
. ,
l'OmmUnll'atllll1, e.g. the precise
\equcnce of wt)nh in a sentem;e, may
be lost, but the meaning is retained
tor a long time. Given the enormou!.
\olume of information .. tored in
memory, one can readily understand
that successful search of data is only
possible with well SlrUl'lUred informa-
tion. Judging from experimental
evidence, several forms of knowledge
organisation function simultaneouslv
in M.,L.-T. One of them is organisa--
lion of semantic information in hierar-
chic structures by the principle of
distinguishing more abstract, generic
notions and more specific ones. Another
form of organisation characteristic of
commonsensical categories involves
the grouping of individual notions
around one or several rypical repre-
sentatives of a given category. i.e_
prototypes. For example. a "table"
may serve better as a prototype of
the category "furniture" than a
"cabinet" or a "sofa". Semantic
information in M.,L.-T. involves both
cognitive and alTective elements which
reflect different personal anitude.s of
the subject towards various types of
information (see Meaning; Personal-
ised Meaning). The study of infonna-
lion organisation in M .. L.-T. is an
important means for diagnosing cogni-
tive spheres and personality (see
Psychodiagnosis; P,\ychosemantksl.

Memory. Sensory. a hypothetical
subsystem of memor), which ensures
retention for a very short period of
'R'
- -
time (normally, for les.. than one
!>t!cond) of the product'! of <.;en\ory
(If information arriving in
Ihe organs. Depending on the
types of stimuli. we ikonic
memory hi.!oion), echoic memory
(audition) and other forms of M .. S.
Presumably, !'>1.,S. relains the physical
features of information; this distin-
guishes it f:om short-term memory
(see Memory, Short-Term) and long-
term memory (see Memory. Long-
Term). which are typified by verbal-
acouslic and semantic co<Jillg. respect-
ively (John Atkinson). Yet, this
distinction is convelllional since preser-
\'ation of physical (perceptual) fea-
tures may be long-term, while dislinc
tion of semanllc characteristics is
already possible 111 relati\'ely early
stages of data processing.
Memory. Short Term, a subsystem of
memory that ensures immediate reten-
tion and transformation of dala
arriving from the sense organs and
from long-term memory (see Memory.
Long-Term>. A requisite for trans-
ferring material from sensory memory
10 M .. S.-T. is said to be in giving
that material due attention. Inner
speech and frequent repetition usually
taking place in the form of inner
utterances play a key role in short-
term retention of information. Two
types of repetition are distinguished.
The flrsl type is of relatively mechan-
ical nature: it involves sound ar-
ticulation and does not lead to any
noticeable Iransformation of Ihe
subjecs-maller. This form of repetition
allows to retain information at the
____________________________ _
-
le\'el of M .. S.-T .. even though it i!:i
insuffh.:ieol 10 traT1<;l"er it 10 long-term
memory. Long-term memorising
bei:omes possible only with the ,second
form of repetition by
inclusion of the retained matenal mlo
a system of associative relationships
Hor instance, by enlarging informa-
tion unib, I.e. by transition from
uncoordinated letters \0 words. from
words to sentences. etc.). Unlike long-
lerm memory, M.,S.-T. can store only
a very limited amount of information.
not over 72 umlS of malerial.
Contemporary IIlvesllgations show.
however, Ihal limitations in M..,S.-T.
are no obstacle to memorising large
volumes of comprehended perceptive
material, such as landscapes., faces,
and works of an. The synonyms for
\1.,S.-T. are "operational and im-
mediate" memory.
Mental Actions, human actions (ran-
ging from mathematical transforma-
tions to 35.SessmenlS of other people's
behaviour) performed mentally without
relying on external factors, audible
speech inclusive. In this respect, M.A.
differ from other forms of human
actions (e.g. speech, physical actions).
M.A., .may be aimed at solving both
cognitIve, Imental (see Thinking) and
mnemonic (see Memory) I tasks and
emotional (see EmO/ions) tasks. In
Soviet psychology, M.A. have been
with reference to problems
of developmental and peda-
gOKIC psychology (mechanisms of
phenomena, child's age
correlation of training
and Intellectual development, etc.).
Bv controlling the de\"elopmt'lll of M.A.
SteplI'ise Forming of Mf'lItul 1
ActiotlS, Concept 01>, the psychologi\t
call to some t',tent improve the
process of training and purposefully
influence children's mental develop_
ment. III recellt years, the results of
studies on systematic development of
M.A. are being increasingly used in
preschool. school, and vocational
training, and in institutions of higher
learning.
Mental Development, natural change
of psychic processes in time, mani-
fested in their quantitative, quali-
tative and structural transformations. [
M.D. is characterised by irreversible )
changes and specifiC trend (Le. ability
to accumulate and "build up" new
changes over the preceding ones),
and also by their regularity, e.g.
reproducibility of similar changes in
individuals of the same species. M.D.
is actualised in phylogenesis' (establish-
ment of mental structure in biological
evolution of a given species, or in the
socio-cultural history of all mankind
and its individual ethnic, social, and cul-
tural groups) and in ontogenesis (form-
ing of psychic structures during
the lifetime of an individual organism,
human or animal). A special object
of investigation is the formation and
disintegration of the cerebral organisa-
tion of psychic structures (see Neuro-
psychology). M.D. theories are disting-
uished by interpretation of mind
structure and conditions that deter-
mine its transformation. Concrete scien-
tific theories of M.D. originated in
the 19th century and were further
elaborated in t:hild psychology hee
Dl'I'e/OfJ/IJ('lIt(l{ V\ydW/OIU) , animal
psychology, and hi\toricaf P'iyd/Ology
while experient:lIlg the Impat:t of
Charles Darwin's evolutionary leaching
(see Flillelional Psychology, Beha
l'iOlirism). Attempts to distingui'.ih
specifically human, socio-cultural
factors of M.D. were made in "vOlker
psychologie" (psychology of peoples)
(see Elhnopsyc!J%gy) of Wilhelm
Wundt and in the verSlehende (under-
standing) psychologie of Wilhelm
Dilthey and Eduard Spranger, who,
basing on idealistic ideas about the
spontaneous activity of spirit, accen-
tuated the of personality
-on CilllUnil phenomena - Objectified in
symbolic forms (see Sign; Symbol).
The then incipient social psychology
(Emile Durkheim) explained the
development of individual mind as a
process of socialisation understood as
subordination of individual mind to
supraindividual norms flxated in "col-
lective representations". An eclectic
approach to M.D. is prevalent in
contemporary Western psychology,
which lacks a generally accepted
theory and methodology. Only two
general tenets characteristic of most
conceptions may be singled out. To
begin with, two groups of factors that
determine M.D. are distinguished,
namely, natural capabilities and the
ambient environment (most distinctly
with William Stern, Karl Biihler, and
their followers). Some psychologists
(Gordon Allport) include personal
activity differing from natural capa-
bilities into a specific group of factors
(see "Humanistic Psychology"). With
regard to
(Jerome Bruner, George \1ead, Jean
Piaget, and Carl Yung) u:-.uallyexamine
how the individual as.'.iimilates social
norms and cultures objeuifled in
symbolic forms to nOle that, under
the influence of these the
structures of the mind change. Second.
these psychologists recognise the pre-
sence of certain universal M.D. laws,
for instance those that unite the onto-
genesis and philogenesis of man's mind.
Under the direct influence of Ernst
Haeckel's biogenetic law, this idea
most clearly stated by Stanley Hall
in his theory of recapitulation, accord-
ing to which ontogenetic develop-
ment of a child's mind
the phylogenesis of humankind. In
Soviet psychology, Marxist-Leninist
dialectics is the general theory of j
development and the methodological
foundation of M.D. theories. In the
1920 and 1930s.. problems of M.D.
were chiefly studied within the frame-
work of child psychology, and subse-
quently also on the evidence of animal
psychology, pathopsychology, and
historical psychology. In this case,
M.D. is an objective process of systems
nature. Yet to distinguish its individual
components (aptitudes and environ-
mental factors), and to elucidate their
correlations would still be insufficient
to understand the true nature and
conditions of M.D. To do that, one
would have to regard M.D. as a process
of successive human involvement in sev-
eral practical social activities.
risatioll of the strUctures of such activ-
ities would determine the forming of
multi-level basic structures of psyche.
IN.
Menial Tension, a psychic state caused
by the subject's anticipation of
favourable""",et,dOr i'!vents. M.T. IS
accompanied by a feeling of ge',leral
discomfort, anxiety and,
lear; however, unlike anxiety, II
indudes a readiness to master the
situation and to act within that silUa
lion in a ddmite way. The degree
of M.T. is determined by many faclOfs,
the mosl important of which are the
power of molil'olioll, the significance
of the given situation (see Personal-
ised Meaning), presence of similar
emoliollal ex{X!,ience, rigidity (inflexi-
bility) of mental functional slruclUres
involved in various types of activity.
Among the factors thai bring about
M.T. the most signiflcant ones are
and conflicts in the area
of meaningful personal relationships
between the individual and his social
surrounding. When M.T. cannot be
in real it activates the
psychological defence mechanism. In
some interpretations, M.T. coincides
with the notion of psychological stress.
Depending on the impact on perform-
ance, one would distinguish opera-
tional and emotional M.T. Operational
M.T., which is based on the prevalence
of motives of activity, has a
moblilslng effect on the individual
and helps him to retain a high level
of work capacity. The development
of states of emotional M.T. is charac-
terised by a pronounced negative
emotional. tinge of behaviour and by
a b.rea.k. In the motivational structure
of Ind1V1dual activity, and leads to a
decline and disorganisation of its
performance.
Method of Foster Children. Methods
of P.,-ydlOl!elll,tin.
Method of Semantic Differential, a
method of constructing slIbjeclil'e
seman/ic -,,{X/ces. by the US
psychologist Charles Osgood in 1952.
it is used in studies connected with
a person's perceptioll and behal'iollr,
with an analysis of social attitudes
and personalised meanings in psychol-
ogy and sociology, in the theory of
mass comlllllnica/iollS and advertising,
and also in M. of S.D. is a
combination of methods of controlled
associations and scaling. The measured
objects (notions, images, personages,
elc.) are assessed by a series of bipolar
grade (three-, flve-, seven-point) scale,
the poles of which are usually given
verbally. Along with Ihe verbal, non-
verbal s.emantic difIereOlialli. hay_ueen
elaborated, where graphic descriptions,
picturesque paintings and photopor-
traits are used as scale poles.
Method of Semantic Radical, one of
the objective methods of experimental
semantics. elaborated by Alexander
Luria and Olga Vinogradova (1959)
and consisting in the analysis of
meanings by singling out their associa-
tive fields. M. of S.R. is a conditional-
reftectory technique that uses as a
criterion of semantic proximity of the
objects the transfer of conditional-
Jefleclo(y. l(Jctiolls IroUt one object
to another which is semantically linked )
with it. Thus, in presenting a number
of notions (for instance, "violin".
"mandolin") of a definite semantic
class (musical instruments), which are
,
accompanied by a negativc rcinforcc_
ment (electric ,hock). Lbc fuoher
,pLesC}lIation of wonh that are semanti-
cally linked with the reinfor;:;-ement
arouse a defence reaction, while
more indirectly linked with the rein-
forcement (sonata, concert) an
orienlatins: r(!(/(:tion. The semantic
range of objects-n"ked with reinforce-
ments is buill on the basis of record-
ed reactions. By the strength and
character of the reaction (defense or
orientating) one can distinguish the
centre and periphery of the semantic
range. Generalisation of a conditional-
retlectory reaction is normally effected
through semantic relations (violin-
violoncello), and for the mentally
phonetic olles (volley-
valley). M. of S.R. is valid for the
study of unconscious processes In
categorisation, for investigatlllg the
development of meanings in Ollto-
genesis. when studying the dynamics
of the formatiol1 of notions, in general
psychology. neuropsychology, and
pathopsychology.
Method of Twins, see Methods of
Psychogenet ics.
Merhodology, a system of principles
and methods of organising and con:.
structing theoretical and practical
acril'ity, and -aiso the teaching about
this system. M. is realised in Ihe
organisation and regulation of all types
of human activity, not only scientific
but also pedagogical, political.
managerial. aesthetic and others.
.Initially M. was inexplicitl), rcpresentcd
III people's practical relations with
PI.5
the ,objective world. An irnpnrtant
role In Its turning, into a 'pecial sphcre
of . rallonal cognitIon was played by
trarnmg f?r melllal (initially
JQ labour, and then separated
from. II), for their cOll!'i"tency and
,of the effective way
of achlevmg a gO(J/. With the progrcss
?f production, technology and cul1ure
In general, M. becomes an objc(:\
of philosophical ref/exion and c\tab-
lishf!!; as a system of socially
tested principles and rules of cognition
and activity in their correlation with
the properties and laws of objective
The existing principles of M.
turned into diverse forms and norms
of logically correct. verillable
of obtaining significant results. The
progress of M. was determined by the
successes of material and spiritual )
production. Thus, the 18th-century
scientiftc rc\'olution, which was clO'Jely
linked with the changing nature of
people's production activity, resul1ed
in the creation of a new M., which
played an important role also in the
origin of constructive approaches
to the study of psychic in
man. It is thanks to Ihis M. that there
appeared such sub.'>ections of psychol-
ogy as the teaching 011 ref/exes, on
associatiuns, on "passions of the soul"'
(see Emotiuiis) alld others. Subse-
quently M. was significantly enriched
in connection with the general devel-
opment of social. practi.ce and
and found a phtlosophlcal generalisa-
tion in the M. of dialectical matenal-
ism: tI1orcm'er the dialectical method
served nOI only as means
ical cognliion, 6u! also all lOsfrument
ISO
of revolutionary trans(QTwatjon
of reality. Dialectico-'materialist M.
adequaleJy expresse; the relations
between theory and method. as, well
M the role of practice for cogmllOl1.
Whereas theory represents the result
of Ihe process of cognition, M.
mines Ihe methods of accompllshmg
and this knowledge. Thus,
Ihe prim:iple of determinism guide;
rt'Search in elaborating physical, bio-
logical, psychological and social
lheorie'. In turn. having been verifIed
by social practice. these theories can
fulfIl a methodological function. i.C'.
ser\'e 810 Ihe organising principle of a
work. Dialectico-materiaiisl
M. general in character, but il is
when applieJ to different
of practical and' llleorelical
a'::livily. One such sphere is psyche,
thC' study of which presupposes the
C'Jaborati(ln of corresponding methods.
Hence diale..:ti.::o-materialist M .. func-
tioning a:. a general system of explan-
atory principle:. and regulators. IS
used in psychology in accordance with
the peculiarity of its object, which
requIres the elaboration and use of
concrete-scientific M. The
pre<ient-day conditions characterised
by direct intera..::tion of a great number
of sCie.nl1fic orientations and disciplines,
make It Imperative to develop so-called
general-:...::ientific methods. which
ensure thC' . increment of knowledge
111 many dls(lphnes. Such are. for
tnSlance. the met hods of cybernel ics
Ihe . u),(' of which in PSycholOg;
enrIChed Ihe laller with new approaches
and The great variety of
methods inevitably creates the problem
._--
of selection of the most adequate and
prospective of them for solving special
research problems. This induces us to
examine M. from the viewpoint of its
heuristics. i.e. its ability 10 emure the
appearance of new ideas in conc rete
E!oblem situutions. M. is directly
associated with world outlook, for the
entire system of its regulators and
instructions presuppose the inter-
pretation of both the foundations of
research and its results on the basis
of world outlook. In psychological
studies M. of different orientations is
linked with their world outlook. Thus,
M. of behul'iOllrism is closely connected
with a mechanistic understanding of
hehQl'iOllr, in FrelldiOIli:sm the empiric
study of a per,wllulity is determined
by such world outlook orientations as
irrationalism, the counterposing of the
personalised meaning of life to its
dependence on the social conditions
of man's development, exaggeration
of the role of sexuality. M. of Marxist-
oriented psychology is based on a
dialectico-materialist world outlook.
The sphere of M. includes an extensive
complex of concrete-scientific research
methods: observation, experiment.
mooeW"R and others, which in turn
are divided inlO a great number of
s[lCcial techniques for gathering
scientifIc data. DilTerent levels of M.
(philosophical. general-scientilic, con- \
crete-scientifIC) arc .
and should be considered as a system.
The improvement of M. clO:SeTy ..
connected with the progress of
scientifIC. technologi.:al, organisational
and other forms of activity.
Methods of Animal Psychology.
methodS of studying the animal
behaviour. including observation and
experiment. of the natural
behaviour of animah ;11 their habitat
is complemented by the study of their
attitude to diverse objects, of
which are especially selected by the
experimenter, and are sometimes pre-
sented to animal subjects in arti-
ficially created situations; the forms
of manipillation with these objects
are analysed. Experiments in animal
psychology study the behaviour of
animals in the course of resolving
different problems. The basic experi-
mental methods are: labyrinth method
(fmding Ihe way to a goat object that
is 110t directly perceived- fodder.
shelter, etc.); roundabout method
(linding the way to a goal object by
avoiding one or several obstacles):
method of simultaneous or consequent
choice or differential taming (selecting
objects-signals, drawings. etc. - distin-
guished by one or several indices thai
change in a definite way); open fIeld
method (giving an animal the opportu-
nity of free choice of way and position
in a fenced-off space and. if needed,
increasingly complicated structurally
with objects, shelters. etc.); problem
cage (box) method (fmding a pos-
sible way out of the cage or entering
it by opening more or Ie&; complicated
locking devices); method of using tools
(resolving problems with the aid of
extraneous objects. which should be
introduced into experimental situations
between animals and goal objects-
moving the bait closer with poles or
ropes. building pyramids from boxes.
IS,
etc. ). These and other arc
.10 the .sensory and effectory
abIlitIes. orlentat1llg-investigatory be-
em?tions and memory of
anlmab.' t.helr ability for learning,
generalisation and transfer of indivi-
dual experience. for intellectual actions
and others. Studies in animal psychol-
ogy are of great importance also for
of Ihe psychologi..::al
scIence (espeCIally general and child
psychology), for philosophy (especially
gnoseology), anthropology (pre-history
of anthropogenesis). medicine (model-
ling on animals the psychopathological
states of man. PSychopharmacological
experiments. etc.), as well as for
cattle-breeding. pest control. service
dog training. protection of the animal
world, domestication of animals. animal
farming and fisheries. zoological gar-
dens. and other areas (see Comparu-
tive Psychology).
Methods of Personality Study. the sum
total of methods and le1:hniques for
studying the psychological manifesta-
tions of a personality. According to
the form and conditions of lIS applica-
tion. M. of P.S. are inlO:
experimelllal and non-experimental
(for instance, analysis of biography!.
laboratory and clinical, direct and
indirect, research and assessing
(psychodiagnostics). The differentia-
tion of M. of P.S. according to content
is determined by the principles of inter-
pretation of of personal-
ity psychology. Dependlll.g ?n the
dominant aspect of examlllallon, M.
of P.S. divided into: (I) those
studying the personality's intlil'idualiO':
ISS
-
(2) thclse studying the per..onality as
thl! of social actil'it.\' and the
system of interpersonlJI relations;
Iha;e studying the personality as
an ideal reprt'sentation in otht'r people.
In accordance with the first aspect.
subjective and objecti\ e orientations
are distinguished in the construction
of M. of P.S. The subjecti\e orienta-
tion is representt'd by projective (see
Tests, Projecli\'t!) and psychosemantic
techniqut'S (see Method of Semantic
Differential; Method of Semantic
Radical), aimed at characterising
indi\'idual consciousness. The objective
orientation, stemming primarily from
the thear)' of personality traits. is
represented by personalit)" inventories.
of interpersonal perception
(J,ee Perception, Interpersonal). techni-
ques of mental development
and learnmg ability of an indil'iduaJ
a series assessing
characteristics of
an . mdlvidual. A certain unity of
object-oriented research
s achl.eved m the framework of inter-
of an individual's activity
proceedmg from the interconnecti01;
?f the. and dynamic qualities
m conSCiousness and activity-genetic
of studying how the personality
IS bemg formed (see Methods of
methods of studying
and dispositions, situationally
Ln, epe,ndent activity (see Activity
Independent), [el'eI oj
etc.J. Soviet psycholo
.. demonstrated that data
of personality as an
Individuality cannot be directl
pt>lated thY extra
o t e characteristics of a
personality a\ the subJCct 01" inter_
relations the . indi\' idually
typical emerges III qUIte dllTt"rcm ways
depending on the development level
of the <;(lcial unit in which the indivi
dual integrated. In this connection
(second aspecll. socio-psychological
of studYlllg a personality in
groups and collectil'e'S (sociometr)"
referenlometry. methods of studying
role behaviour. and others) are used.
In the. third aspect of constructing
uSI.ng M. of. P:S. a personality
IS studied both \I1Slde and outside
interindividual interaction (ideal conti
nuity of the subject in other people-
personalisation) , etc. In the frame
work of the above-mentioned orienta-
tion a special principle of studying
a personality is formed: the method
of reRecled subjectivity (analysis of
individual's personality through
ilS representation in the life activilY
of other people. their motivations.
etc.).
Methods of Psychogenetics, methods
making it possible to assess the influence
of inborn factors and the environment
on. the formation of a psychic peculi-
amy of a person. The most informative
is the twins method. It is based on the
fact that monozygotic (one-ova) twins
have an identical genotype, dizygotic
(two-ova) are non-identical; moreover
the members of any type of twin pair
have a similar educational
Then the greater inter-
palf SImilarity of monozygotic twins
compared to the dizygotic ones will
out the presence of inherited
mfluences on the changeability of
thl! prupcrty uruil-r A
limitation of Ihis method cnnsl<;t \ in
the fact that the ').illlilarity uf the mono
zygotic twin'i' prupertilocs
Illay be of a non-genl!tic
origin. Thl! genealogical method i<; the
sludy of hetwcl!ll rel<ltivl."\
in dilTerent generations. Rl!quired for
this is an exact knowledge of the
number of proper!il!'). of direct rela-
tives of Ihe maternal and paternal
and the study of Ihe widest possible
circle of blood data on an
adequate number of dilTerent familie<;,
making it possible to disclose the
similarity of family trees, may also be
u:.ed. This method is applicable
primarily in medical genellcs and
anthropology. However. the similarity
of generations according to psycho-
logical propenies may be explained
not only by their genetic
but also by social continuity. The popu-
lation method makes il pos.\ible to study
the spread of individual gene or
chromosome anomalies in human
populations. Analysis of a population\
genetic structure requires a large
group of people, which should be
representative, i.e. enabling the experi-
menter 10 make judgements abotll
the popUlation as a whole. This method
is also more informative when studying
diverse forms of hereditary pathology.
As for the analysis of the inheritability
of normal psychological properties.
this method, taken in isolatiol1 from
other psychogenetic fails
to provide reliable data. for ditft'rt'IKes
between in the di'itributil.m
of one or another psychological feature
may be due to social cause:-., cu:-.toms.
e c mctlmd of rnsCc- children IS
comparison IIf SImilarity hy 50l1":e
properly i:lctW('t"11 a child
and II" biological parl!nh, on tht' !1m'
hand. and the \:hild and il'i fo:.lt"r
parents, on the other: 'I. of P. prl!
suppo--;e, a <,peclfll: obligatory 'tati'>ti.;al
procc$),mg for each ml!thod. The nil) .
lIlformative of mathematical
analysi, rl!quire the <;imultanl!()us N;'
of at lea:.! the first two rnethcxh t\l!e
P,\),choMenetics) .
Microstructural Approach. a theoret
ical-experimental approach of pres
ent-day SO\'iet psychology. Thl! ta\k
of is 10 study the coordination
of actions and opaatiom, which form
the texture fmiaostruClureJ of dilTer-
ent of man's cognith'e and
executi\'e aCli\'ity. 'Iuch attention IS
devoted to studying the formation
fmicrogenesi:.l of percepli()n.
inf{o thinking. mOlemenh. The experi-
mental method:. de\eloped in the framc::-
work of \LA. complement the method\
of formation of inlernal actions
and an analy:.is of Ihe
of actl\'ity. making it to \tudy
the orl!ani\alion of highly aUlomatc::d
mental- Ihat are hidden from
external and internal obs('Tl"ut;mr.
Relevant :.tudies have resulted in the
eSlablishment of regularities of per
ception and retention of informali?n.
of tusk sol\ing ar,ld exel'U\lOn
of complex movements In a. !hree-
dimensional en\ironment (\' ladlmlr
Zinchenko. Boris Velichkonky).
Militan a bran.:h l.lf
psy.:hoiogy that studies the
190
-
aspeclS of \'anouS rnililary
a("lj\ilie.!) wilh reference to specific
St.Kio-hi\\orical conditions. level of
military technology. and pen;onal and
group characterislics. and also
methodS involved in combat and poilt-
ical training (KonSlanlin Platono
v
).
Soviet M.P., which appeared logelher
with Ihe Soviet Army, develops on
the methodological basis of Marxism-
Leninism, serves the inleresls of the
armed defence of socialism, and is
hiSlorkally progressive in nature.
Basing 011 psychological investigations.
LI worlui OUI recommendations for
perfecling Ihe theory and practice of
screening, selecting, training and edu-
cating servicemen, and for improving
party-and-political work in the armed
forces, psychological training of ser:-
vicemen, and command of personnel.
The respective aspects of M.P. apply
10 Ihe variou!o arms and services, and
its is:.ues are examined from the angle
of the Soviet mililary doctrine and
the inferences of SOCillf psychology,
psychology of labour, engineering
psychology, pedagogic psychology,
elC.
Mimicry, see Expressive Move-
menl.\.
Mi nd, a generalised characteristic
?f personal cognitive possibilities,
In opposition to sentiments and will.
a narrower sense, M. is the indi-
VIdual characteristic of
human Intellectual abilities.
Mne":,onics a system
of different techOlque.-; which help
memorise and increa_,,!' thl" memory
span by forming additional u ....wk ..iu .
One ml"thod of M. the
establishment of relaliom between
the memorised nnd their dis-
tribution in an imagined, familiar space
that is divided according to a definite
principle. A pertinent example is memo-
rising the !oequence of colours in the
spectre with the aid of phrases in which
the first leiters of the words correspond
to the fIrst lell ers of the names of
colours (" Raising Onions in Your
Garden by the New Villa"). In Ancient
Greece some people used the M. method
10 acquire the ability quickly to
memorise but often meaning- -<......
less, matenal and demonst rated their I
an to the public. M. methods have
only a secondary and aux iliary sig-
nificance in raising the efflcacy of
memory, since the chief support of
memorising are not artificial, but
. ...I_Q&ically ifled ... _ mean ingf uLrelations
both in what is being memorised (be-
tween its separate parts), and between
the memorised material and something
already known.
Mobilit y, a primary property of the
nervous system const ituting in Ihe
ability to r apidly respond to environ-
mental changes. M. was characterised
and studied by Ivan Pavlov, who f
suggested the basic techn iques for
diagnosing M., including t hose for
determini ng the speed and ease wit h
which ner vous pr ocesses are replaced
by processes with the same or opposite
valence, and also the r ate at which
they Occur and Ierminate.

Modality, one of Ihe main properties

of St'f/m/iOf/s, their qualitative charac
tcristics (colour - in sight, tonc and
timbre -in hearing, character of
smell-- in smell, etc). Modal charac-
teristics of sensations. as distinct from
their olher characteristics (spatial,
temporal, intensity), renect the pro-
perties of objective reality in a
speciflcally encoded form (a length
of the colour wave is reflected as
colour, the frequency of tonal waves
as tone, etc.). The not ion of M. a long
with sensaIions re fers also to oIher
psychic processes, describing the quali-
tative character istics of cognitive
images of any level and complexity.
Modelling (in psyc hology), Ihe study
of psychic processes and states with
the aid of the ir real (physical) or
ideal, above all mathematical, models.
The "model" is secn as a system of
objects or signs, which reproduce some
essential propenies of the original
system. The presence of a panial
simi larity rat io (homomor phism)
makes it possible IO use a model as a
substitute or representative of the
system under study. The moder-s rela-
tive simplicity makes such an exchange
especially graphk. The creation of
simplilied models of a sysIem is an
effective way of verifying the cor-
recI ness and full ness of theoret ical
concepts in different br anches of
knowledge. The flrst attempts to use M.
in psychology are linked wi th the study
of psychophysical relat ions (see Psycho-
physics) and memory processes. The
systema tic use of M. was characteristic
of Geslall psychology, which attempted
1 Q 1
to find a physical analogy III tht." f,lrma
4
tion of integral
in crystal-formation prncnses. ,hange
of the tension of pellicles, eIc. The
widespread u'>e of Ihis method til
psychology began in the when
Ihe development of cybernetics made
M. pos.<.ible in different areas of the
purposeful aclivity of live creatures.
This development was anticipated to a
certain exlenI in the works of Soviet
scientists Pytor Anokhin and Nikolai
Bernstein, who created models of man's
complex physiological funcIional
systems, which contained all the main
components of subsequent cybernetic
models of behaviour. In a relatively
short period there appeared maIhe
matical models of learning, informa
tiona I models of memory, perception
and allention. M. embraced also the
more complex types of intellectual
activity, such as playing chess and
solving diverse problems (Allen Newell,
Herben Simon). The understanding
of psychic processes as analogous with
Ihe processes of computer calculations
held OUI especially good prospecls.
Some authors attempt to find a Slruc-
IUral similarity between the organisa-
tion of man's cognitive sphere and
the structure of computer chips. This
"computer metaphor is particularly
widespread in modern cognitive
psychology. Olhers are attracted not
by the computer's functional archi-
tecture, but by its calculation power.
In this case M. actually merges with
the work being carried out in such
branches of cybernetics as artificial
intellect and machine sight. Models
of psychic and psychophysiological
I'll
function .. machine program-
mes. the concrete realisation of which
depends largely on the language chosen
for programming. Despite the number
of successful examples. the M. of
psychic and psychophysiological
proces..es (psycholinguistic models of
comprehension, discerning systems.
integral robots. etc.), the prevailing
opinion is that for the creation of
viable psychological theories the use
of this method alone is insufflcicnl.
As a rule. it is impossible 10 give an
unambiguous description of existing
data .... ith the aid of formal models.
In order to lessen arbitrariness in
interpreting these data, it is necessary
to use the results of a qualitative psycho-
logical analysis.
Modificatton of Behaviour. a method
of social beha\'iour regulation suggested
by U.S p5ychologisLS who support
It was first used as a
method of P3ychorherapy in
treallng neuroses, and later came to
be u$ed with to mentally
people With the aim of devel-
0pl.ng automatic habits ensuring their
adJustm('nt to the conditions of life
111, capltalls.t society. It is utilised
pnman.lY 111 juvenile correctional
and schools and sometimes
111 psychology in the USA
and and i!> used and often misus-
ed III pnsons (see also Social Psychol-
C orrecti\'e Psychology).
Mood. relatively protracted. stable
.\tate.f of moderate or low
Intensny, appearing " , pos.,.
. live or
negatIVe emotional background of the
indi\'idual' .. mental life. ,SlIua_
tlunal and affects, M. '..4s an
emotional re\ponse not to the direct
consequences of given events, but to
!iignihJance for the penonjn
question within the context of his
plam, and anti-
cipations. In turn. formed M's can
affect direct emotional reactions to
occurring events and correspondingly
change .the subject's trend of thought,
perceptIon (see Soci(ll Perception),
and behm'iour. Depending on the
degree of awareness of the factors
that have caused a given M., the latter
is experienced either as an inteml
emotional backgrounl ("efevated"

"depressed", and other kinds of M.)
or as L.dis.tin_c.tly identifiable state
(boredom. grief, melancholy. fear or.
conversely, enthusiasm, joy, elation.
delight. etc.). The ability to control
one's M. and to fmd and master ways
for consciously correcting it (see
comes out as an
Imponant task in education and self-
education. Causeless changes in M.
may be of pathologic origin if they
are evoked by such individual pro-
perties as hyper worry. emotional
IIlstability etc. (see Accentuation of
Character, Senti mel/Is) .
J
Mood. Public, the prevailing feelings
and thoughts of various social groups
at a definite time period. M.,P. is not
only a mass phenomenon in social \/
psychology. it is also a highly signifi- }:
c:ant force compelling people to actil'-
It)' and lea\'ing an imprint in the
beha\'jour of various collectives, grouPS
and social strata. and also classes,
--
nalionalitie .. , and even nations. \1 ' s, P.
manifest themsclve!> in all spheres of
social activity: in pnlducll0n and
everyday life. at demon'>tration., and
meetings, in peace and war. A form
of M.,P. is a mas. mood capable of
seizing and uniting highly varied social
strata, groups and clas.es in a single
social or political movement. The study
of M.,P. is necessary to gel an insight
into the psychological sources of diverse
ideological trends and to understand
the socio-psychological mechanisms
of maSS ' so1:1<11 liioyei1ients. \riP. are
characterised by a definite subject
orientation (political, aesthetic. reli-
gious, etc.). and also by the character
and level of emotional strain (apathy
and depression or animation and
enthusiasm). In addition to global
manifestations or animation and
manifestations (mass moods. moods
of specific strata, classes, and peoples).
M.,P. may also be of local nature.
manifesting itself in the socio-psycho-
logical climate of the microenviron-
ment (see Climate, Socio-Ps),cho-
logical). M.,P. also reveals itself in
the personality's life activity to a meas-
ure in which his or her mood reflects
the social circumstances of that
activity and manifests his or her atti-
tude to various phenomena and
processes that take place in society
(e.g. decadent moods in the period
of social reaction).
a process of inducing the
actH'eness of an organism and deter-
mining ils orientation. The term "M.",
laken in a broad sense. is used ill all
spheres of psychology studying the
1)- ()<,l
--
and me("hanL\m'i (If th.e- pur-
poseful hehuviour of man and animal'i.
'.'otivaling factors may diVIded
inlo three relatively indepenJt:'nt dasse-s,
in accordance wilh their
and funclion. In analysing Ihe ques-
tion why an organism becomes aClive
at all. we the manifeo.;tation
of nee_ds and instincls as a source
-of -activeness: Tn studying the question
of what an organism's ac:tivenes.s is
directed at, for the sake of what the
choice is made of precisely these acts
of beha .. iour. and not others. we above
all analyse the manifestation of moti\'t>s
as causes determining the selection of a
direclion of behaviour. In solving the
question of how the regulation pf the
dynamics of behaviour is realised.
we study the manifestation of emotions.
subjecli ..e emotional experienas
(aspirarioru, desires. etc.) and atti-
tudes in a subject's behaviour.
Motive. (1) inducement to acllVlty
linked with the satisfaction of a
subject's needs: a sel of external and
internal conditions. which bring about
a subject's aCli\'eness and determine
its direclion (see Motivation): (2) an
objeci (material or ideal) inducing
and determining choice of direction
of activity for the sake of which object
it is implemented: (3) the cause of
which the person is aware. one deter-
mining the choice of a person's actions
and deeds. Bourgeois psychology dis-
tinguishes a series of specifics of the
nature and function of M. in regula-
ting a subject's behaviour: inducing
and direcling functions of M. !psycho-
analysis. dynamiC
ps\'chology, Kurt Lewin's "field" theory
(see T opc>logicu/ Psyc/w/o}.!y) ,
/aR),) , determination of man's
..... ith unconscious M's (psychoanalysIs),
the hierarchy of M's (psychoanalysis,
"'lUmatli51ic and others),
a striving towards equilibrium
tension as a mechanism of the dynamiCs
of M, A shortcoming of these studies
is their isolation from the context of
man's actil'it)' and his
In Soviet psychology the origin of M,
is seen as caused by the general
mechanism of the realisation of needs
in the course of search activity and
thereby turning its objects into M"
"objects of needs" (Alexei N, Leon-
tyev) , Hence the central regularity:
Ihe development of M. proceeds
through the change and expansion
of the sphere of activity which trans-
forms objective reality. In animals
the range of objects which serve as
M's are a gift of nature and is strictly
limited by the set of instinctive forms
of adjustment of each biological type.
In man the source of development
of M. is the free process of social
production of material and spiritual
values. Such potential M's in onto-
are objective values, interests
ide,als inherent in a given society,
which III case of their interiorisation
by an individual may acquire the
motivational force and become acting
\{'s, These M's fulfil the function of
meaning formation, i.e. lend a persona-
lised meaning to the reality reHected
In individual consciousness. The func-
tion of meaning formation is associa-
wit.h control over the general
Onenlatlon of an individual's activity.
The control is carried out
not directly by M., but through a
mechanism of "emotional correction"
of behaviour (Alexei Zaporozhets):
emotions evaluate the personalised
meaning of the events that are taking
place and if this meaning proved
groundless M's change the general
orientation of an individual's activity.
The dynamics of M's in concrete
situations is determined by situationally
independent activeness (see Activeness,
Silllationally [ndependent) , which
leads to an individual's posing of super-
objectives and the appearance of new
M's of activity. The study of the
motivational-semantic sphere consti-
tutes the central problem of the psycho-
logy of personality, its historical and
ontogenetic development.
Motives., Justification of, a rational
explanation by a subject of the causes
of activeness by pointing to socially
admissible for him and his reference
group (see Group, Reference) cir-
cumstances which induced him to make
a given choice. M.,J. is distinguished
from a person's real
motil'es as one of the forms of reah-
sing these motives. With the aid of M.,J.
an individual sometimes justifies his
actions and deeds, bringing them into
conformity with approved social norlllS
of behaviour in a given situation
and his personal norms. M.,J. may
sometimes be used consciously by a
subject to mask the real motives of
his behaviour (see Defence. Psycho-
logical) .
Movements, Involuntary. impulsive or
-----_ ..
renex motor acts performed without
control of comciousneH. M\. 1. may
be of an adaptive nature (e.g. blinking.
withdrawing hand from a painful
irritant) and of a non-adaptive nature
(e.g, chaotic movements in case or
dulled consciousness) (see Psychoses).
M's,!. may be classified as strictly
involuntary and postvoluntary. The
former are formed without conscious
control (unconditioned-reflex and con-
ditioned-reflex movements; motor skills
acquired through trial and error:
innate and clinical automatisms, etc.),
while the latter are formed as voluntary,
but during the subsequent abbrevia-
tion of the orientating basis, in the
course of the formation of movement,
they leave consciousness, becoming
automatic. involuntary. M's.1. may
become voluntary only as a result of
special training in forming a system
of motor orientators (see MOl'emenls.
Voluntary). Postvoluntary movements
can again become voluntary without
special training. However:, if the system
of realised orienta tors IS absent (or
extremely reduced>. M's, I. are difficult
to correct or change.
Movements, VolUnlary. external and
internal bodily acts (processes) con-
sciollsly regulated by the subject .on
the basis of his need for reachillg
the goal represented as the image of
the anticipated result. M's, V. pre-
suppose a conscious orienting towards
the goal both by means of speech and
representatiotl (imaRination). M's, V.
may be performed both by muscles
of the body's external organs, and by
the smooth musculature of the
195
visceral organs (for instance, the blood
vessels), which are responsible for
vegetative functions. Experiments have
shown that movements first formed as
involuntary, may become voluntary,
if the motor orientators are placed
on an external plane (for instance,
while observing the changing tone of
vessels on the scale of a device) with
the subsequent transformation of these
orientators to the internal plane, to the
form of specific motor (kinaesthetic)
orientators. Initial forms of M's, V.
can be found in lower animals, the
so-called "instrumental" or operant
movements in situations when an
irritant is absent and the movement,
which starts and occurs in its absence,
finally allows the animal get hold
of the object of its need (the
prey) .
Muscle Sensation. a complex of
sensations Ihat appear due to the work
of an organism's muscle system. The
nOlion . of M.S. was introduced by
Ivan Sechenov, who interpreted it as
a special form of cognition spatio-
temporal relations of the envlronmen.t.
and not as a reflection of the condI-
tion of the muscle system ilself (see
Receptor). According to
a weak perception of M.S. Signals,
its 'darkness" gave Kant cause to
consider space and time a priori
of contemplation. AI the same lime
thanks to M.S. (which presupposes
an organism's a person
to compare objects, carry out slmp.le
operations of analysis and syntheSIS,
i.e. goes through "an elementary school
of object thinking".
Need (in
logy). an indi"idual's
created by his
neces.<;iIY in (,bjects
for his exis*
tence and de\"elop*
men!. N. is the source
llf human acti'ity. In human history.
N's as the functi\ln of man's ucti\'it)'
result froll1 development of produc-
tion. In this case, a natural object
is no longer merely a catch, i,e. a
thing with solely the biological signi*
ftcance of food. By means of labour
implements, man can modify Ihat
object to adapt it to his own N's.
In this "",ay. human necessities can
also develop, i,e, become the element
of history. Production is connected
with man N's, not directly,
Allimal, orgal\1c N's transform into
human. "extraorganic" N's mediated
by act;\'ity. N, is both the
premise and. result of not only human
labour acl1\ Ity per se. but of cognitive
procc:sses as "",ell. It is for that reason
that N. CaLl5eS personal states inslru*
mental. controlling behaviour and
deter'!ull1ng the course of human
sc'ntimenIS, and will, Human
s depend on the individual's ed/lca-
111 the broad sense of the word.
I.e, ,<?n the extent to which he is
famlhar with human cuhure, repre-
se.nted both objectively (in material
N.s) and functionally (in intellectual
N <;). The difference between these
forms of culture and. consequently,
matenal and intellectual N's
1$ relative and determined b d , "
f . y eveop-
menl 0 .produ( flon, Satisfaction by
man of hIS N's 15, in effect, a process
-
"---
'Ie '""q""" ' 1>" ..... S a given form
of actlnty nlnditioned by social
den:lopmenl. In Ihl!') case, "the s .
r
' r, r atl5_
8cllon 0 tIe lrst net!d, the ac,'
f'f' d '0"
o . sal1s,ytng the instrument of
sallsfaction which has been acquired
leads 10 ncw nceds. and this creatio'
of new needs is the first
8CI." (K. Marx, F, Engels, Collected
Works, Vol, 5, p, 42). The social
characteristics of human N's ar
likewise derivatives of this structur:
of labour activity. Inasmuch as th
process of satisfying one's N's
on the form of purposeful activity
ther are the source of a
acl1\"eness (see Acti\'(?1Iess 0/ Perso*
nolit)') , In comprehending
the goal as hiS N,. an individual
becomes convinced that the N, can be
sati.sned only by achieving the goal.
.allows him to correlate the subjec*
tlve Ideas of his N. with its objective
contents by looking for means 10 gain
that goal as an object. N's reveal '
themselves in motil'es (drives, desires, \ '.,
etc.) by prompting 8 man 10 activity
and becoming a form through which
they manifest themselves, Whereas
in N's human activity is essentially
dependent on their objeclive social
. in motives that dependence
IS seen III the form of the subject's
own, activeness. Hence, the system of
revealing themselves in indi-
Vidual behaviour is more charac-
teristic and mobile than the N. that
its essence. Forslering N's
in the man of socialist society
the central task in educating perso/la-
Illy under developed socialism.
-
Negativism, unmotL\'alcd
of a subject. exrreX'>ed In actIons
intentionally oppo<:.ilc to the require-
ments and c.'xpeclalions of other indi-
viduals or social A::. a situa-
tional rl'ucliml or personal fealUre
(with the exception of clinical cases
of senseless resistance). N. is caused
by Ihe subject's need 10 assert himself
or herself, 10 protect his or her ego,
and is also the result of egotism and
alienation from the needs and interests
of other people. Psychologically. N.
is based on the subject's al/i/IU/e 10
negation of specific requirements.
expectations. and forms of communica-
tion among members of the given
social group. It is a predisposition to
protest against Ihal group, and to repu-
diate the given personality as such.
Situational negativist reactions are
observed in children during "crises"
of growlh and are manifested in
stubbornness, capricious behaviour, and
senseless demands,
Neobehaviourism, a trend in US
psychology developed in the 1930s,
Neobehaviourists accepted the main
postulate of behaviourism, according
to wnlch psychology studies the
objectively observed reaclions of the
organism to environmental stimuli.
and supplemented it with the concept
of intervening variables as factors that
serve as a conditioning link between
stimuli effects and reactive muscle
movements, In line with the methodo*
logy of operationalism, neobehaviourists
thought that the substance of the
concept "intervening variables" defining
the "unobservable" cogniti"e and
motivational (see Motil'ution) comro-
nents of behal'iollr is revealed in luboru-
lory by indi(3tor<' contai-
ned in the researcher's
N, was indicative of the crisis of
"classical" behaviourism, whi(h could
not explain the integrity and purpose-
fulness of behaviour, its controllability
by information about the surrounding
world, and its dependence on the needs
of the organism. Using the ideas of
Gestalt psychology and
(Edward Tolman), and also Pavlov's
leaching on higher nervous activity
(Clark Hull), neobehaviourists sought
to overcome the restricted nature of
the original behaviourist doctrine.
Yet they preserved its postulate aimed
at biologising human mentalitv.
Neo.Freudianism, a psychological
trend whose ad\'ocates try to overcome
the biologism of classic Freudianism
and introduce its basic tenets inlO a
social context. Among the beller known
representatives of afe
Karen Horney. Erich Fromm. and
Harry Sulli,'an (all from the United
Slates). According to Horney. neuroses
are caused by an.'(iet)' which arises
in a child when encountering a hostile
environment. and anxiety that growS
stronger when his parents and other
people do nOI provide him with enough
love and attention. Fromm explains
neuroses by the individual's inability
to achieve harmony with the social
structure of modern society, which
allegedlv forms in the individual 8
feeling - of loneliness and alienation
from his fellow men and gives rise
to neurotiC ways for ridding himself
1 tlS
of that feeling. Sulii\'an sees the source
llf in worn 'itates that arise
in interpersonal Despite
its apparent allention towards factors
of social life. N.F. regards the indi
vidual with his unconscious inciina
tions as primordially independent of
and conflicting with society. Besides.
it regards society as a source of
"general alienation" and as hostile 10
fundamental tendencies of persona
Iffy development.
Model of Slimulus, a con!igu
rallon of the trace left in the nen'OILS
by a repeated irritant with
!ixed parameters. The concept of N.M.
of S. was by Yevgeni Sokolov.
the multiple repetition of a
one observes selective extina
tlon of. an orientating reflex only 10
that sl1mulus. The nervous system
responds to of any stimulus
paramet.er in time and
space . mtenslty, colour, etc.), by a
more mtense orientating reflex N M
ofS rf .'.
.. pc orms the function of a self.
adJ.ustmg, rnultidimensional !ilter
which selectively suppresses the orien.
tating reflex to a
mulus. recurring sli
a totality of nerve
10 animals and h
With wh' h h umans
IC t ey perceive the' .
that. on the body. work
eXCitatIOns occurrin the . the
develop reactiOlls. fhe and
the functioning of the ". ensures
single whole. It as I
periphe I d centra
ra an vegetative N.S' Th'
central N .S. consi<;ts of nerve
--
of Ihe /Irai" allli .. pinJI cord '''I
.1 .,..10,1.'
maUl I.' emento; arl' nervI.' (ell, ""
T' ..' < IIrOlI\.
he peripheral. N.S. l'i rl'prcsented b
nerve, that
unpulses from rl! ...I''!ton (units that
ser\'e ((1 turn optIcal, mechanical
chemical, and !Ieat energy of
external. ami IIlternal media into
nervous Impulses) to the central N.S.,
and by (motor) nerves that
conduct Impulses from the cen tral N S
to the skeletal mwscles. The vegel8t i' .
N S . . ve
. . servICes mternal organ muscles
and g.lands. actidty of the central
IS to tl.le reflex prin
": reflex IS a to receptor
Dependmg on irritation
the frequency of nervous
Impulses from the receptors would
change. A reflex of a normal animal
e.g. one oriented ill response to
mental changes, is achieved via the
and constitutes the integral
?f the whole organism. This
reaction IS 8SSCK:iated with inhibition
other nerve mechanisms. The mecha
of inverse afTerentation from
Vital ?rgans, viz. the information about
resul.ts. plays an important
role 111 renderlllg the reaction normal.
The nature of a reflex reaction is
determined not only by anatomic
factors, bUI also by the functional state
?f t.he central N.S. if some nerve centre
IS. 10 a state of hyper excitation a
sttm 1 . .. '
u at Ion may pnmsfliy excite that
by the
xes are ciassl!ied Into mnate
. and those acquired
In 1I1dl\'ldual life (conditioned) (see
Unconditioned Reflex, Conditioned
Reflex). Conditioned reflexes COllie
,
-
out as 1\ central pheno
menO
n
in the function of the cortex
and signify the development of new
(temporary) a\.<;ociations. If a repeated
irritation does not serve to !l8ti<;fy <;ome
v ital need, the reaction thereto would
attenuate and disappear. Cortical
inhibition underlies this attenuation.
The cortex performs various forms of
mental activities.
Neurolinguislics, a branch of psycho
logical science marginal with psycho
logy, neurology and Iinguisllcs. which
studies the brain mechanisms of 'ipeech
and the changes in speech processes
that arise as a result of local brain
lesion. The forming of N. as a dis
cipline is linked with the development
of neuropsychology, on the one hand,
and linguistics and psycholinguistics,
on the other. In line with the concepts
of contemporary neuropsychology. N.
regards speech as a systems function.
and aphasia as a systems disorder
involving the primary defect and
secondary distllrbances occurring as a
result of the primary defect, and also
owing to functional reconstructions
of the work of the brain aimed at
compensating the impaired function.
The current slagI.' in Ihe development
of N. is connected with the works
of Alexander Luria and his followers.
who combined the systems analysis
of speech disturbances with theore
tical linguistic and psycholinguislic
concepts (for instance, the phoneme
theory of J an Baudoin de Courtenay
Nikolai Trubetskoy. Lev Shcherba
and others.

1'19
Neuron. a ner ... e cetl with all ;ts
extension$. the main strudural unit
of the nt"rvllus system. N. of 8
body. ramified extensions (dendril(s),
and a long extension (axone). and
also of terminal systems. N.'s main
funclion is to generate excitation,
which is conducted by the axone in
the form of short-term electric signals,
nervous impulses.
Neuropsychology, a branch of psycho
logical science marginal with psycho
logy, medicine (neurology and neuro
surgery) and psychology. N. studies
the brain mechanisms of higher mental
junctions with reference 10 local
lesions of the brain (see Compensa
tion of Mental Functions). Alexander
Luria. the founder of neuropsychology
in the USSR, developed the ideas
of Lev VygOisky about !he Joc!!l
determination and "Systems struClUre
of higner mental functions and pro
duced a theory of the sYSlems dynamic
localisation of mental processes (see
Localisation of Higher MenIal Func
lions) which is the theoretical founda
lion o'f N. Contemporary N. is subdi
vided into several branches: clinical,
rehabilitational. experimental, psycho
physiological, and children'S. N. uses.
a
syndrome analysis of disturbances. m
higher mental to quati!y
these disorders and diagnose bram
lesions. The analytical methods devel.o
ped by Luria represent a se.t of
testS with reference to vartOUS cog
m

live processes. (different IYpes. of
perception. memory, speech funCh?ns.
and thinking), and arbitrary motions
and actions. These methods were used
______________________________ _
-
10 slUdv variou!) neuropsychological
the stable combinations of
d'isorders (If higher menIal functions
in lesions of various brain structures.
N. has major significance for devela
ping the general methodological and
theoretical foundations of psycho-
logical research. and diagnosin,g
local lesions of the bralll and resuscl-
laling its impaired functions.
Neuroses. Clinical. a basic form of
neuropsychic disorders. N.,C. are
caused by Ihe so-called neurotic
conflict, which involves a disturbance
of human vital and meaningful
relationships originating from child-
hood and activating in that
cause mental traumas. In neuroses,
organic changes in the brain are mostly
absent. Three basic forms of N .. C.
are distinguished, namely neurasthenia
(nervous exhaustion), hysteria. and
neurosis of obsessive states. Neu-
rasth.enia. being accompanied by
physIcal exhaustion, is characterised
by disturbed functions of the vegeta-
nervous system, hyper irritation,
fatIgue. lacrimation. and feelings of
g.loom and inadequacy (see Depres-
SIon). The hysteric forms of N.,C. are
extremely diverse and often take the
of, suc.h as
seIzures, Impaired pam sensi-
bIlity and coordination of movements
various speech
bances (ranging from aphasia to total
etc. forms of hysteric
N .. C. may lOrn 1Oto psychotic disor-
d.ers by deliration. Neuro-
SIS of ohsesslI'e Males is characterised
by the aprearance. follOwing some
Sc\erc tnt!'f1101 trauma. of variOlI'> .. _
smllS, phoMa.\, irl!.:rea-'il'd ullxicly
deprt!' .. sed statc", and variOlI'"
di,>wrhanccs. Method.. of treatnU.'nt
of N.,C. arc ba'icd 011 a combination
of pharmal,'ological therapy with
various kinds of p\,\'c/lOtherapy. viz.
pathogenic. behavioural. group. etc.
The contemporary theory of N.,C.
recognises the Illultifactor nature of
these diseases. but at the same time
underlines the leading role of psycho-
logical aspects in their origin and
treatment.
Neurosis. Experimental. a state induced
in animals under special conditions
of a physiological experiment and
characterised by disturbed adaptive
behaviour, incapability to develop new
and repeat old conditioned reflexes,
refusal to eat, vegetative disorders,
and sleep disturbance. Being a model
of clinical neuroses in human beings,
N.,E. is used to study the mechanisms
of higher nervous activity.
Neuroticism. a slate characterised by
emotional instability, anxiety. low self-
respect, and vegetative disorders. N.
should not be identifled with neurosis.
since neurotic symptoms may be shown
by heallhy individuals, 100. N. is
generally assessed by special scales or
personality jf/vef/tories.
Next Development Zone the difference

In the level of difficulty of tasks
solved by a child independently (the
presen! level of development) and
under the supervision of an adult.
This concept was introduced by Lev
,

. -
.- -
Vygotsky, who :.howed that the "'ral
correlation belwel"n mental develop-
ment and the ability tl) learn c<tn be
revealed by e')tabli\hing the exi.\ten!
development level of the child and his
N.D.Z. Creating the N.D.Z. in educa-
tion "brings" development; education
is only effective when It "Ieads"'
development. The notion "N. D.Z."
ser ved as a b<bis for the concept of
the correlation of education and
mental development of the child in
Soviet cievelopmental and pedagogic
psychology.
Novelty Effect, see Recency Effect.
Object of Reference
Relationships. an in-
di"idllal or group as
a basic structural
element of reference
relationships. 10
which their subject
consciously or unconsciously refers
hi mself, accepting and actualising: in
his behaviour the standards. norms.
and values of the object, or by orien-
ti ng himself to those relations (see
Referelliialily). One should distinguish
posit ive and negative O's of R.R. An
object with whose values and beha-
vioural standards the subject of
reference re lations activel" "disagrees"
is commonly regarded as' the negali\e
O. of R.R. In this case, he would
behave as if he set"ks to be condemned
by the O. of R.R. for his beha\-iour.
An object whose values and behavioural
standards are reference-points for the
201
-
\ubject. "approval" he apparently
\Celts to obtain. _ a positi ... e
O. of R.R.
Object-Reflecting Relationships, an
IIlteriori<>ed (5ee interiori\/ltion) system
of an individual's rt=nexive a .....ociations
with other people (see Re/lexion)
based on the ability to mentally
reflect the attitudes of the "other",
and others' notions about the peculiari-
ties of one's own visi9n of a given
thing (object or prob-{em). O.-R.R.
are a component of a person's cogni-
tive activit),. Reconst ruction of other
persons' views concerning a gIven
object allows to percei,e new aspects
therein. stimulates critical Ihinkin,<,
and allows to reflect in the form of an
inner dialogue with siRnificant Olher
persons. The major characteristic. of
O.-R.R. are as follows: (I) adequacy,
i.e. accurate reproduction of the "view-
point" of another person about the
object of reftexion; (2) depth. deter-
mined as the number of simultaneously
reproduced and objective
anitudes: and (3) onentatlon, repre-
senting dominant reference gro.ups
(see Group, Reference), obj.ec-
the attitudes become {he
of reflexion in a given sltuallo
n
.
O.-R.R. are a qualitati ... ely specifiC
of interiorised illferpersonal
mediated by the object of jomt
activities. The forming
. reventt"d by an IIldlvldual s
position in (see
and by pro/eel/Oil of
his own ideas to A.n
individual's interest III the ObjCCII\e
position of other people in the course

lOl
of collectiH aCII\'lty is a major pre-
requisite for greater O.-R.R. ade-
quacy.
Object-Related ACIi\;it)' Approach (to
studying man's psvche). (I) a study
of man's pS,n'he' based on Marx's
category of object-related actil'itv
(Mikhail Bassov, Sergei Rubinstein,
Alexei Leontyev. and their disciples);
(2) the theory which \'iews psycho-
logy as a fleld dealing with the origins.
functioning and structure of psychic
re/fedion in the process of man's
activity (Leontyev). The analysis
of the transformation of psycho-
log:ll:al renection in the process of
activity studied in ils phylogenetic
(see PhylQRt"nesis). historical. onto-
genC1k (Stt Onlogene.\is) and functio-
nal development :ser .. 'e as an initial
method of studying psyche. The basic
principles of O,R.A.A, are: develop-
ment and historicism. object relation;
Induding situationally (see
.-\ctll'ent'ss, Situationall." Independent)
8ctmeness as a spednc feature of man's
mmd; interi oriSQtion-t' xtuiorisati on
as m,e<hani'ims of acquiring socio-
hIStOrical experience: unity of the
and internal structures of
activity: the systems analysis of
p$yche.; Ihe dependence of psychic
reflection on the position of the
rd'a:
ted
object in the structure of
actIVity, I,n the context of O.-R.A.A ..
PSYf.:holo,lSts have I>ingled out criteria
for the emergence of psyche as well
as the stages of development
In and elaborated the
foll.oWtn, on the leading
acnvlIY as the baSiC and driving force
of psyche in onto_
on assimilation as an image_
fonnlng pallern; on thl" structure of
activit), (activity. action, operation
psychophysiological functional
terns); on the meaning. personalised
and senses as forming factors
of consciou,,,nt'.,,sj on t.he hierarchy
of 111011\''.'1 and personalised meanings
as personality-forming units. D.-R.A,A.
serves as a concrete and scienlili.c
methodology in specifIc branches of
psychology (developmental, pedago-
gical. engineering, medical, social,
etc) ,
Object-Value Unity of a Collective.
normative integration of individual
acti ... ilies in a group, when each acti-
vity is determined by a common volllt>
essence of the object of joint acti -
I'ities. O.-V.U. of c., a major compo-
nenl of social group integration as the
aggregate subj:t of activity. mani-
fests itself in close value judgements
of group members about the object
(R<Jal) of their joint activities. and
also in the unity of implementation
(actualisalion) of those ideas in
concrele activity. a,-y.u. of C. is
naturally engendered by socially-
conditioned joint activities. and may
be regarded as a manifestation of the
maximal development of colleclive
integration (see Vallie-Orientation
Unily) .
Observation, a principal empirical
methods. III psychological research,
whtt:h I1lvolves systematic and
roseful perception of behavioural or
menial phenomena aimed at studying
,
their specifIC in certain condi-
tions and 10 finding their meaning.
O. includes elemenls of .theoretical
thinkinK (idea, methodologICal proce-
dures. interpretation and control of
results) and quantitative analytical
methods \scaling. data factorisation
(see Factor Analy."is) , etc.),. Accuracy
in speciftcation of observatIOnal data
would depend on the state of know-
ledge in a given field and on the task
to be resolved. The observer's expe-
rience and skills would substantially
affect the results of 0, In psycho-
logical interpretation of human bella-
l'iOllr, the observer's past experience
is not restricted to his scientiftc
concepts. but includes his common
sense stereotypes. altitudes, wl/Ile orien-
tations, etc. Despite all precautions,
observation is always influenced by
certain subjectivity; it may create an
attitude facilitating observation of a
signifIcant fact. which might cause
experimenter's demand, Awareness of
dangers of premature generalisations
and hurried conclusions. repeated 0"
and control by other research methods
contribute to the objectivity of O.
Obsessions. a variety of Ob.H'ssive states
expressed in emotions and actions
Y that do not require specific situations
'\ to arise (e,g. obsessive desire to wash
one's hands, fear of the number "6"
because the word "cancer" has six
letters, fear to step on a line, etc.),
The synonym for D's is "anancasms",
D's are observed in many patients
characterised by scrupulousness.
pedant ism, tendency towards
lism along with spiritual inenness and
20.1
anxious diffidence.
ObseMive States, involuntary, distrets-
ing thoughts, ideas or stimulations to
action, which suddenly appear in
and are perceived by the
mdlvldual as alien and emotionally
disturbing. The term was introduced
in 1868 by the German psychiatrist
Richard von Kraft-Ebing. Even though
the patient often regards O.S. as morbid
and interfering he cannot overcome
them. Por instance, in case of an obses-
sive fear of catching a disease, when
a patient would continually wash his
hands till literally "washing them off"
he understands that his fear is illogical
and that it is silly to do that or other
similar things but still persists in doing,
them to alleviate internal mental stress
underlying his O.S. O,S, are
in the intelteclUal. emotional (phobias)
and mOlor spheres. They are lhe main \ \
symptom in certain of
and are also encountered III schrwphre-
nia. psychopathy, and organic lesions
of the /Irain, Sometimes Ihey develop
in healthy individuals in fhe state, of
tirednt'ss or anxiety. _ The
adaptive mechanislll_pf -,O.s.
is explained by the fact that,
an amorphouS, pointless ,affecll
ve
len-
sion would turn inlO defmlle O.S. whIch
would allow the patient to .Iower the
level of his inner stre."''', albell the very
,
0[
-0 S may be highly torment- ')
con ten . ' . bl ,
, Hence it is not advlsa e 0
IIlg. . , 10" ',h large
"b k""obsessive shlc s WL
rea . ps)'chophar-
doses of neurolepl1cS (see
macolm:y). for this would help
h
. 0 "lei out" a purelv auec'" e
ten an . ish)
disorder (acute anxiet)' or angu .
204
In severe forms of O.S. patients are
found to have paradoxical forms of
response: maximally intensifIed defence
reactions against imaginary hazards
with concomitant sharp alleviation of
adequate instinctive forms of response
10 really harmful faclOrs or dangers.
For instance, patients with various
O.S. may react calmly 10 the fact that
some malignant disease has been de-
tected in them.
Obstinacy. a feature of behal'iour (in
stable form, a trail of character)
representing a shortcoming in the in-
dividual's volitional sphere. manifesting
itself in the desire to aCI by all means
as one would. in spile of reasonable
argu.menls. requests, counsel, or ins!-
ruCllans by other people. O. may be
caused by feelings of offence, spile,
anger, or vengeance. In children, O.
be a form of protest to show
discontent with unjustified suppression
of theIr growing independence and
in Itiat Ive.
Oedipus Complex., a central Freudian
complex of ideas and feel-
mgs, ch!efiy unconscious, arising in
chIldhood and involving a sexual
towards pareIU. of tbe opposite
sex and the deSIre to physically elimi-
nate the parent of the same sex 0 C
ca.use!> individual to feel guiit and
thIS feelmg leads to a conflict in the
of the unconscious. The con-
]s resolved by identifying oneself
Wit the parent of the same sex and
the individual to n.ormal
he. term O.C. was comed afler Kin
Oedipus, a hero of a Greek myth
- .
-
killed his ftHhl'r alllimarried his mother
unawar.!.' that they were his parents:
According to Freud, O.c. 111 girls cor_
III the Electra Complex (ac-
cordlllg to u myth. Electra killed her
mother to a\'ellgl!. he.r father's death).
D.C. shows FreudwlIlsm's general ten_
dency to universalise some specifiC
mental disorder.s,
Oligophrenopsychology, a branch of
special psychology which studies mental
development and possibilities for its
correction in people with severe forms
of brain deflciency. O. reveals the caus-
es of Iheir mental retardation (the
inborn defects of the nervous system,
the result of a disease or trauma)
studies their psychic features,
and degrees of said defects (morons-
mild retardation: imbeciles-moderate
retardation: and idiots-severe retarda-
tion), and helps develop programmes
?nd for teaching those persons
10 speCIal schools.
OnTogenesis (Onlogeny), the develop-
ment of an individual organism. In
O. is the process of forma-
tion of the basic structures of individual
psyche throughout childhood. The study
of O. is the principle task of child
psychology (see Developmental Psy-
chology). From the viewpoint of Soviet
0, chiefly deals with child's
activity and communica-
(I), primarily with regard to
activity and communication (I) with
adults. In the course of jnleriorisa-
"implants", "approprial-
es socIal sIgn-symbol structures and
means of that activity and communica-
- -
-
. (I) III therchy Corm hi"i cmlSciOIl'i'
\Inn IS ' "" ... chnlo
m'H and {lI'rwlllt.l ilY . OVIt!" "',
., .. aho hold a (mnITU)Il vie ..... that
gls s r d under
O. is a .. m:ial pron."S'i rca 1'Oe
tht! acllVI! and purposdul tnnuen\.c of

Operant Conditioning. a term introduc-
ed by Ihe US psychologist ,Burrhu,>
Skinner 10 designate a .. pt!clal way
in which conditioned relationships hee
Conditioned Reflex) form. Unlike the
classic (Pavlov's) way. which Skinner
called responde.nt, in O.c. the animal
first makes a certain movement
(spontaneous or initiated by expc:=ri-
menter) and then ra:eives a reinfurce-
/ men I. Skinner makes
irrespective of the biologIcal meanmg
of conditioned reflexes. In this case.
he fails to take into account the
highly important role of the animal's
active activity. by means of
which the former defines a situation
and establishes meaningful relation-
ships between environmental elements
and its own movements. which largely
predetermines the course and dvnamics
of conditioned reflexes.
Operation. a unit of actil'it\': a wa\
of performing an {I(:lioll as
by the existing (external or menta])
situatioll. O. as a concept was
duced by Alexei N. Leonlye\. and is
used in studying relatively complete
and, as a rule, automatic pen..-eptual,
mOlar, mnemonic and intellectual acls
composing a gi\'en action. Unlike acti-
vity and action. O. is determined nOI
molivt'\ and but by condi-
lions of an objecti\'e situation in whkh
,!Q<
-
\ari(IUS "ioc"alh' devcloprd P Ul'"P\5 f
brhl.H'iolir (for inSfanl,;e. pam':"" (If
usHlg 1001, Qr definite' ruks "f t1lqueue
81.. .:pted 111 a gl\en culture) arC'
terior set! m the form of lOC'unmg!>.
the Wid p<sltern. fully \:on(lIlIoninp: IhC'
substance of o. t)C'ptJldang on Ihe"'
origm. IWO of () ..tre dtSfllll
U1sh
ed. namt"iy. adapll\e und
Adapli\'e 05 are relroad;n' n ..... poncl>s.
hierarchically the 111 'hI.' stru
cture of the subjl.'ct"s rll["\
ari.se in the course of lIl\'oluntarv Imi
tulion of or adaptattun hI ohJcctn'c
conditions in a ghen sltualHll1. l".g.
adaptation of a child 10 language- con-
ditions. a ... a result of which he karns
various grammatit.:al fMms used in oral
communinlliOn (1 J . "-dapthe (J"s are
characterised by thrce distlllctin"
ta) involuntary wllh re{!ard
10 regulation; Cb) lIlilially un\.on,>citlllS
with regard to the leHI tlf
and (cl rigid with regard III their dy
namics. Cons..:ioU' .. Os resull (Tom
automatic actil1ll<;. When an action IS
many tim\. ... (for inslalKe. III
teaching how 10 drive a .:ar or to Wrltc).
its purpose. fir ... t reali .. cd by tht.'
would, in the stru..:lure of another
more .. -mnplex action. be a condition
for ils performant.:e. Due 10 the .:hangcd
position of pUrpl) ... e in the ... trm:tun: of
acti .... ity. to the ... hift of the purpu ... e
to a condition that had occurred when
the action wa ... automat it.:, this action
turns into a consr.:i()us O. C(m ...
O's are subjet.:t to voluntarv control;
with regard to the le .. 'eI of awarenc .........
they are se .. -ondarily uncomcious (but
may be realised when difflt"ldties arise
in the course of their execlltion): and
201l
wilh regard 10 their dynamics. they
are fle>..ible (labile). A stable and
purpo ...eful course of a given O. would
bt delermined by the allitude.
Set,. a of
others. polemics with whom regulates
the subjecl's aeati)'e acti)'i!},. To
fmd out the O.S. is an important
condili.on for socio-psychological
analysIs of the dynamics of creative
!IoClivity and its derendence on inrerper-
wma{ refaliom (Mikhail Yaroshev-
sky)
Orientating Activity. a set of actions
a.lmed at active orienlation in a specific
at analysing it and bellal'iollr
plannmg. The term "O.A." goes back
10 .Ivan .Pavlov. who distinguished the
or/entollng reflex from a number of
other . as a specIal form of
orga.",sm act,.vene.\s and indicated irs
function (to e;tablish a rei _
honsh Ip bet. a
. ween \11(nal. reactiOr! and
reinforcement), and the I
prudence" reSUlting from th'.
We d' - IS rellex.
ISllngulsh orientating reft
. of analysers
Irrnant, perception and illhihi,
m n of attivity) and orientat_
S (onentalmg-re\earch) , .
The d actIvit\-,.
o A .1: an most general of
. . are. analysIs of h .
Iron -tabl h ' a pro lem .\I/ua-
..... IS mt=nl of I
tween th '. re allonship be-
e Siluallon ele
ar..tual m - ment\ and Iheir
01 . elabhorat ion of a plan
I
. In 1 e f
P emenling that .' I,; e n Im-
a(((on a 'co I
.! ils Control ad' l . mp Ishmenl
, n ,Ort'echo A
Stnllal .. ondltlon fo f n. n e!>-
presc:nce of r pe: orrn11lg O.A.
Vinous forms of
-
psyc.hic rej1l'clioll which. being in
ed III of O.A . e
the aetuallsallo11 of ils functio nsure
I' ns, name
y, preparal1OIl. regulalion and c -
O
r a . b '. b h ' " ontrol
.su s . e aVlour III Individual!
varymg Situations. Human a A Y
tially differs from animal 0 A' '. esse
h
,,-
. I . . . In t at
h
ln .p anlllllg and his be-
aVlour a human bemg relies on k
I d I now.
e .ge accumu ated by society about
objects and ways of handling th
b h' . em
a out t elf sOcial meaning and soc' ;
forms of relationships. la
Orientating Basis of AClion, a system
of personal representations aboUl the
goal, plan and means for performing
a or current action. The term
was lIItroduced by Pyotr Galperin
Stepwise Forming of Menial
Actlom, of). O.B. of A. largely
the quality of an action.
For mstance. complete O.B. of A. en-
sures systematic correct performance
o.f action in a preset range of
O.B. of A. should be dis-
Ilngulshed from the scheme of O.B.
A. a sel of reference poinls and
l11slructlons ')tIggesled to a given sub
Ject. The form and way of setting
the scheme of O.B. of A. would depend
on teaching purposes and the sludents'
ageadd
n III IVldual Iraits. Three Iypes
of sehe.me of O.B. of A. and, cor-
re\pOndlllgly, three type\ of leaching
are to b d .
e Istlllgulshed. With the fIrst
Iype, Ihe subjeci deals with a basically
Incomplete system of conditions and is
cormpeJled to complete il with the help
o th . I
f e tna und error method' [he
Inal . action siruelure is formed siowly
and as far from always and
I
fully; individual indicators are highly
dispersed. and the formed action highly
sensitive to interference. With the
second type. the subject orients to a
complete syslem of referente points
and takes into consideration the entire
system of conditions for performing
the action correctly, which guarantees
its faultlessness from the very outset.
In this case, the scheme of O.B. of A.
is either set in ready form, or develop-
ed by the students togelher with the
instructor. The third type of teaching
is characterised by a person's complete
orientation to the structural principles
of the material under study, to its
component units. and to (heir combina-
tion laws. not to the conditions in
which a concrete action is achieved.
Such O.B. of A. ensures exhaustive
analysis of the material under study
and the forming of cognitive motiva-
tioll.
Orientating Reaction. see Orienta/ing
Reflex.
Orientating Reflex, a complex reac-
lion by animah and humans 10 a sti-
mulus novelty, which Ivan Pavlov
termed Ihe "what is il'!" reRex. Tilt'
biological purpose of O.R. is to creale
condiTions for better irri/ar/t percep-
tion. This is achieved through a com-
plex of somalic, vegetalive reactions
and through a change in the activa/ion
level of Ihe central nerwms system
at general inhibition or disturbance
of the current activity of an organism.
Three principal groups of O.R. compo-
nents are distinguished: (I> locomolOr;
(2) vegelative; 0) changed activation
207
level of the central nervous syslem.
The following relate to the locomotor
components of O,R.; (I) reactiom
that ensure turning of the eyes in the
direction of the visual irritants. prick-
ing up of the ears. and sniffmg;
(2) reactions ensuring a given posture
and approach to the stimulus. The
vegetative components of O.R. include
vascular reactions in the form of const-
riction of extremity vessels and dilation
of cerebral vessels that ensure increase
of blood circulation in the brain, the
galvanic skin respolI.';e (GSR). and
changes in the heart and respiration
rate. Apart from stimulus novelty, the
following exciters of the O.R. are
distinguished: stimulus range, am-
biguity. and l or some amazing quality.
When the stimulus and the trace pre
viously left by other stimuli (see Ner
VOltS Model 0/ Stimulus> coincide.
O.R. does not occur. As the new sti-
mulus causing O.R. is repeated, the
latter is extinguished.
Paedology. a trend in
psychology and pe-
dagogy that develop-
ed at the turn of (he
20th century and was
caused by the spread
of evolutionary ideas
and Ihe development of applied bran-
ches of psychology and of experimental
pedagogy. The founders of P. were
Stanley Hall. James Baldwin. Ernst
Meumann. Wilhelm Preyer, and OIhers.
P. consists of a set of psychological.
anatomo-physiologil:al. biological. and
20S
sociological 10 child de
vdopment: h{'lwever. the-.e approaches
proved to be interlinked purely auto
matica\1y. In Rus.sia. P. became wIde
spread before the October revolu
tion. and by the late IQ20s even tried
to the right 10 child study
and absorb relevant psychological and
pedagogical disciplines. Despite nu
merous discussions and theoretical
works by representatives of P., its
subject-mailer was not specifIed. and
allempts to divorce it from related
sciences were unsuccessful. albeit re-
"eardl by Soviet scholars did accumu-
late \'a$t empirical material on child
behaviour. In the IQ30s, erroneous
methodological and practical tenets
on P. were subjected to criticism in
the l)SSR.
Pain. a psychic Male arismg from
highly intense or damaging effects
threatening the organism's survival or
inh=grity. P. i<; a highly valuable ac-
quisition of animal evolution. The cli-
nical, .. igniflcance of P. as a symptom
of dl'ilUrbed development of normal
proces.-.es is exceedingly
high, Mnce some pathological proces-
'>C<; In the human body already show
themselves in painful ,\"l'matiof/S prior
to external $ymptoms of the disease
From the viewpoint of emotional
perlence. pa,inful sensations are depres-
M\le and dlstres. .. ing in nature. often
to suffering. and serve as
stimulI for various defence reaction'
at rt!mo\ling external or
vrttanll that had cau .. ed '
,.. . sensa-
tlnn&... ramful sen"ations form in the
central sy.\fem as a result of
I,.ombined proce ...... c ... , rt IIlg in receptor
formatlOll\ located III the or inter_
Ilal from along
speCial paths arrive III the braill sub.
cortical systems that tlynamically inter-
act with processes in the cerebral he
mispheres' cortex. Pain response is the
1Il0st inert and intense unconditioned
reaction. Painful sensations are to some
extent subject to the influence of higher
mental associated with cortex
activity and dependent on such personal
traits as oril'lIlatioll, beliefs, vallie
Qrietltatioll, etc. Numerous examples
are indicative of both personal courage
and ability not to succumb to P. and
to act in line with high moral motil'es.
and of cowardice, of preoccupation
with painful sensations.
Pantomimicry, see Expre.'isil'l' Move-

Paradigm. a system of basic scientific
achievements (theories and methods)
used as a pattern to organise research
into p. given sphere of knowledge
(discipline) in a definite historical
period. The notion was introduced by
Thomas Kuhn. a US historian who
distinguiShed various stages in the
development of a scientifiC discipline,
namely the preparadigmal (preceding
the establishment of P.). domination
of P. ("normal science"), ils crisis,
and revolutionary development involv-
ing the replacement of P., i.e. transi-
tion from one P. \0 another. The prob-
lems posed by P., viz .. concerning
a scientific discipline and its develop-
ment stages. the scientifiC community
as a collective subject of cognition.
etc. arc by Soviet \ c1CI1\1\!s
from the viewpoint (If dialectical and
materiulist lI1el/"x/oloI:Y. In di .. cu\"ion'i
concerning the upplicability of P. in
psychology, US authof\ have voiced
Ihe view that the early 20th century
witnessed the replacement of
tive P. (the psychology of consciou'i-
ness) by behavioural P. (behavioural
psychology). However, this opinion is
erroneous, for it gives a one-sided view
of the actual development of psycho-
logy as a scientific discipline (see
History of Psychology).
Paramnesia, deceptions of memory,
"false recollections". Most often, P. is
understood to represent mnemonic
disorders in which events taking place
in a given moment appear to be
familiar as those that had already been
experienced. Emotions and affecH
normally play an important role in the
arisal of P., as also does reassess-
ment of one's own contribution to the
outcome of certain events in the past.
Contemporary medical psychology links
P. with marginal stales (srre.\.\", acute
and chronic liredne.H) , psychasthenia,
and other changes in the functioning
of the central .\yslem.
Paraphasia. a speech utterance disorder
which manifests in incorrect use
of "peciflC sounds (letters) or words
in oral and written speech. Two forms
of P. are distingui'ihed: (I) literary
P .. involving mi"taken replacement of
specifiC sound\ (or syllables) in words
and based on sensory or motor dis-
ordets in speech; (2) verbal P., in-
volvlllg replacement of certain words
209
-
-
by other dose in meaning, this bt.ing
caused by mnemonic or dl.S--
orders of speech . It may aho be a
bination of 'SpecifIC clement) of different
words in one word (see C(Ultamirw-
tion).
Parapsychology. designation of hypo-
theses and concepts pertaining to
psychic events whose explanation lacko;
strictly scientiflc grounding and to
which psychologists primarily assign so-
called extrasensory perception, i.e. re-
ception of information otherwise than
by the sense organs known to science.
e.g. through telepathy. clairvoyance,
etc. Studies of P. phenomena began
in the late 19th century. and though
they did not bring about conclusive
evidence concerning their nalUre and
mechanisms. they helped learn the
psychological regularities of hypno.'ii,\,
ideomotor acts. subsensory perception,
phenomenal memory and remarkable
abilities for mental arithmetic, etc.
The phenomena which P. deals with
are still the subject of discussion and
evoke doubt among most
who, whilst not rejectir,g the advisabil-
ity of continued experimental study,
are against scientifically groundless as-
sertions and sensational statements by
parapsychologists. Psychotronics is a
synonym for P.
Passion. an inteno;e. stable, and all-
embracing sentiment dominating over
other human 1Il0tive ... 10 make the indi-
vidual concentrate all his aspirations
and efforts on the object of that P.
P's may be caused by various factof'>.
such as consciou\ idcologio.:al beliefs.
llO
----
camal ... llr faclOl"S,
e.g:, in l"- F.l'IUllCI.WlI). An
inJi\ idual may either ac\,:ept or
ctludemn il as sllmething unde:mable
and The main fcalOre of
is us etTel..'ti\eness. the fusion of
til\nal and emllli(lnal elemenls. lJmty
of the moral, ralional factor and P.
llhen moth'ales great feats and dis(o"-
enes,
Pathological Doubts. an inadequate
an'dou!) em(ltional e),,-
perien"'e!> l'haracterised by moral,
hypochondriac (exaggerated l'oncern
about one's health) and other contents
that do not correspond to actual and
trouble, For instance. e'en a
slighl unpleasant sensati(ln in the StO-
mach or a harml('$!) epidermic disorder,
makes a subject to anxiously
think of their malignan(y,
thoughb are also prompted by
;po 8 lendency to indulge in self-analysis,
and b)' other features of one's cha-
racter lsee unlik.e
r4lving and jdt>!.b, P.O. are
eliminated by a proper psycho-
therapeutk talk.
/'
Pathop5)choJogy, a branch of psycho-
log\.:al !)Clen.:e Ihat !)tudies morbid
changes in p.\vl'ht>, \\'hen examining
the patterns llf change and deteriora-
of. man's psyche, p, compares
them wtth the n:sularities inherent in
nor,mal P5ychk aCli\'ity, Research in
P lS of major !)lgnificance for medical
pra"llcc: Ihe resultant data are used
to perform differential diagnose::.: to
subjeCt .pc-ople to forensic. labour.
and multary experl eumination; to
-
-
restllre tht' palll'nis' l"lhNlf .1I111 'lxi,,!
slalU': ami hl Cllrrl'd Ih.'un\til' 'tate ... ,
espt'l'ially in dlild mental
de\'e1oplllt'nt. In C'labM.lIl1lg lht, Sl'n-
eral problem, ll[ pw.
dwlogy. rl'seardl III p, scnes to
l'onl'trm that p-"ychic proct' .. and
personality trail:. form during one's
lifetime: il also shows thai Ihe bio-
logical of 3 given di
sease do nOI direclly l'anse mental
disorders. but play Ihl' role of condi.
lions wherein the pnthologi...-al process
ilself, i.e. the forming of 3n anomalous
personality, de,elops. At the same
time. it becomes clear that disturbances
in psychic 3\..'tl\'ity are Ittlt simply a
retrogression, a reversion to 3. lower
le,el of omogenelic de\elopmenl, but
the forming of a new quality, The
basic technique in P. is experiment,
whose results are (ompared with the
life story of the affected individual.
Pedagogic Ps)cholog), a branc.h of
psychology that studies psychological
aspects of teaching and upbringing,
P,P. examines the psychological
lems of purposeful forming of cog
lll
-
li\'e acti,'ity and socially meaningful
individual qualitie::.: Ihe conditions that
ensure an optimal teaching rc:sul,t:
the of accounting for ",dL-
\ldual peculiaritie!i of
students: the relationships
teacher and !.tudenIS, and also WUlllll
the c1a.ss: and pSYl.'hological nspects of
teaching itself (teacher\ pSydlOIOSY).
The origin of P.P. as an independent
branch of psychology \\ as b)'
the spread of evolulionar\" ideas III the
second half of the 19th century. The
I

-
initial \un:(SSes Ilf p5)"
cholol.U gave ri .. e 10 the h(lp<' that
accounting for data nbtained in I"'yc.:ho-
logical and 8l"1plit.:3tion of
those data m Ihe t.:our,e of tea..:hing
would optimise the teach-
ing process, This idea was outlined in
initial practice-oriented P,P. works.
Yel, knowledge of the laws of psych f)-
physics, of certain characteristics of
memorising and and of
reaction time indices proved clearly
insufficient. The recommendations of
P.P. were rather vague and scholastic.
Apart from scarce experimental facts.
this was also caused by the limited
nature of the theoretical views of P.P.
adherents al that time, The use of the
biogenetic law in psychology (along
with other theories of spontaneous
development), having underpinned a
theoretical foundation to the theor)"
and practice of "free education", ac-
tually closed the road to elaborating
ways for purposeful moulding of human
personality. The behaviourist (see 8e-
psychopedagogical con-
cept (its contemporary version is
Burrhus Skinner's theory) suggested
an orientation towards rigid "modifica-
tion 0/ behaviour": without sufficient
grounds, it assumed that it would be
enough to organi!)e a proper system of
external stimulation!) to resohe all the
issues of teaching and upbringing. In
looking for a compromise between the
purely biological and sociological ap-
proaches, the theory of "two factors",
actually became the basi ... tenet under
4
lying paedolagy with its faulty praclice
of "predetermining" child intellectual
The same theoretical
III
foundation onderlies the methodology
of Ie-I examinalinns in the Wesl
today. Contemporary Soviet P.P. is
based on the rundamental lel1C'1 Ihal
menial dc\'elopment is cs tc nllall,
milalion of sociohi!.:lorical as
objet:tified in malerial and !-pirilua'
culture: the. l!; 8(:hievaj through active
human aClivllY, whose means and way'.i
are aclualised in communic&lilln with
other people. In Ihi.s manner. P.P.
research is drastically reoriented 10-
wards basing its strategy of roe arch
on active forming of menial
and properties in the indi .. idual. ralher
than on recording the achieved le,"('1 of
menial dc\"clopment. Again. other P.P.
aspects are also viewed in line with
this general strategy. For inSlanl'C'. the
ways and possibilities of purposeful
Forming of actions, ima.f:t's and con
4
ct>plS underlying k.nowledge and skills
are studied by the Iheory of 'step"';u
lormi,.,g 0/ mental actions (Pyotr Gal
4
perin. Nina TalYl.inal. This im'ohes
studying the means and ways of de .. el
4
opmenlal training: the inler
4
relationship organisation of
teaching and the course of mental
inquiring into the role of
differentiated approach to the problem
of the abi/iI\'IO learn: and ifl\estigsting
the means' and ways for controlling
and traininl! acti"il)" A special
- -
place to research aimed at
forming of socially \'aluable
personal traits. Being to some measure
a.:.sOl..'ialed with the umt)' of
teach in I! and upbringing, P,P. may be
c01l\entionalh' classifled into the pSy4
chology of 'teaching (which ..
of of know-
1

________________________________________ _
--
ledge, ,d,il/s and and the
psychology of educatIOn exam-
ines the regularities of acl1\'e, pur-
poseful moulding of human persohal-
ity). In recent years. researchers ha\'e
also distinguished teacher's psychology
and swdies of interrelations within col-
lecti\'es engaged in teaching and up-
bringing. With regard to spheres of
P.P. application. one may distinguish
the psychology of preschool education:
the psychology of teaching children of
school age with special reference to
the junior, middle, and senior school
ages with their essential speciftcs (see
Del'e/opmenlai Psychology): the psy-
chology of vocational training: and
the psychology of higher education.
Perception, an integral reflectioll of
objects, situations and e\'ents. one aris-
ing under the direct effect of physical
irritant!> on the reaplOr surfaces of
the w!me organs. Together with sensa-
tion P. ensures an immediate
!,en!>ory in the surrounding
w.orld. an essential stage of cog-
1\ ,IS more or less always as-
SOCiated wnh Ihillking, /tIemOn', and a/-
lention, directed by moti\'aiion, and
has defmite emotional tinge (see
Emo/lOn,\). One should distinguish P.
adequately renecting reality from il-
II,aim/l. !nvolvement of P. in prac-
Ileal (/ctll'I//C'S, communication (I),
a.nd. research proceS!>es has decisive
SignifIcance for verifying and correct-
IIlg. perceived image. The arisal
of IOnlal hypotheloes on the nature of
P. dates to antiquity. Philoso-
pher>;, phy!>iologbts. and men
of art slgmhcantly contributed to the
de\'elopment of scientifIC
ahout P. In tht> late 19th century, the
idea .. ahout P. turned into major com_
ponellts wilhill tht> contcmporary
system of psychological knowledge. The
early theories of P. generally cor-
responded to the tenets of traditional
aswx:ialioll/\m. A decisive step in over-
coming such views in interpreting P.
was made through the developmenl
by the Russian physiologist Ivan Seche-
nov of the reOex concept of psyche,
on the one hand, and owing to Ihe
works of representatives of Gestall
psycllology, on the other. The latter
showed that the most important pheno-
mena of P. (such as cOllstancy) were
conditioned by invariable relationships
between the perceptual image compo-
nents. Studies of the reflex structure
of P. led to the creation of theoretical
models of P., in which an important
part is assigned to efferent (centrifu-
gal) proce:sses, including motor proces-
ses. that adjust the work of the percep-
tive system to the object's characte-
ristics (Alexander Zaporozhets, Alexei
N. LeotUyev). P. is exemplihed by the
movements of a hand feeling a thing,
the Illotions of eyes tracing a visible
contour, or thorax muscles re-
producing an audible sound. Contempo-
rary studies of the ear ly olltogellesis
of P. in man conflrm the existence
of several forms of P., str ictly caused
by the specifICS of constan; stimuli
combinations. Yet, developed processes
of .P. are controlled by the objectives
faclIIS the subject. The intentional (see
Int('n/io,,), purpoloefully directed natu-
re of these processes makes it possible
to regard them a:; perceptllul
)
--
(Vladimir Zinchcnko) that allow to
the informative conlcnt of
a situation, in accord with which the
may compare the percei\cd
objects with thcir former reflections
and descriptions stored in his memory,
and thus to recognise those objects,
i.e. assign thcm to a certain semantic
class (category). In most cases, the
dynamics of the process of
lioll is adequately described by the "law
of perception" (Nikolai Lange), ac-
cording to which one would fIrst distin-
guish only the general and diffuse idea
about an object, an idea Ihal would
subsequently be replaced by a more
specific and detailed P. Recognition
that takes place on (he basis of dis-
tinguishing generalised, occasionally
socially fixed systems 61 features is
achieved over a considerably shorter
time (fractions of a second) than the
processes of initial perceptual learning,
some of which may take months and
years (for example, the development
of reading habits). The categorisatioll
of objects, events and situations ac-
complished in identihcation owini! 10
interaClion of P. and memory is
to and sometimes identical wilh con-
ceptual categorisation. The possibility
the subject to transform the image
111 order to reduce it to a form suitable
for decisio,,-making also draws P.
closer to thinking processes. Such of tell
unconscious transformations may help
solve the tasks facing Ihe subjeci. Thus,
P. is not passive imitation of an instant
effect, bUI a creative process of coc:ni-
. -
tlOIl. At present, P. is intensely Sludied
by psychologists, physiologists. cyberne-
ticists. and representatives of other
-
di .. Rt!'levanl \mnlllaIlOIl'S tIlla
P. widely u\e ohwn'lliion and
1Ilt'lIt and involve nllnbined mrthods of
t'mpirical analy .. i .. and simulation. h'id-
enee on the function". den''''pmenl
and strUl'lure llf P. ha .. btllh theMetteal
and applied and I'> USl'd
in developing data repn:\clItation ",'"s-
Iems. in technical de'>ign ami arr1it!'J
art. in pedagogy, ::ipons, ell.:
Perceplion and Assessment or Man by
Man. 'l't,' Perceptiol/, IlIterpt>r.Hlllul.
Perception. Imergroup, social perr.:ep-
lion processes (see Soda! Perrt'ptwm,
in which both the subject and object
of perception come out as so..:ial groups
or communities. In comra<;1 10 mter-
personal perr.:eption (see Perception,
Interpawnu/) , P .. 1. is disliguished by
(I) compiling of individuals into one
whole that differs in quality from its
component elements: (2l lengthy and
considerably le:ss flexible development
(when developed, p,,1. resists external
influences): and (3) schematisation and
simplification of potential aspects in
perceiying and assessing some other
group. P.,1. is characterised by ste-
reotype (see Stereotype. Social), highly
fused cognitive and emotional compo-
nents, a vividly affective tinge, and a
sharply pronounced evaluative orienta-
lion. For these reasons, P.,1. is dis-
tinguished by bias (see Bias), the
intergroup concepts themselves often
don't stand the le,st with regard to
truthfulness, accuracy and adequacy.
These of P.,1. characteristics are ma-
nifested in a concentrated form in such
etTects as intergrollp
214
and ;nRfoup Counler 10
a view widespread among Western
psychologists (Sigmund Freud. !heo-
dor Adorno and others), accordmg to
whom effects are essentially
primordial. universal and.
eiements of intergroup relatIOns, SOvIet
psychologists have marked their second-
ary nature in relation to activity; among
other things, they demonstrated both
theoretically and experimentally that
these effects are dependent on the level
of grOup de\,t'lopment and type of joint
intergroup activity, and that they are
not typical for a collective.
Perception. Interpersonal, comprehen-
sion and assessment of man by man.
In contrast to the perception of inani-
male objects, P.,1. is characterised by
greater bias, which is manifested in the
fusion of cognitive and emotional com-
ponents; in a more vividly pronounced
evaluative tinge; and in the greater
direct dependence of the idea about
another person on the motivational and
semantic structure of the activity of
the perceiving subject. A significant
number of studies on P . l. is devoted
to the forming of first impressions
about another person. They elucidate
regularities inherent in the "comple-
tion" of the image of another person
on the basis of available, often limited
infor.mation, and in revealing the actual
requirements of .the perceiving subject;
they. also estabhsh the action of me-
chanisms that lead to a distortion of
P.,1. (Alexei Bodalev) (see Recency
Effect, Halo Effect, etc.). An important
feature of P.,1. is not so much the
perception of human qualities, but
-
rather the perception of tI given hUll1an
being in intcrrehllions with OIher "eople
(perception of preference!. in a 1-:rollp.
group structure. etc.). The study of
the role of joint activities in P.,1. is
a central theoretical problem in this
fIeld of socia-psychological knowledge,
determining its experimental program-
me, The following are the most im-
portant of the P . 1. mechanisms stu-
died: (I) identification, i.e. under-
standing and explanation of another
person's behaviour by identifying one-
self with him; (2) socia-psychological
re/fexion, i.e. understanding of another
person by reflecting in his stead;
(3) empathy. understanding and imag-
inatively experiencing another person's
feelings; (4) stereotyping, i.e. the per-
ception and assessment of another
person by applying to him the character-
istics of a given social group, etc. At-
tempts are being made to distinguish
some more universal P .,1. mechanisms
that help stabilise. categorise, (see
Categorisation), select. and restrict
information, this being a requisite
for any perceptual (see Perception)
process, including P.I. processes. The
theory of cognitive dissonance (see
Cognitive Dissonance, Theory of) and
the implicit theory of personality laid
claim to having discovered such uni-
versal mechanisms. Yet, neither provid-
es satisfactory solutions (see Attribu-
tion, Causal).
Perceptual Actions, structural units of
the process of perception in man,
P .A. ensure conscious distinction of a
given aspect of a sensed situation and
the transformation of sensory infor-
. -
mation so a., to con .. truct an image
adcquale to objel.:live reality and to
the ta.,k.., to be fulfilled . Soviet psycho-
logy was the flr .. t to advance the con-
cept of P.A. (Alexei ZaporO"thets,
1941). Later, some foreign psycholog-
ists developed similar views. The gene-
tic correlation of P.A. with practical
actions is manifested in their developed
overt locomotor nature. The move-
ments of a hand feeling an object, the
movements of a throat reproducing an
audible sound, or the movements of
eyes tracing a visible contour con-
tinually compare the perceived image
with the original object to verify and
correct that image. Subsequent develop-
ment of P.A. is accompanied by signi-
ficant reduction of motor components,
so that, outwardly. Ihe process of per-
ception assumes the form of a mo-
meOlary act of "discernment". These
changes are caused by Ihe forming in
a child of ramified systems of sensory
standards and operational perception
unils thaI allow transforming percep-
lion from an image construction pro-
cess into a relatively more elemenlary
identification process. Sensory stan-
dards correspond, for instance, to the
following socially-developed systems of
sensory qualities: scale of musical
sounds, system of phonemes of one's
native tongue, or system of basic
geometrical forms. In sensory
standards, a child begins to use Ihem
as a sort of sensory measures. As a re-
sult, sensory-perceptual processes be-
come more accurate and voluntary.
Perseverance, a cyclic recurrence or
persislent reproduction, ohen counter
21.5
to conscious intention, of some adion,
thought or emotional expniena. They
distinguish P. in the motor, emotional.
l>Cnsory-perceptual (see and
intellectual spheres. A tendency 10
wards P. is often observed in the clini-
cal picture of local brain lesions and
in speech, motor and emotional disord-
ers. P. is also possible in distracted
attention or in states of acute over-
strain (see Tiredness). P. is assumed
to be essentially based on cyclic exci-
talion of neuron structures caused by
a delayed signal about action termina-
tion.
Persistence, a quality of the will aimed
at steadfast achievement of one's goaf
in spite of difficulties and obslaclb.
P. is developed by fostering in a child,
beginning from the preschool age. the
ability to complele some feasible task.
and also readiness 10 make efforts to
subordinate his or her behaviour 10
the future result. sometimes counter
to the motivations prevailing at the
given momen!. Meaningful goals and
awareness of one's duty and responsi-
bility for the given assignment play a
positive role in fostering P.
Personal Construct. a classifying and
evaluating standard created by the
subject with whose aid objects, in their
similarity and difference from one
another, are understood. The P.C.
notion was suggested by Harold Kelly.
By its structural content, P.C. reflects
the nature of the elements of the en-
virllnment interpreted by a person
(events, phenomena. people) as at once
similar to and differing from one
.!ltJ
another. P.C'1j. are distinguished ac-
cording to the extent of the sphere
of their use: P.C's that are
lmlv in relation to a definite
can-t class of elements, and P.C's which
reflect the most generalised evaluation
of perceived objects. In
with their stability and invanabllity,
distinction is made between basic and
situational P.C's. The sum total of
P.C's represents a system whose most
important characteristic is its relative
cognitive complexity, expressing the
quantity of units comprising the system,
their ramification and connection.
Experimental data point to a depen-
dence of the cognitive complexity of
a person's P.C. system on his ability
to give an in-depth description and
analysis of perceived objects in their
contradictory unity. The P.c. method
may be used regardless of its associa-
tion with cogniti\'e psychology, in the
framework of which it was proposed.
as a comparatively simple method of
studying the process of categorisation.
Personal Relationships, ThCQ("Y of, a
system of theoretical concepts, accord-
ing to which the psychological core of
the personality is an individual-in-
tegral system of this personality'S
subjectively assessed and consciously
selected relations with reality, a system
that represents an interiorised (see
Interiorisation) experience of relation
ships with other people in a social
environment. The said system of al-
titudes determines the nature of per-
emotional experiences, the pecu-
hantles of the perception of reality,
and the nature of behavioural reactions
to external influences. A positive or
negative experience of relationships
with people would unambiguously
form a correspondulg system of int-
rinsic personal altitudes. The concept
of personal relatiollship1j was initially
developed by Vladimir Myasishchev
and furthered by Alexei Bodalev's
works devoled to problems of illter-
persollal percep/iol/ (see Perception,
Illterpersollal). The basic tenets of the
concept of personal relationships are
specified in the pathogenetic theory of
lieu roses and in psychotherapeutic
practice.
Personalisation, a process due to which
the subject is individually represented
in the life of other people and can
come out in social life as a personality
(Vadim Petrovsky). The need for P.
is a deep-rooted and not always rea-
lised foundation of nonutilitarian forms
of communicatioll (I) (altfllism, affi-
liation, desire for social recognition
and self-assertion in a group, etc.).
The chance to accomplish deeds and
significant social changes, for which the
individual is responsible to society, is,
in effect, the determining factor in his
ability to achieve P. This ability is
also caused by the richness of the
subjecl's individuality, by the sum-total
of his socially meaningful distinctions
from other people. It has been ex-
perimentally proven that a
and socially positive manifestation of
that individual need and ability
comes evident in collectives, where the
P. of each member conditions the P' s of
all. Meanwhile. in corporative groups
(see Corporation) and a social asSO-
217
--- -
-. -------_.
of all is a
condi tion for one leuder to be able
to achieve P. by his antisocial quali-
ties. In presocialist social formations,
the need for P. could only be fully
realised by representatives of dominant
classes, and was suppressed in the work-
ing people. Hence, throughout human
history, the need for P. developed in
various ideological, primarily religious
forms, being essentially of class nature;
as a result, dominant classes were
provided with a socially wholesome life
on this earth, while the oppressed were
promised the life "in the other world',
with alleged eternity of the free soul.
The free and all-round development
of man in socialist society allows the
individual to achieve, through socially
useful activity, positive P. in other
people and by this virtue. be person-
ally represented in social life.
Personalised Meaning, an individual- '
ised reRection of the meaningful attitude
of personality to the objects for the
sake of which his vital activity is car-
ried out, cognised as ;'significance-for-
me" of the subject's impersonal knowl-
edge of the world, including concepts,
skills, ac/iolls and deeds that are per-
petrated by people, social lIorms, roles.
values and ideals. The P.M. notion is
historically linked with Lev Vygotsky's
ideas about the dynamic meaning sys-
tems of Ihe individual consciousness.
which denote the unity of affeclive
and intellectual processes, Introduction
of the P.M, nolion as a unit of con-
sciousness (Alexei N, LeoT1tyev) played
an important role in overcoming the
purely intellectualistic interpretation of
const:iousness as the of knowledge
about the world, and also in solving
problems of the correlation of indi
vidual and scx:ial con-.ciou<;ncss in a
person's life. The P.M. notion is used
in dilh'rent spheres of psychology which
stud, man's relations to the world

depending on his place in society. his
motives, altitudes, emotions, etc. A
number of componential semantic sys-
tems are singled out: meaning-forming
motives that induce a person's activity:
a person's attitude to reality, which
has acquired a subjective value (signi-
ficance) for him and which is realised
in activity; attitudes which express
P.M.; deeds and actions of a person
that are regulated by meaningful at1i-
lOdes. P.M. posses:>es a number of pe-
culiarities linked with the analysis of
a personality as a whole, Central among
these is P.M.'s dependence on a person's
place in the system of social relations
and on his social position, The deler-
mination of P.M. by the social position
explains other peculiarities of the psy-
chological nature of P,M.: the media-
tion of changes in P.M. by changing
the activity which lies at its basis. the
insufficiency of mere awareness of
P.M. for changing it, and Olhers. Since
a change in a person's social position
in the world entails a reassessment
of his attitude towards reality. this may:
in a number of cases. result in far-
reaching restructuring of the sum lolal
of P .M's, 'which occasionally is drama-
tically manifested in such phenomena
as "loss of self" and loss of the sense
of existence. The nOied reconstructions
should be distinguished from the sub-
jective emotional expniem'l's (sympa-
218
antipathies, wishes, desires, elc.)
which are easily accessible and change
directly under the influence of speech.
Such subjective experiences ,(along
with emotions) fulfil the functIOn of
assessing P.M .. facilitating the subject's
awareness of his auiludes towards
reality, their "sense" for him. When
subjeCtive experiences and P.M. do
not coincide, the orientation of sub-
jective experiences changes, and not
P.M. A psychological analysis of the
regularities of the formation and func-
tioning of P.M. and-more broadly-
of dynamic ,emanlic systems is the
central problem in studying the ways
of a person's development and educa-
tIon as an individuality (Alexander
Asmolov)
(in psychology), a trend
which regards personality as a subject-
maner and an object of primordial
reality in opposition to its social en-
vironment. P. explains personality's
development by its primordially in-
herent desire for self-actualisation
and inner self-perfection, and regards
all mental processes solely in this
perspeClive. Po's idealism and tele-
ologism prevent it from giving a scient;-
n.ca,lly. soun.d explanation of persona-
lity s integrity and activeness.
(in psychology), a systems
which is acquired by an
IndIVIdual In object-oriented activity
communication (I), characterising
hiS Involve.men! in social relations.
From Viewpoint of Marxist-Lenin_
1.'>I philosophy, P. is formed in the
process of social practice and, being
aClive, appears as a whole in which
cognition of the environment is realised
in unity with emotional experience
P. is characterised by
subject's striving to expand the sphere
of his activity. to act beyond the
boundaries defined by the situation
and role prescriptions; personality
orientation-8 stable dominant system
of motives, of interests, convict ions,
etc.; in-depth semantic formations-
dynamic systems of meanings, accord-
ing to Lev Vygotsky (see Personalised
Meaning)-which are formed in the
jQiflf activities of groups and collec-
tives; the degree of awareness of one's
attitudes to reality: altitude (Dmitri
Uznadz.e, Alexander Prangishvili, Shota
Nadirashvili), disposition, etc. A de-
veloped P. possesses a developed self-
awareness, which does not exclude an
uncounscious psychic regulation of
some important aspects of his activity.
Subjectively, for an individual, P. is
his Self (Self-image, Self concept),
a system of ideas about himself con-
structed by an individual in the pro-
cesses of activity and communication,
which ensures the unity and identity
of his P. and reveals itself in self-
appraisal, a feeling of self-respect, level
of aspirations, etc. The Self concept
represents how an individual sees him-
self at present and in future, what
he would wish to be like, what he
could be like if he wanted to, etc.
Correlating the Self concept with the
real circumstances of an individual'S
life permits P. to change his behaviour
and accomplish goals of self-educa-
tion. Appeal to the self-appraisal and
self-esteem of P. is an imponant factor
in influencing P. in the process of
education. As a subject of interpersonal
relations P. is examined in three as-
pects, which form a unity: (I) p, as
a relatively stable sum total of
intra-indivklual qualities: symptomatic
complexes of psychological properties,
which form the structure of Po's
character, peculiarities of tempera-
ment, abilities (Boris Teplov, Vladi-
mir Nebylitsyn, Volt Merlin), etc.,
from the point of view of individuali-
ty; (2) P. as the aspect of an indivi-
dual's inclusion in interpersonal ties,
where mutual relations and interaction,
which appear in a group, may be inter-
preted as bearers of the P. of their
participants. Overcome in this way is
the false alternative in the understand-
ing of interpersonal relations as a mani-
festation of either a group, or P.-
the personality anributes appear as
those of a group, or vice versa; (3) P.
as an "ideal representation" of an indi-
in the life of other people, even
wllhm their direct contact, as a result
Of. transformations actively accom-
plished by a person in the cognitive and
sphere of P. of other people.
In hIS development an individual feels
the socially determined need "to be
a P.", i.e. to enter the life process of
?ther people, continuing his existence
them, and displaying an ability to
be P." that is realised in socially
activity. P. is developed in
aCllvlty, m the process of the sociali-
sation .of the individual and purposeful
education. The task of communist
education is the all-round. harmonious
development of an individual's P.
This development is complex in cha-
21.
racter (m.ental, labour, moral, aesthetic
the school. family and
society plaYing the leading role. im-
portant In this process is education
by labour, primarily by joining in a
work collective, where the necessary
c:onditions are created for the forma-
!lOn of valuable P. qualities
III productive labour (Anton Maka-
renko, Vassili Sukhomlinsky). The re-
gularities and the age periodisation of
the psychological development of P.
(see Age) is usually described through
the study of general regularities and
age periodisation of an individual's
psychological development. However,
the unity of psychic development and
the development of P. does not imply
their identity. In this connection an
anempt is made to build a hypothetical
model of P.'s development and on its
basis age periodisation (Artur Pet-
rovsky), in accordance with which age
development is determined by the type
of relarions formed by an individual
with his most influential uference
group in that period. In preschool and
early school age these are groups di-
rected by a teacher; in adolescence-
primarily groups of peers or of older
children; in youth-collectives as
groups with a high level of develop-
ment or in individual cases, with serious

defects in upbringing, corporative
groups. Westem psychology absolutises
the age periods of development of
P., building on the basis of each of
them special psychological theories of
P.: psychoanalytical (see
analysis) -on the basis of absolutismg
the development of P. in early child-
hood' neobehavioural (see

220
"iourism) theories of social learnill}:
and the theory of roles-development
llf P. before and in early
a{!:e; "humuni .. lic wllh tiS
accent on "self-reallsallon ,-on the
basis of abstracting adolescent self-
assertion. Thus the P. of an
who has not vet been integrated 10
social life is Incorrect ly taken as a
model of a socially mature individual.
The majority of Western theories. of
P. are indeter minate and teleologIcal
in character, ignoring the determi na-
tion of P. by real practical activity.
That is why, despite some achievements
in the fIeld of technique (specifically,
;n the sphere of psychotherapy), crisis
phenomena are characteristic of the
P. psychology in capitalist countries,
which is admitted by Western scien-
tists themo:;elves. The works of Soviet
and foreign (Henri Wallon, Lucien
Seve, and others) Marxist psycho-
logists contain criticism of the idealistic
and mechanistic teachings on P.
Personality Inventories, a set of meth-
ods for studying and assessing the
traits and manifestations of the
personality. Each of the methods
a standardised question-
naire, a of proposals whose content
the subject (informant) may either
or disagree with. The questions
III the questionnaire are formulated so
that, in responding to them, the subject
would inform the experimenter of his
of and....4'picaJ forms of
L his behaviour in various situations, a""d
would a\sess .his own personality from
various v1ewpoints, . 1I110nn abOut the
peculiarities of his relationships with
other people, etc, P.l. allow to obtain
information characterising the subject's
personality within a wide range of as-
pects: from peculiarities of his physical
and mental state to his moral, and
social views. P.L are developed On
the basis of one or several allitude
scales. The questions are grouped so
that the replies would al low to assess
some individual trait or state. These
grouped questions, which are called
scales, are distinguished by the name
of the personali ty trai t studied (scales
of anxiety, leadership, aggressiveness,
etc.). I he oara obiamea by question-
naire are direct ly transformed through
special statistical procedures into stan-
dardised score points, normally repre-
sented in diagrammatic form. Today
a grea t variety of P.I. have been de-
veloped depending on respective perso-
nality theories, Sonte of them are de-
signed to simultaneously assess many
personality aspects (for instance,
MMPI-the Minnesota Multiphasic ""'\
Personality Inventory): however, most )
of them are aimed at studying specific
personality traits (Hans Eysenck's
method), In many questionnaires per-
sonal features are deter mined basing
on the use of various factor analysis
techniques (Joy Guilford's test, James
Cattel's 16-factor test, etc.). The main
shortcoming of P. I. is that the s ubjects,
whi le more or less understanding the
face value of their replies, may some-
times respond depending on the situa-
tion or experimenter's demand, i.e. ),
VOluntarily or involunt arily distort the \
information they give about them-
selves.
HI
------
Personality Orientation, a totality of
stable moti\'('\ directing individual
/lctivity and relatively independent of
actual P.O. i\ c haracterised
by illteresh,.
beliefs, and Ideals, 111 wh1ch a person s
lI'orftl outlook manifests itself (see
Per.wmality).
Personality Tests. sec Met/ux/s of Per-
sonality Study
Personali ty T r ai ts, stable features of
the belwviour of an individual recur-
r ing in di fferent situations. P.T. are
always ma r ked by varying degree of
promi nence in different people, across
various situations (P.T. of an individual
are manifested in any situation). and
by the potential capacity to be mea-
sured (P.T. may be measured with
specially developed questionnaires and
tests), In experimental psychology,
P.T. such as extroversion--intrO\'er-
SI011. worry, rigidity, and impulsivity
have been examined in greater detail
than others. In contemporary studies,
the accepted viewpoi nt is that descript-
ion of PT. is insufficient to under-
stand and predict speciflc individual be-
haviour, si nce they provide knowledge
only about the general aspects of
personal behav iour (see Personality,
Methods of Personulity Study).
Personifi cati on, the act of ascr ibi ng
human properties to animals, plants,
abstract concepts, inanimate objeo.::ts,
and natural phenomena.
Persuasi bilit y, the degree of suscepti-
bility to slIJo:eHioll a\ determined bv
subjective to become
to and succumb to some suggl"Stltm.
p, is a personal characteri\tic
dent on <;ituational and radOn .
The following are among the perstmal
traits conducive to increa\ed P.: dif-
fIdence. inferiority
complex (\ee Complex), submis\i\le-
ness, timidity, shyness, ...
worry, increased emo
tionality, impressionabililY, weak logi.
cal reasoning, and slow mental activ-
ity. The following situational factors
affecting higher individual P. are
distinguished: subject's psychophysical
slate (in quiescence and relaxatiol1,
P. rises. as it also does wilh strong
emotional exitement. tiredrre_H, and
stress: maximal P. is observed in hyp-
nosis): low level of information: in-
sufficient competence in the is<;ue
cussed or in the activity concerned:
a low degree of importance for tht!'
subject in question: and shortage of
lime for decision-making. Lnder
"group pressure" (see Conformity)'
p, would depend on the le\'ef of f:rOllp
dele!opment. Experiments have shown
that subjecls characterised by P. tesl\
as suggestible prove capable of achie\
ing collectidst self-determinatiol1 when
placed in a collective, i.e. of resisting
P. because their interpersonal refatiom
are mediated by the goals and value,
of joillf aclil'ities. Contemporary psy-
chology regards P. as a heterogeneous
phenomenon which manifests itself in
different ways in different life spheres
of the individual, depending on the
content and type of activity. In certain
situations. every person may prove sug-
gestible 10 ,(line degree. Two types of
222 _______ -----------
P. have been revealed by means ,of
factor Primary P. underlies
'perceptibility to and
hypnosis. Secondary P. IS ,hnked, to
dependence relations, to their mottl'o-
tion, and to the subject's low self-
appraisal. P. is a normal feature ,of
human mentality; however, excessive
P. may disorganise behaviour and is
considered a negative quality. Critic-
ality is the opposite of P.
Phatic Communication. a contact with-
out content, when communication is
maintained exclush'ely for the very
of it.
Phenomenalistic Psychology, see "Hu-
manistic Pwchology".
Phenomenon of Invested Effort, see
Effort.
Phenotype. an}' observable morpholo-
gical. physical. or behavioural feature
of an organism. P. is the product of
R't'nntype.environment interaction. Yet
at different organisational levels (cell

or. organism) the P.-genotype
relationship would differ. Normally,
the P. LS not used to designate
the totality of human social character

Phlegmatic Person. an individual with
one of the four basic types of tern.
chara(terised by a low level
of psycho,logical activeness, sluggish.
ness. mexpressive mimicry. A P.P.
has .1Jfftculty in switching over from
one fc-m of activity to another, and
also In adapting to new situations.
P.ps are usually even-tempered, and
their sentiments and moods are normally
stable. In unfavourable conditions, a
P.P. may develop inertia, meagre emo-
tions, and a tendency to perform mono_
tonOUS, habitual actions. The Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov believed that
P.Ps have a strong, balanced, and inert
type of nervous system.
Phobias, obsessive, inadequate emo
\iona1 experiences of specifIc fears felt
by the subject in a deflllite (phobic)
situation and accompanied by vegeta-
tive disfunctions (tachycardia, abun-
dant sweating, etc.). P., are observed
in neuroses, psychoses and organic
brain diseases. In neurotic P., patients
are generally aware that their fears
are unfounded, and take them for
morbid and subjectively tormenling ex
periences they are unable to control.
Psychologists distinguish nosophobia
(fear of contaging some disease, say
cancer, heart disease. and so on). so
ciophobia (fear or appearing in public.
fear of blushing, etc.), fear of space
(claustrophobia-fear of closed prem-
ises, agrophobia-fear of open space),
and so on. If the patient fails to show
distinctly critical understanding that his
fears are unfounded and unreasonable,
then all the above.mentioned states
would more often not be P. but pa-
thological doubts (misgivings) or rav-
ing. P. involve speciflc behavioural
manifestations designed to avoid their
?bjeci. or to reduce fear by perform-
mg obsessive, ritualised actions. Neu-
rotic P., in which the neurotic would
unconsciously "hide" from some insol-
uble conflict, usually arise in people
I
-
with imaginal thinking and. at the same
time, somewhat inert and vegetatively
unstable. In most cases, they are over-
come after expert psychotherapeutic
treatment.
Phrenology, a doctrine advanced by
Fran1. Gall that human or animal
menIal features are associated with the
shape of the skull. underlyin.g idea
iSlni!;: the brain cortex of
a number of centres, each local ising
a given human ability (talent). When
that ability is highly developed. the
corresponding brain centre is devel-
oped, toO, and this allegedly affects the
skull configuration, allowing by means
of special measurements to make a
phrenological chart which shows
"bumps of talents" for music, poetry
or painting; "bumps" of ambition, stin-
giness, or bravery. and so on. In the
19th century, P. was highly popular as
a method of psychodiagnosis. However,
numerous aUlopsies showed that the
skull does not at all replicate the cortex
shape, and hence to determine human
mental and moral peculiarities by the
skull bumps and cavities would be un-
scientitic. P. has for many years discre-
dited the rational element in Gall's
views, namely, the principle of locali-
sation of functions in the cerebral
cortex, the principle that was later
confirmed by the in 1870
by Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hit1.ig
of psychomotor centres in various
sections of the brain (see Localisation
of Higher Mental FIII/ctions).
Phylogenesis. a sequence of evenls in
Ihe evolution of groups of organisms.
223
-
In psychology, P. is understood & .. the
process of emergem;e and hi"tortcal
development (evolution) of animal
fYiyche and and abo forrns
of in the course of human
history. P. is studied by animu/ P9'cho-
logy, ethnopsycho/OKY. and histon.:al
psychology (see Scx:iogenl!'sis). and also
by anthropology, ethnography. history.
and other social sciences. In Sovi ... 1
psychology, dialectical and historical
materialism IS the methodological
foundation of the study of the evolu-
tion of various forms of consciousness.
Basically, P. deals with revealing the
main evolulionary stages in animal
psyche (in connection with speciftc
habilalS. nervous system structures,
etc.; one of the best known
is still that of Karl Buhler: inJtincl-
skill-intellect); identifying the condi-
tions of stage-to-stage transition and
the general evolution faclors: distin-
guishing the main evolutionary stages of
various forms of consciousness (in con-
nection with speciftc aClivity. social
relations. cuhure. language. etc.),
and establishing the correlations of the
main of P. (e.g. of man'S psyche)
and (see Mentul
mellt) .
Physiognomy. a precept alleging a Ulll-
linear correlation between an individ-
ual's looks and characler and resul-
tant possibility 10 establish his psycho-
logical characteristics on the basis of
his appearance. P. originated in ancient
times on the basis of Ihe idea that
human menial (moral) and bodily fa-
culties are predetermined by nature.
For ages. P. served as a premise for
"4
--
numerous .:haracter typologies. How
ever. both Ihe!.t' typologies and auempls
III the ideas of P. in the 20th
century lad,ed scientific ground (see
C harele/fro/OR)')
Phy'siology of Actheness.. a concept
that interprets the behaVIour of an
organism as an active atlitude to the
environment determined by the model
of the future (result) sought by the
organism. The ideas of P. of A. ap-
peared (in opposition 10 mechanistic
understanding of the organism as a
purely reacli\t' system) in the
of han Secheno\'. Charles Sherrmg-
ion. Alexei Ukhlomsky. and others.
Bernstein de.eloped P. of A.
as a trend of research. Ac-
10 him, the model of the re-
qUired fUlUre is simulated by the braill
on the ba\is of information on the
current silUation and past experience:
however, that model is not rigid, since
thl: organism continually faces the need
for probabilih' forecast and choice of
:nost elTecli"e ways of achie"ing ils
goa! by solving ils locomotion task.
Having developed its behaviour pro
gramme, the organism would fight for
It by overl'oming the environment.
whO'.e feature, would be taken into
cclnslde.ration by introducing sellSory
c)rreC\lons mlO that programme. This
makes it possible 10 actively reconstruct
beha\'lour by the feedback principle.
'hanks '0 which it has the nature of a
c:rcie. rather than a reflex arc.
organism-environment ,,:.
... be ,men, lion IS achievt"d at
levels of movement construction. Tht"
effecting apparatus 1':; characterised bv

numerous degrees of freedom. whose

is overcome by coordination
of movements and by transformation
of Ihe effector organ into a cOllirolled
svstem. The ideas of P. of A. in-
fluenced the development of several
sciences, including psychology.
piclOgram, a graphic method used in
psychology for studying mediated
P. was suggested in the
1930s by the Soviet psychologist
Alexander Luria, and has come to be
widely used in psychiatry and medical
psycho{o!:}' as a diagnostic technique.
The general view of P. comprises a
totality of graphic images which the
subject in"ents to effectively memorise
and subsequently reproduce words and
expressions. As a diagnostic technique,
P. belong::,: to projective tests (see
Projectil'' TesH) since it often reHects
the subject's hidden mOlil'l's, personal
problems and fears. Presumably, the se-
lection and construction of graphic
images makes it possible to reveal not
only mnemonic disorders, but also
disturbed conceptual thinking (see
T hi nki ng. Verbal-Logical).
Pilot Study, a tentative investigation
conducted prior to the main research
and constituting the latter's simplified
form. In social psychology, P.S. (work-
ing term: "probing") is applied to
establish the scope and number of
qllt>.\Iionflaire items to be selected and
specified. the interview time, etc. In
testology, P .S. (working term:
test") serves to reveal certain maill
test Mandards. P.S. is highly important
in planning experimental pSychOlOgical
(
,
,
studies, making it po",siblc to establish
the diredions, organi ...ation principle::.,
and methods of the main research,
and to specify most imponallt relevant
hypotheses. In Soviet psychology, the
lerm "exploring experiment" is used
more commonly.
Placebo Effect, changes in patient' s
physiological or psychological state
caused by administering a placebo,
a harmless preparation prescribed as
a drug. P. E. shows the psychothe-
rapeutic impact of the very fact that
a medicine has been administered; it
serves to establish the extent of sug-
gestioll in the remedial effect of a new
preparation. In this case, a group of
subjects are told they would be given
a new drug, and half of them are
subsequently administered a placebo.
By comparing the results for the two
subgroups, one can judge of the actual
efficacy of the drug. P.E. is also used
in psychotherapy and in certain expe-
rimental psychological studies.
Play (Game). a form of actil'ity in
conventional situations, directed to-
wards the recreation and assimilation
of social experience fixed in socially
established methods of carrying out
purposeful actions in science and
As a specifiC, historically rooted
kmd of social practice, P. reproduces
the norms of human life and activities
whOSe observance is ensured by the
cognition and assimilation of object
and reality, and the intellectual.
emOllOnal and moral development of
person.al!ty. P. is the prevalent type
of actLVlty among preschool children.

225
Some forms of animal behaviour are
also called P. P. is studied in psycho-
logy, and history of cul-
lure, III the. theory of management
and (see Game, BUSiness)
and other sciences. The attempt
systematically to study P. was made at
the end of the 19th century by the
,?erman scientist Karl Groos, who be-
heve? P. is a preliminary exercise
for mstLncts as applied 10 the future
conditions of the struggle for survival
(the "theory of pre-exercises"). Ger-
man psychologist Karl Buhler defilled
P. as an activity pursued for the sake
of "functional satisfaction". The Freud-
ians interpret P. as an expression of
inner instinctS or drives. All these inter-
pretations suffer from a biologically-
determined approach. A materialist
interpretation of P. was formulated by
Georgi Plekhanov, who pointed out
that its origins stemmed from labour.
In Soviet psychology, the theory of P.
which developed out of the recognition
of itS social nature was elaborated by
Yefim Arkin and Lev Vygotsky. Tying
P. in with orientating aclil';t}'. Daniil
Elkonin defines P. as an activity which
forms and improves control over be-
haviour. Distinctive fealUres of on-
going P. are rapidly changing situations
in which the object of a
action finds himself, and equally rapId
adaptation 10 a new situation. Child-
ren's P. structure includes the follow-
ing: the roles assumed by the. players;
P. actions as a means of realts.L11g
roles; rhe application of. objects, I.e.
the replacement of real objects by
fidal. play objects; and relations
between lhe players. Role LS the unit
I
226

f P which sen'es as Ihe pivot unlllng

aspeclS. A
activity reproduced In P. IS Its plot.
and that which is reproduced by ch,Ll-
dren 8!> the main aspect of adults
hies and reialions at work and III
social life is (he content. P.
the child's voluntary behavIOUr, hLS
SOfialisation. shape. A distinctive
feature of P. is its dual nature. also
characleristic of dramatic art, whose
elements are sustained in any collective
P. On the one hand. the player per-
forms real activities which require
actions connected with tackling quite
specili.c, frequently unusual. problems;
on the other, some aspects of these
activities are of a conventional nature,
making it possible to digress from the
real situation and responsibilities and
numerous attendant circumstances it
carries. This dual nature determines
the de\'eloping effect of P.
Polar Profiles. Method of. a way of
objects (concepts, social at-
titudes. social stereotypes. etc.) by se-
lecting bipolar scales for contrasting
adjectives. nouns or developed utter-
ances (sentences), e.g. hard-soft,
warm-cold, etc. By general ising the
subject's replies on the nature of a
given object (softer or harder, etc.)
over the entire scale, the investigator
would infer his psychological attitude
towards that object. Unlike the method
0/ semantic differential, P.P. ,M. does
not require fact.or analysis and group-
Ing of scales Into larger categories.
Political Psychology. a branch of psy_
chology concerned with the psycholog-
ical phenomena (mo('l(b. opinions,
feelings, value orientation,:>. etc.) of
political life Ihat form and reveal
themselves in Ihe rolitical conscious_
ne';s of classes, social group,:>, govern_
ments. and individuals and are real-
ised in their specifIC rolitical actions.
Bourgeois P.P . in fulfIlling a reaction_
ary ideological function. in addition
to analysing rsychological aspects of
current political issues (both domestic
and international), claims that it devel-
ops social scientifIC theories designed
as alternatives to Marxism, and also
to orthodox and novel bourgeois socio-
political conceptions thaI have discred-
ited themselves. In Marxist psychology,
many problems cons tituting the subject
matter of P.P., such as political edu- ,
cation, social consciousness, \ 1
logy of ideological inftue!,ce ana mass
political activity, are solved within Ihe
framework of social, pedagogical and
dellelopmelllal psychology, sociology,
the theory of scientific communism,
and philosophy. The works of the
founders of Marxism-Leninism include
I
I
the methodological principles of analys-
ing the psychological aspects of political
problems, and contain models of such
analysis still having timely political I
relevance.
Population Method, see Methods of
Psychogenetics.
Pregnance, see Gestalt.
Prejudice, see Bias.
Preslige. a degree of recognition by
society of a person's merits; the result
of correlation of ':>ocially "igniflcant
personal characteristics with the vaillt!
scale existing in a given group. In
capitali!>t society, the u.\ual indicators of
P. are a big bank account, residence
in an district,
a luxury car, mention in "high-society"
news, etc. In socialist society, P. is
based on socially valued characteristics,
e.g. high moral standards. active partic-
ipation and high achievements In so-
cially beneflcial activity.
Primacy Effect, more probable recol-
lection of several initial in
a series than of those situated in the
middle of that series (see Sequence
Effect). P.E. is studied within the
framework of investigations of memory,
learning processes. and social percep-
tion. Numerous relevant studies have
established that P.E. depends on the
scope of the material [0 remembered
and on its presentation rate: the longer
the presented series and the higher
the presentation rate, the fewer initial
elements are remembered. P.E. also
depends on how repetition is organised.
and on the presence of synonyms and
homonyms. since these lead to selec-
tively reduced P.E. The subject's aCliv-
ity immediately after presentation
would virlually have no influence on
P.E., which is caused by the faCl thai
the initial elements in the series have
enough time [0 be stored in long-term
memory (see Memory. LongTerm).
due 10 a greater number of repeti-
tions. and their subsequent extraction
therefrom depends on how effectively
they are sought in the storage. In
social psychology, P.E. is studied in
ll7
interpersonal perception to
how imporlant the of infor
mation input is 10 assess a persnn (see
Recency Effec:1; Stereotype. Soda/).
Probability Forecasting, anticipation of
the future baSl!d on the probability
structure of past experience and on
information obtained from the current
situation. This involves hypotheses \
about possible events, each of which
is ascribed a ceria in probability. In
line with the forecast, the subject in
question would preadjust to or prepare
for relevant aClions. In this respect.
speed and precision of motion (partic-
ularly important for operators. ath-
letes, etc.). and speech have been studied
most exhaustively. P.P. was shown to
play a role in the arisal of emotional
reactions. Natural disturbances in P.F.
have been described in pathology. e.g.
lesion of the frontal lobes of the brain.
schiz.ophrenla., etc. p.F. is sPecial
interes1 in interaction with an active
parlner. i.e. another personality, whose
goais do not coincide with those of the
subject in question. In this case, P.P.
should take into consideration the
partner's most probable actions. which.
in IUrn. would rely on his P.P. P.P.
thus proves to be an element of
re/fexion and interpersonal relations
(Iosif Feigenberg).
Problem. awareness of an individual
of the impossibility to overcome dif-
ficulties and contradictions arising in
a given situation by means of available
knowledge and experience. Like a task.
P. originates in a problem situation.
However, being a psychological cate-
gMY, Ihe Jailer solely Ihe
mmal of Ihe subject's mental
interaction with the object. a
im'olving Ihe generation of a .cog
ml1ve
molil'e and st81ement of tent alive
theses concerning ways of solving
the problem situation. Verification of
these hypotheses causes the
situation 10 become transformed either
;nlO a P. or a task.. The latter would
arise when the object under study
reveals an unknown thing that must
be found by transforming certain con-
ditions. A task comes Oul as a symbolic
model of a problem situation, i.e. as
something objeclified that may be
transmitted to another person and
become an essenttal part of training.
Transformation of a problem situation
intO a task. or a series of tasks is an
act of productive thinking. Unlike
a task, P. is recognised as a type of
contradictory situation involving op-
posite positions in explaining the same
objects or phenomena, and their rela-
tionships. This is not a formal logical,
but a dialectical contradiction within
the same thing, phenomenon, or pro-
cess, one that "splits" them into op-
posites, and requires the construction
of theory for resolving that contra-
dIctIOn. The resolution of dialectical
constituting the pivot of
P. IS the source of scientii1c theories.
Thu)", a problem situation genetically
precedes task)" and P's. Whereas the
e.lement in a situation is Ihe
subject, 111 a and P ., . h
btl" .llste
sym ) I.C object and contradiction
respectIvely. To solve a p" it must
transformed mlO a crealiv ..
k 11
. e cogmtlve
tas a owmg to check the models of
-- - .
. .
given \:('II1SClOU\ or mlllillve
The concept of educational P. is used
in prohlem traillill}.:. An educational
P. has Ihe logICal form of a cognitive
which ha'; some contradiction in
its conditions, showing in exces..'), in-
suffIcient, alternative or partially incor_
rect data and culminating in a question
which that contradiction obJectivises.
Detection of a contradiction in an
educational P. (problem task) causes
the trainee to experience a state of
intellectual difticulty and, hence, a
problem situation.
Problem Silualion, (I) a situation,
to master which an individual or col-
lective must fmd and use new means
and ways of activity; (2) a psycholog-
ical model of conditions in which
thillking generates on the basis of a
situationally arising cognitive need; a
form whereby an individual is related
to the object of cognition. P.S. is char-
acterised by interaction of the indi-
vidual with his surroundings, and also
by the psychological state of the cognis-
ing involved in the objective
and controversial environment. Aware-
ness of some contradiction in the
course of activity, e.g. of the
sibility to fultill a theoretical or practl-
cal task by means of previously mas-
tered knowledge, generates a need
for new knowledge that would alloW to
solve that contradiction.
tion. of something unknown in P.S .. IS
achIeved in the form of a question
posed to oneself to establish the initial
link in Ihe intellectual interaction of
the individual with a given object.
In the course of that interaction, the
---- -
individual would look for an answer
10 the que'>tion regarding new knowl-
edge about the obJcct, the way of
action, and about the productive de-
velopment of the individual himself.
Inasmuch as the individual's "surround-
ing" includes not only objects, but al<;o
a social environment, the initial ques-
tion would be posed not to oneself,
but to another person whose activeness
mediates the individual's development.
P.S. is a central concept in problem
trainillg.
Problem Training, instructor-organised
active interaction of the subject with
problem-represented contents of
ing, in the course of which the indi-
vidual becomes acquainted with ob-
jective contradictions of scientific
knowledge, the ways for resolving
contradictions, and learns to think and
creatively assimi late knowledge. In
joint activities with the instructor, the
student does not merely process infor-
mation, but, in assimilating new knowl-
edge, emotionally experiences that
process as a subjective discovery, hith-
erto unfamiliar to him, by perceiv-
ing and comprellension of scientific
facts. principles, methods or condi-
tions of action, as a personal value
that determines the development of
cognitive motivation or interest for the
subject. By creating a prohlem situation
in P.T., the instructor simulates condi-
tions for research activity and develop-
ment of creative thinking in the stu-
dent. The components of that situation
would be the object and subject of
cognition and thcir mental interaction,
,peciftcs would depend on the
229
subject-matter and the didaClic lech
niques for organising cognitive' attivity.
Problem and informational questions
would serve as means ror controlllns
student intellectual a.-!ivl\y In P.T.
Problem and infnrmatil)nal questIOns
would indicate the sL,h<;tance or the
training problem and the art:a wherein
Ihe student would look ror knowledge
previously unfam:liar tn him. In PT.,
the principle of problem pUlling is
aClualised both in the subJectmatter
and in the wherein the latter
is developed in the training
The first is achieved by developing
a system of problems which reflect
the basic contents of a given discipline,
and the second by constructing P,T
in the form of a dialogue, in which
both the instructor and the trainee
would show intellecrual activity.
tiative and interest in each other's
judgements and discuss alternative deci-
sions. In such P.T., a system of train-
ing problems and problem situations
conditioned thereby would be used to
simulate research activity, social inter-
action and dialogue of the partic-
ipants. This, in turn, would create
conditions for productive thinking and
development of the student's personality
and social relationships (Alexei Ma-
tyushkin, et al.).
Professional Fitness. a set and structure
the psychological and psychophysiolog-
ical features of an individual needed
to achieve socially acceptable eflicacy
in professional work. P.F. is
in work and in the presence of posItive
vocational mot;\'alion, whose origin
and consolidation is prompted by
2,10
-
awarenl'SS of ih social value: the
sibility t(\ aeluah ... e ont"\ potentials.
.,hlt:\'l' good rl' ... and enjoy puhlil'
r'ognitil\n of thl'-'(' resulh; and
by a ,ystem (If rnatl'rial and moral
1IlCl'ntlVt"s. In (ausUlg gratifIcation,
slKl'e"ful work and profes.'Sional per-
lectiOn art\I\Sl' creative actil'l'II/'.\.\ to
hasten the forming of P.P. and, at thl'
SSlIll' time, leave an imprint in thl'
worker\ pcrso1Hllity and affect his at
Illude towards oilier people and the
sur.r0tlndins world. The forming of
P.r:. may have an infinite number of
dt'Tlending on the variety of
md1V1dual fealUres characteristic of
ilt"1'PIt" wanting to join a given
,,\(In. As their professional im-
flnwe. the number of individual P.F.
vt"n-lm,s WllUld dc-crl'ase, and certain
IlbJt'l"!Ivt"ly would
lit art tn prevail in Ihe P,P. structur('
Whldl makt's it pos.\ible to distinguish
a IIIIHtt"d number of P F t H , . . ence,
by malure spe<:ialists' P.P., it
WliUld be mcor(l."ct to inf('r that it has
rrmamrd the same as at the outset of
theIr 8(1,VllY. It would be even more
I.nadrnl'iSolhlt" to rt"gard these f('attlres as
lnlt'na for sdelting people for ' b'
training ill " given prof su-
fhe r .
. ('(!Ulrements of P.F. graduall'
\ hange with 1II1le, lind Ihese chun
are- h, g -
_ t . new
(on C'nl 111 professioltal ,-' .
acllvlty ehlen,
with the- latiN' ' ,
tional I s orgalllsa
111 til/ill technological re<:onstruction
snC'nlif .: II1creasingly rapid
Th' . nllloglCal
lS 13 ,.1 .....) an'nmpanied h 'h
10 1he lev I r 'Y lange!>
" . e- (l 5(I('lally aCl:eptahle
CICTl'y, stlll'e- Iht" Iilttcr reneCls a Clll1.
-
tillunlly ,growing lil-mllmi III rai.,c labour
proouctl\' ltV
Professional Selection.
logirlll S,.h'c//on.
see P.\}'t'ho.,
Theory of a Scie
tificColicclive. an approach to the
mallon al1(1 devclopll1cllt of the socia.
psycho.loglcal aspect of a scientifIC
collective (scc Col/ectil'e, Sch'ntific).
and of the structure and mechanisms
of resl'arch group activities in scicnce.
It was developed by Soviet psychologist
MIkhaIl Yaroshevsky. The key notions
of the P.-R.T. of S.C. are a researrh
programme a !;cientilie collective
and a SCIentIfIC role. P.-R.T. of S.C.
IS on the following
logical _ propO!.itions: the demands made
by socIety on science underlie a pro-
gramme of a scientifiC collective, its
va.lues and norms. which in !Urn deter-
the orientations, expectatIons,
allltudes alld behaviour of its
IIIdlvldual. file programme
111 a sc!entiflc collective plays
a collectlve-foflning role ill its
e!.labllshmelll ond development; this
progrol.nllll" ensures group cohesiveness,
regula.tlon of interpersonal interattions
and rl'latioflS therei n,
collectIve . .
lIIotlvallo11 of r.:reutil'l' work
(I). and
of (roles) among individual
group Interpersonal relations
wlthl1l re"ar,-I, II - - . co ectlVl'S essentially
relationships.
he al'ts wherein these rclolioliShip'
are a'i 1'."
(2) l ... , e.g. cOI,ml/micatioll
n'"I'xIOII. ell". are part of the
pr(h.:e ....\ of SCIentifiC actIvity.
<
Progres.\ive
Rei r Ol.lc/ iI'I'
(Inner) Inhibition.
JllhihitimL
Projection, p\ychological defence (see
Oefence, !'o;ychologital) mechanism
whereby one individual
ascribes to another person motivations,
features and properties inherent in his
own personality.
Projective Tests, a set of techniques for
integral personalilY studies based on
psychological inlerpretation of projec-
tion rcsults. In this case, projection im-
plies not only a means of
defem.'e. bee Defelice.
but also the fact that percl'ption
cesses are conditioned by mnemonic
traccs of all past perceptions. The
subject would transform perceptually
the \ituation he is in in accord wilh his
imlil'iduulily (e.g. he would interpret
a drawing in line with his personal-
ity Irails). Psychologists distinguish
associative P.T., e.g. unflllished
te1H:es or stories, and expressive P.T.
(psyclHxlrama; optional drawing. game,
etc.). Herman Rorschach dl'vised a most
wide.spread associative P.T. He selected
ten stimuli illk spots to which the
subject rellctions were most ch"racter-
istic. The sp01S were offered to him
one after another, and he had to say
what they look like and what they
remind him of. Many psychologislS
regard P.T. as thl! most valuable perso
nality tests of Persollalily
SIIIdy). for they "portray" all the
subject's individuality and allow to
examine his emotional fentures, neu-
rotIC responses, lind so on. P.T. are
very good because they make it
lJ!
-

ea .. ier to show the ell'menlS in the
subject's inner world which he i, often
unable to expre.s in a straight way,
and also belause they allow the
experimenter to orientale himself in
Ihe complex properties of another
personality that are hard to
P.T. rt:qUlre extensive training III
psychological theory and practice in
applying the technique.
Propensity. selel.:tive of an
individual towards a given activity.
inducing him 10 engage in that activity.
P. is based on a deep-rooted and stable
need of the individual for a given
activity. and on his desire to improve
relevant skills and habits. The arisal
of P. is normally a premise for develop-
ment of corresponding ahilities, albeil
cases when P. and abilities do not
coincide may also accur.
Properties of the Nenous System,
ble characterislics of the nen'Ol1S s)'stem
which. other conditions being equal,
affect man's individual menIal features.
P. of N.S. constilute Ihe physiological
foundation of the formaldynamic
aspect of behaviour and form Ihe basis
of behavioural patterns. MO!.t common-
ly, P. of N.S. are St:ell in the specifICS
of man's tl'mpl'ramellf. P. of N.S.
were discovered by the Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov and formed
the groundwork of the typolo-
gy of higher nerVOUS activity developed
in with animals. According
to Pavlov's concept. the following
three P. of N.S. are distinguished:
slrength, mobilit)', and balance. With
reference to man the P. of N.S. concept
2.12
wa.\ most developed by the
sl:hool of tht' Sm'iet Boris
P. of N.S. were .dis-
..:m ered, narnt'l\". lability and dynamism.
discO\ered was the phenomenon
of the partiality of P. of N.S .. which
as a basis for distinguishing
spel'ifK and general P. of N.S.
characterise the functioning of
indi\idual bruin analysers and brain
areas. and the latter are understood
ill twO ways: as dimensions of the
functioning of the antt'rior. regulatory
brain areas, and as the neurophysiolog-
ical characteristic of the
whole brain.
Psi h,), the Brd letter of the Greek
commonly used 10 symbolise
P'>ychological science.
a s)'stems property of highly
matter, which involves active
by subject of the objec-
tive world, cOl1!itruClion by him of an
picture of that world, and
of his own behaviour
and activity on this basis. Events of
the past. present, and possible future
are and structured in P
At the individual level, events of
come out in experience and mem_
ory; those of the, present-in a totality
of Images, t'mntlonal and
mental a_cIs; an,d those of the possible
future- 1Il motivatIons, intentions, and
RlJUh, ao:; well in fancies. \'isions
d,,_t'ams. elc. In man, P. is both of
SCIOUS and unconscious nature: howe ... er
uncomc!OUS p, also differs in quality'
from,a.l11mal P. and anticipatory
reflt'( r/fln bv the sense organs and the
- -
brain (If nternol objects ill the form
(If P. makes it possible to perform
(Idiom adt'{jllale to the properties of
the !.aid objects and thereby ensure
the of the organism which
experience!. a need in those objects
its search and ."ililolior/ally illdependen;
adil'enes.\'. Hence. the determining
of p, are: reneetion produc_
ing an image of the objective environ_
ment ill which living creatures act
their orientation in that environment:
,
and the gratilication of their needs
in contacts with that enVlrOnmel1l.
[n turn. these contacts, by the
feedback principle. con[rol accuracy
of reflection. In man. social practic.e
is the ('ontrol level. Thanks to feed-
back, lhe individual compares the
action result with the image which
anses before Ihe result, fores[all-
ing II as a peculiar model of
reality, In this way, P. emerges as a
single cyclic system that has a history
and is reflexive in type. Reflectority
signifies the primacy of objective condi-
tions in an organism's life and the
nature of their reproduction
111 P.; the natural transition of the svs-
tem's perceiving components
executive ones; and the expediency
?f locomotor effects and their "return"
Impact on the image. This conception
of the reflectory nature of P. was initi-
a!ly developed by the Russian physiolo-
giSt Ivan Sechenov in opposition to
both the idealistic ... iew, which had for
ages regarded P. as a special incor-
poreal entity (see SOIlI). whose propel-
hng force is concealed in itself. and to
the mechanist-material view which
denied P.'s activeness and' reduced
it ttl ncrvou, .. e'i. P:!li activeness
is aho maniftosted III renection
of reality, that renedion as-
slimes the transformation of physico-
chemical irrilullh that act on ner-
Valis system, into object images
both ill the <;phcrc of motivations, which
impart energy and impetus 10 beha-
viour, and in fulfIlling a behaVIOur-
al programme, which involves search
and selection of options. Arising at a
defl1lite lc ... el of biological evolution,
P. itself comes out as one of its factors
to the increasingly complex
adaptability of organisms to their
habitats. With the origin and develop-
ment of man, P. assumed a qualita-
tively new structure caused by social
and historical regularities. Consciolls-
ness emerged as the leading level in
regulating man's activity, and this
resulted in the forming of personality,
which serves as the source of supreme
manifestations of P:s activeness. Dialec-
tieo-materialist philosophy, primarily
Lenin's theory of reRection, is the
methodological foundation of P. studies
in Soviet psychology.
psychedelics. substances that cause
psychedelic P. include lysergic
acid diethylamide (LSD-25). dimethyl-
triplamine (DRT), bufotenine, mesca-
line, psilocytine, and similar psychoac-
tive hemp derivatives (cannaboids) and
certain synthetic preparations (sernyl,
ditrane, etc.). P. are presumed (0 be
antagonists of neuromediators, conduc-
tors of excitation in the lIen'OIlS system.
P. effects can change personality and
profoundly restructure the hierarchy
of its and "allies. UncotHrolied

lJJ
-
administration of P. outside the dini'
may lead 10 se ... ere accidents,
psychedelic Slates, changes III con
caused by the admini<;tration
of Studies of P.S. began in
the 1920s. In addition to physiological
symptoms (lacrymation. nausea, rigor.
etc.), P.S. are characteri<;ed by
severe mental changes, such as halluci-
nations in the form of light fla5hes,
geometric fIgures, and transformations
of surrounding objects; hypersensiti ... ity
to sounds. acoustic illllSions; changes in
semations of one's own body, and
distorted perceptions of time and !ipace
I"stoppage" or "acceleration" of time
(see Psychological Time). repeated
emotional experience of past episodes,
inadequate estimate of dimensions of
objects. loss of perspective, or a feding
of "dissolution" in space); emotional
changes (elevated mood, unmotivated
laughter or appeasement being typical
of healthy person!>, and negative emo-
tions of affected indi ... iduals); disturbed
thinking and memory (accelerated or
retarded mental processes. illusory
interpretation of events): and psycho-
motor disorders. P .S. played an impor-
tant role in religious rites of ancient
cultures. Systematically recurring P.S.
usually lead to destructive personality
changes and dangerous social con-
sequences.
The Psychic As a Process., a concept
developed by Sergei Rubinstein and his
follo ..... ers (Andrei Brushlinsky, and
others) in elaborating Ivan
Scehenov's theory of the reReClory
nature of the psychic. and one that
234
------
-
the principal mode in which
the p"ychic In effect, II eXlsl:;
primarily a .. a living. ,flexible
and -.;ontinuous proce'is, whu.:h IS never
initially fully proel and. hence. one
Ihal and to engender
variou'S produds or re<;uhs
,\/alt.\ and len/imeots,
'>Olulioo or of some task,
etc). P.A.P. not reduced 10 a se-
quence of in lime, but forms in the
course of continually changing inter-
action (adil'ily, communication (I)
elc.) of an individual with the environ-
ment and, continuously
change5 and de ... reflecting ever
more fully this dynamic nature of
environment and taking part in regulal-
Ing all adiofl'l, elc. For instance,
thinking unuly.51\, synthesis,
and gl!nerali,ation of the conditions
and requirements of the problem to
be solved and the.- methods for solving
'1. Thls ((mtinuou'l process in
.he fnrming of di,r.:rete mental opera-
tion( (lngical. mathematical, linguistic,
elc.). whilh thought generates, but
nOI rroul'ed to. a proce'i"O, thinking
IJ inseparably a' ... ociated with
Ity's menial activity (involving motiva-
tion. etc.). At each given
of hi'i, J'Kychological development,
man ach lOtelll!dually, pr(k.'eeding from
already per'iOnal motives
and abilitie.s; the further forming of
mO!1Ve$ and abilities takes place at
SlJbscl:luent of the mental pro-
In this (a'Se, thinking, percep-
tlfm. el.,;. would chiel1y form uncon.
Llously rsee Thr How.
ever, aI. the renolla! level of thinking,
pen:epllon, t'h: man would to a large
exlenl regulate the!,e pro-
ce .. <;es. The inseparable interrelationship
of the conscious and the unconscious
ensures P.A.P. continuilY, which mani-
itself in Ihe close interconne<tion
of Ihe cognitive and affective compo_
nents of any psychological act, The
concept of P.A.P. reveals the unity of
consciousness and activity, for human
psyche manifests itself and forms in
activity.
Psychic State, a concept used to conven-
tionally distinguish a relatively "tatic
moment in an indillidual's psyche in
contrast to the term "psychic process"
(see The Psychic A\ a Process), which
stre;ses the dynamic elements of
psyche, and also to Ihe concept "psychic
property", indicative of stable mani-
festations of individual ones
characterised by persistence and recur-
rence in the structure of a given perso-
nality, The same manifestation of
psyche may be examined in different
aspects. Por instance, an affect, as a
P .S., represenls a generalised charac-
of the emotional, cognilive and
behavioural aspects of individual
in a defmitc, relatively limited
time interval; as a psychic process, it
characterised by develop-
ment of emotions; it may also be regard-
ed a<; a manife;tation of a person's
psychic properties (quick temper,
lack of restraint, anger). Manifestations
of\entim{'nt,\' (mood,\, affecls, {'tip/lO-
xia, allxiety, {rtiMratiofl, etc.), atten-
tion (concentratioll, distractioll) , will
(re,w/utene,\s) , confusion, self-discipli-
ne, thinkin/( (doubts), imaRination (day
dreaming), etc. also relate 10 P.S\.
235
-
------
---
-
Special subjects of re<;e-
arch are P.S<; under (In combat,
during exams or in other _extre":,al
situations, such al the period prior
to ath lelic com pet ition .. ). PatllOp.vychol
0RY and medical psycholoRY
pathological P.S's namely
and psychology, P .S's, e.g.
mass (Xlnlc.
psychoanalysis, (I) a set of methods for
revealing for pur-
poses the specif1cs of human emotional
experiences and activities caused by
unconscious mofilles (see Psycho-
therapy; The Unconscious; Neuroses):
(2) a theory developed by Sigmund
Preud and his followt!rs (see Freudian-
ism; Analytical Individual
Psychology; Neo-Freudianism).
Psychobiography, a method for psy-
chologically the personality
of specifIC persons, primarily politi-
cians. Initially appeared within the
framework of Sigmund
and was hallmarked by his
disregard for the role of
ical faclors in individual development
and behaviour, and by their substitu-
tion for a biological interpretation
of psychological phenomena and for
psychologised explanations of social
and political events. The fln;t work in
P. described the personality of Wood-
row Wilson, the former US
with Preud taking part. At present,
all American presidents and many
other politicians in the United States
and other countries are made the ob-
jects of P., and the authors of this
analytical method use the results of
co/(nitive
often. In examining the pl'rsonalities
of men of culture, Soviet psychologi .. IS
apply the psychobiographic method
basing on the po<;lulate that creative
work in any area of a(tivity 1$ socially
conditioned.
Psychodiagnosis, a sphere of psycholo-
gy which elaborates for re-
vealing the individual fealure" of and
prospects for personality development.
P. began to be used in the 19th century
by James Cattell, Prancis Gallon,
Hermann Ebbinghaus, and others.
A serious conlribution to P. was made
by the French psychologist Alfred
Binet and collaborators, who developed
methods for diagnosing the level of
intellectual development in children
(1Q test, 1905-1911). Owing to the
heterogeneity of P. sources and compo-
nent elements, Western psychology
gives a controversial interpretation of
its tasks and has no single scientifIC
and practical discipline of p, wilh its
own subject-matter, theory and method.
In Marxist psychology, P. is designed
to develop an effective system of diag-
nostic methods allowing to solve the
tasks posed before psychology by social-
ist society. AI present, P. uses numerous
methods to study the influence on
personality of education and age; train-
ing, professional, and sporting activi-
ties; and so on. These methods may
conventionally be classified into four
types, viz., tests (see Intelli/(eflce Tests;
Achievement Criteria-Oriented
elc.), and personal question- \
naires; projective techniques (see Pro-
jectil'e Tests): and psychophysiological
=-----------
-
methods. Thf' laller wrvf' 10
individUIIJ manifntaCions of the pnJP-
enin of Ihe- nf'rV(lUS syslt"tn Bnd It I
the dynlmk ftl.ures of flSydl('
tlK'livjly ralC', .hili.)' iii
durllion of 14'IIn working dtlrit'llry.
elc.). Any mt'lhtld
musr rdillbk ('lee Rl'lillh
II, 0/11 Tf"" Ifill. moM Importantly,
valid (we Fillidil,v) , Tht' pral'liral
t'fflcit'nq tlf dilloBntlSlir tt'l"hnillut's
would dt'llefld on their \ub<ilanliaJ
lit'! with h."i( fbydHllugical rl"St'srdl,
and on Ihe U.'OC of appruprialC'
for analysing. and
mtAllurill1 Iht' phenumrna 10 be
mlM'd.
Plydtodrama. a (urlll (If I"'Y-
(ICC' P\'l'dWlht>ruPI'.
(irflupl, whf"n plll(,l1h IlIkt' tUrIl, ii'
Il1nu and spt1"'alors, their rllll"o hClII,
drlll,ned 10 of pt'r-
lomliwd "U'dltllllt for Ih(' plrlkipanh in
order 10 ('liminale inad('tlu.l(' ('11101 iUllal
fCS(k)fUft, Irain social ('It'r(('ptiull ht'('
P",a",ilHf, and allain dC"l'pl"r
",II The- (on("tpt lind profC' o
dlirC" or ... wu Nugnted by Janlb
Murello. HISA), who withoul pro('lt'r
JIQflh, .. aunn IIItC"qlrC'ted IhC'" mC'"thod "'I
a nlUIIS fur Icll ... inl 'Iwial problems
(In h,rofl(" IIntl Ih(' UnilC',i
StaIn, IhC' I('rm "MlI:iodrllma" b alSlI
1UC't1 1IIIIIfYIrllC way IIf ('linllnaljlll!.
(nnfllJ,;U 11\ ,rllUps tlf lu.'lIlthy pt"\lpld.
The' ,mplln,,,,, \'kmrnl.\ \If P. ar(, ,pon-
l.lle-lIy, atlI ... tlld\, 11111\ imprn ... iSC',1
bth .... ,llllr. P. IIrrh('ll in nt'uru,\C"\
,h,lt! indu1i'\(', ""tl also i',;
faY' hOkIlIlIlII( allil
and In .ur ..... led fJ:t..\",hOp..Hhlt's IInli
d.'I'iunI h,.lwl'iollr. Pamily P. s
1I1s" rn ...... thlt-. P. elemenl\ are inclUd_
ed. in bdul ....iollral. P.qdlOlh,.rapy,
Iraming, and busi.
(see ."'oc;nP.\.\'(ho/O!:h'ul
TrllInin/(; (illm/'. 811."''''11'1\) .
PsychOienefics., a of pSydlOlog
y
marglllal wllh P. studil'!'i Ihe
nrigill of indi ... idual r"Yl'hil' in
humans It) elundale thl' elTel'l
Ihereon of Ihe genotype and the envi-
ronmenl . P. Ihe rnelh()(h of modern
gtlltlin. The mO\1 informative olle is
the twin method (Fran(b Gallon

1876), Willdl allows 10 maximally
le ... e1 oul environmental e!feus. Mosl
wurlc.., lin P. are devoled 1(1 a varielY of
Int' for studying the intl'r-lIIdi ... idual
variahiJiIY (If higher psydHllogi..:al
fundlon\. rhicfly of i"It'I/,'(I. Pwcho-
gellltirists have found Ihe of
kinship (i.e. the number of common
gellC'S) Itl be rmport,onal 10 Ihe results
of many IQ lJuS111!t tin Ihis. We,.
Eurllpt'lin and AIllt'rtl'an hdd
lill re(el1lly bt-he ... t'd thlll mon's 11111"1.
J\l1tt'lIlial IS l"t\llililitlnt'd tn Ill'.
reduy. HOWl'\'er, III Vl'ars, ;1 ha\
btell nm"'isil1jtly SlhlWII lhal P. nlt'lh
art' insufflrient and IQ 1 ..... 1.\
lIonable fllr making surh clll1dusil\lls
and dialllU\lIljt IIlletll'\1. Mn,1 Wesl
E".urllpl'an ami lIS l'lSydHllng"ts 1!tIlMe"
IIIl' de\"l'luptllelil Ill" hUllIil1l J'l'Iydul"
fUlhllllth. So ... iet psydllllllgisl.\ ha\e
shown Ihal omoMenc'.li.\ invnhes
tI rhlllljte nf mental fUtKlioli /IU'dw-
t'it'lIIellllin' .... Irms iuhen'lIl in
early arC'" replart'd oy hi!:her.
IOIlt:'laliv--clllldilillllt'd fal'\llrs lhlll are
.l"\uahS("d willt inllmale pDrticipalll1ll
--,-
f Some fads oblainC'd in P.
ground 10 think. that,
gth (hange of the relallon
'lit' psydwlogil'al fund ions to the
also ..:hanges: Ihe grealer the
llf specifICally human factors of
.' Ihe les.ser the share of genetIc
ongill. .' dd 1
in the forlllLllg of 111 IV!. ua
I'sychologil'al fealures (lnna Ravlch-
Shcherbo) .
psychogenies. but reversible
menial disorders anslIIg under t he
inOucnce of psychic traumas. bOlh
acule (e.g. loss of some dose
and weak, hut persistenl onc\, winch
engender inner conflicls (e.g. con-
tro ... ersy between sense of duty and
P. alst) arise as a result of lengthy
nervous slress, and sevtre somatic dis-
Con ...entionally, p, are classifltd
into rtlJC,ivt .f,alt.' and neuroses (see
Nt'llmSt.f, Clinit'al) , Psychogenic dis-
orders whose inlensity i.f not very
high and whil'h are endured without
Ills., of working ability are called
chogel1il' reactions, neurOlll' ol1es
indusive,
Psychohygienc :lIld Ploychoprophylaxis,
\phercs lIf 1II/'t!il'lI/ (l..1)'cho/OKY de!iigned
III Ml"llrd 'I){'(ialiwd aid 10 pral'llcaUy
Ilt'althy llc.'lIpie in order 10 prevenl
nt'uro-lIlt'lIlal and dis-
t',l\e.\, and abo 10 nllevialc ut:ule
p'ydlolraunHllir reaclions (sec Psycho-
Kc'nie.\l. P. utld P. method); involve
work withill Ihe
framework of l'I)T)sultmion cenlres,
\:lInfu.lcll(C tl'le.'phoIlC!i" and Other or .
!tunisuliol1\ oril'llted to psychological
aut Il) heililhy pcople.'; llIass exam ina
137
lions aimed at revealing so.ca,l1ed risk
groups and conducting preventlve,work
therewith; and providing information 10
Ihe public. Special tasks of P.
and P. are to help in, crilleal
family. training. or job 10
work with young disintegratlRg famlhes.
and so on.
Psycholinguislics. a scientifIC discipline
that studies the dependence of speech
processes and speech perc.eption on the
structure of some specIfic
(or language in general). In 115 con
temporary meaning. the term P. was
introduced by the US scholars Charles
Osgood and Thomas Sebeok. w.ho
relied on and
tive linguistics (the Yale
School), Beginning in the 19605,
ican psycholinguistics were onented
to Noam Chomsky's theory of "genera
live grammar"; but. beginning in .the
late 1970s. Ihey have lended to reject
it in favour of guests for a general
psychological theory. In Britain. France.
Wesl Germany. and other Weslern
counlrie!S, P. developed in a similar
way; however, owing 10 their Sirong
p:sychological tradilion, Chomsky's ideas
did 1101 become !So wiJespread. In Iht:
USSR. P. began 10 develop in tht::
mid I CJ60!S, ils main trend being in the
theory of spcel'h aClivity (examination
of speel'h as a particular
case of activity). The aeatiol1 and
development of P. wa.s connected with
a whole series of applied lasks of l'l1gi
tI('erinR psychO/OR)', and parll()-
PSycho/ORY, and foreign language
training (Alexei A. Leontiev),
______________________________ _
Ps},chological Anlhropolog)'.sU Ethnl)..
psychology.
Insrilutioru (in the
USSR)' research inSlilUles or their
structural units: departments of psy-
chology at unh'erc;ities (in Moscow.
Leningrad. Tbilisi, and Yarosla\'I):
branch laboratories, and chairs of
psycholog)' at institutions of higher
learning engaged III psychological
research and training of psycholo-
gi-its. The USSR has the fol-
lowing four psychological research
institutes: In<;litule of Psychology of the
USSR Academy of Sciences (organised
in 1971), which is the country's cenlral
institution for psychological research;
Research Institute of General and
Pedagogical Psychology of the USSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
(founded in 1912): D.N. Uznadze
Institute of of the Academy
of Scienco of the Georgian SSR
(founded in 1941); and Psychological
Institute of the Ministry of
Education of the Ukrainian SSR
(established in 1945). Special depart-
ments at some research institutes (Re-
.search Institute of the Study of Handi-
capped Children of the USSR Academy
of ,Pedagogical Sciences: Research
InstItute for Preschool Education of the
Academy of Pedagogical
SCIences; Y.M, Bekhterev, Psychoneur_
ologlcal Research Institute; CIC.) also
Study p!>ychological problems. P.I. have
postgraduate departments, issue their
OWn and run specialised
dOCtorate and candid8le
dlSSertaucms In psychology may be de-
fended.
Psychological InSlrument, an element
in the stru..:ture of a func_
tion role to that of
an implement in the structure of hUman
labour acti\'iIY. In the cllitural-histor_
ical thew}', signs ("instrumental Stim_
uli") are regarded as P.l"s. In this
capacity. they basically differ from the
signs (verbal and non-verbal) tradi-
tionally studied by psychology and
constilUtillg the content of memory.
since the structural element ("signs
without meaning"), not the content

is intentionally distinguiShed in the
former. According to Lev Yygotsky,
P.l's are acquired by humans in the
course of interiorisation of joint activ-
ity in ontogenesis.
Psychological Journals (ill the lR)SR),
periodical scientilic publications cOv-
ering the problems and development of
the science of psychology. In pre-revo-
lutionary Russia, the following Rus-
sian-language P. J. (or journals that
gave prominence to psychological prob-
lems) were published: Voprosy {ilo-
softi i psikhologii (Problems of Philos-
ophy and Psychology) 1889-1918;
Vestnik psikhologii, kriminalnoi antro-
pologii i gipnoti:ma (Herald of Psy-
chology, Criminal Anthropology, and
Hypnotism), 1904-1918, from 1911
called Vestnik psikhologii, kriminailioi
antropologii i pedoloKii (Herald of
Psychology, Criminal Anthropology,
and Child Study): Oboueniye psikhia-
lrij, nel'rologii i eksperimenlalnoi
psikhologii (A Review of Psychiatry.
Neurology, and Experimental Psychol-
ogy), 1896-1918. The journals pu-
blished after the Great October
-- ---
Socialist Revolution were a1 foIIt,lw':
Voprosy i:ucheniyu f wxpitaniya
/ie/mosli of Per<;onality
Study and Education),
except for the years 1923-1925;
logiya (Psychology), Z.hur:.
nat psikhologii, nevrologff f
(Journal of Psychology.
and psychiatry) (from 1922. publL'>hed
irregularly): Psikhialriya. nel'rologlya
i eksperimentalnaya psikholol{ia (Psy-
chiatry, Neurology. and
Psychology), 1922-1923: Ped%gla
(Child Study), 1928 1932; Psikhofdo-
togia truda i psikhotekhnika (Psycho-
physiology of Labour and Psychotech-
nique), 1928-1934 (from 1932.
Sovetskaya psikhotekhnika (Sovtet
Psychotechniques): Klinicheski arkhiv
genialnosti j odarennosti (Clinical
Archives of Talent and Giftedness)'
1925-1930. The currently published
PJ. are as follows: Voprosy psikhoioRii
(Problems of Psychology). since 1955:
Psikhologiya. Vestnik Moskol'skogo
universiteta (Psychology. Herald of
Moscow University). since 1977: and
Psykhologicheski Zhllrnal (Psychologi-
al Journal), since 1980. Psychological
problems are also presented in the
journals Sovetskayu pedagogika (So-
viel Pedagogy). published si nce 1937:
Voprosy filosofii (Problems of Philos-
ophy). published since 1947: Zhur-
nat vysshei nervnoi deyatelnosti imeni
I.P. Pavlol'a (The I. P. Pavlov J ournal
of Higher Nervous Activity), published
since 1950: and others.
Psychological Research Equipment.
. instrl!l!'ents..t-de.XiSes .8Qd mechanis,rtlS-
applied for recording and measuring
lJ9
mental processe<>. funclior..,;. and states.
It includes: (I) detectors (transducers.)
designed to detect and lraruform pn-
mary signals into a form SUitable {or
subsequenl regislration and
(2) monitor and recording devtce!
designed either to expose the
to a or to the subJet s
answers: (3)
designed 10 receive quantitative infor-
mation on the properties of objects
and phenomena. Detectors in psycho-
logical and psychophysiological rese-
arch include all types of electrical. me-
chanical. and chemical detecting devi-
ces. Monitor and recording apparatuses
include needle and dial electrical and
radio gauges. mechanical equipment.
photographic and cinematographic
equipment. video and audio taperC\::or-
ders. dictaphones. and polygraphs.
Measuring devices include: (a) me-
chanical and electronic
reflexometers. and chronoreflexome-
ters 10 measure temporal characteristics:
(b) luxmeters. anomaloscopes. taxi-
stascopes to measure visual character
istics: (c) audiometers, noisimeter::;,
amplifiers to measure hearing; (d)
eslhesiometers and compasses to meas-
ure the characteristics of the tactile
analyser. Of special imponance are
computers. used not only for calculation
and statistical data processing. but also
for direct control of the process of
experiment. Computers combine gaug-
ing. monitoring. and recording func-
lions, and are superior to all previously
applied types of psychological appara-
tuses in accuracy, speed. and degree
of automation. The application of
computers increased the producti\'ity
/
______________________________________________ __
--
of f'Sy.:h(l\ogi.:'ai research. _ in some
the possLbl111Y of re-
sear.::her's ne!8ti\'e influence on the
cour.;e of the experiment
Psychological Selection.
ing (oncerning the e.ohstment
..:andidales whose results In psychologI-
cal sho\\' they ha\'e more chances
for beillg hi for professional. academic
or other adi\'ily. Specifically. P.S. is
applied in sports. military. and
tngineerinR f"i.l"choloIU'. P.S. IS pre-
ceded by specifying the ,psychological
to the candIdate, and by
chOClSing lest methods by analysing
his future acti,'ity. The hypotheses
about validity of these requirements
and methods is ohen tested on represen-
lalin samples by comparing the lot
re$Ults with the subj(-cI's work effi.cien-
..:y. Some of a.:tivity contain
to p:;ychic qualities
thaI hard 10 (e.g. those
rdalN t,9 Ihc properties of .he neri'OI'S
sysUmJ . In types of acti\'ity,
('\ery "orma! penon may satisfy these
In this case. need for
P.S. would arise when (I) period
'I of fonhr.:oming human acti\'itv is to be
shon, say, from 5 to" 10 years,
like in profo"ional sports; and (2)
f to established psychomotor,
mtdlextual, and other sUreOlypes
{ does not allow a person to master
the t:hniqucs of hi!; future aCliv-
I!) _ wnhin an ao.:ceJllable period
'Jf both cases, psychological
tests establish pc:mibiJiI\' to attain
lhe (socially dfi-
t-io how
pared and realised P.S. is. it does nOl
demonstrate in a deflnite way the candi_
date\ for a gi\'en type of activity. I
To be flt, the per.)on in must
ihat had
developw be-fore or during that activity,
The efficieno.:}' of P .S. is by
comparing the result.s of psychological
tests with an external criterion. namely.
some impartial indicator of effIciency;
in this case, the psychological charac-
teristIC of it must correspond
to the methods used in the psychological
tests. Medical selection is often per-
formed along with P.S., and the results
of both supplement each other.
Ps)'chological Service. a system for
practical application of psychological
science in solving complex tasks of
psychological expert examination,
diagnosis. and consultation in industry.
education, health care, public order. etc .
Organisationally. P.S. takes forms of
l'Q(.'ulionul guidanC(' offices. the family
and marriage :;en'ice, psychological
centres within the system of the scien-
tific organisation of labour, etc. De- X
velopment of P.$, is an important task /'
of applied psychology. such as medicul.
pedugoKic. juridical psychology. psy-
chology 0/ management, psychology 0/
sporl, and other areas.
Psychological Time. reHection in man's
psyche of a system of temporal rela-
tions between the evcnts of one's life-
time. P .T. includes estimates of syn-
chronism. sequence, duration and
speed of e\'ents: their relation to the pre-
sent. remoteness in the past or future:
of compactness or extension
of of its discreteness or continuity,


-
limited or inflllite nature; awarcne, of
age. age period') (childhood, youth,
malurity, and old age): .deas about
life expectancy, death and immortal-
ity, historical of one',) own life
with that of prevIous and subsequent
generations of, one's
society, and mankmd as a whole. FIC-
tion and philosophical literature contain
abundant material for studying P.T.
Several approaches may be distin-
guished in psychology which explain
and experimentally study PT. Ac-
cording to the "quantum" concept, there
are different-scale subjective "time
quanta" (lasting from milliseconds to
decades), which, in fact, condition
various experiences of time, e.g. esti-
mates of synchronism and distinction of
the psychological present. From the
viewpoint of the event concept, P.T.
specifics would depend on the number
and intensity of occurring events
(changes in internal and external media
and in man's activity). However. the
"quantum" and event approaches have
failed to solve a number of basic issues,
namely the possibility for P.T. to re\
erse and be multi-dimensional: the non-
linear sequence of the psychological
past, present and future: and the unit
of age categorisation. To overcome
these difficulties, Soviet psychologists
are developing an approach, according
to which P,T. reflects a complex system
of mutually conditioned inter-event
relationships of the "cause-and-effect'
and "objective-and-means" type, not
merely chronological intervals and
events per se.
Psychology, a science about the regu-
1/10915
241
--.--
..!.a rities S'!_9j:ve!opmc.o I.pnd 1 u _nrl inning
of p\yche as a special form of vital
activity. The interaction of living (rea
lures with the environment is adua!.
ised through psychic processes. acts,
and states that differ in quality
from their physiological counterparts,
but are inseparable therefrom, For
centuries, phenomena ,tudied by P .
were designated by the general term
"psyche" (soul) and as a
chapter of philosophy called P. in the
16th century, Evidence about thest:'
phenomena also accumulated in many
other investigations, and in various
spheres of (especially in medi-
cal and teaching practice). The peculi-
arity of these phenomena: the fact that
they are given to man in the form
of direct, inseparable emotional exper-
iences, their particular cognisability.
caused by the individual's abilit), for
sel/-obserration and self reDO"
on; and their intimately personal \-alue
to the subject in question inter-
preted by religious and
ings as indicati\'e of their speoal ongm.
The opponents of this \'iew developed
a materialistic tradition oriented to al
lying P. with natural science, that
consolidated scientific
psyche, proceeding from advances
made in studying its material substrate
(sense organs and higher nerve cen-
tres). . I
The successes of neurophys.o ogy
and biology led to the development
of P.'s own categories; subsequently
due to increased experimental P: "
beean to divorce from both ph.losoph)
and physiology, given that. Ihe
logical regularities tn the
{
labonton failed 1('1 coincide wilh ,the
evidence -of 8n31(lmic and phYSlO.'oglcal
studies. II was pro\'et1 thaI psychIC pro-
being the of the
inJi .. idual's interaction wllh Ihe en-
.. ironment. are themselves an acllve
causal factor (determinant) of be-
ha\';ollr, Whereas idealistic concepts
misinterpret activity as
a srt"l-'ial l1Sychological
l'ol'ni,ed through inner
(inlrl/\(lt',ti,m)' natural SCIentific
,)1" gelH'licatly primary forms
0' r,yche {and also of its, palholog-
1(31 the
priority of objt"Cti'l'c methO<b which
subsequenUy became ueclswe for P
sC'rOh.U7I'OliOfl retains the signiflCance
Jf an imptmant. but auxiliary
of informa!il'" on human mind. whost
eSKnllallharal,;terisci.: cnllsciou:.nen,
Bc'''J the and fun.:lion of social
J'lroceS\e">, an indi-
VIoJuals iouSl1ess own
systems al.d semanlL.: organisalion
whkh aUS(5. vanou, rna-
ni(cslariols h'or:nnive, mrolivalionally
alfeclvt, optrali,lllal, and pen;o
nal thai diller in quaht)'
from thost i'!!ler(Sll.lJ] pOIIDaLp"}:0<'.
pos$lbiTit)' II) cognitl\e
)t(l(Uses of Ihe lIIdividual's
.. fttdlon 1'iJelf.a,,:(ounI) due to Ihe
fa, I Ihey and develop
n an 'lbJcCllve !>Ylotem of the
,hVldu."! relalion .. with other
an1 the- cnv rnnment. Within Ihe
samt !ysUm by krutinil<ing nthers,
he ndividual acqulrt'$ the 10
JudSt' about the ml'\tr part of hi\ own
behavIOur het the
NOI all tht 1,.0mp<Jnents of Ihili
part are trans.latable into the [an-
guage of conSClOusnes:o;: yet. they too,
in forming a sphere of the IIncOIIS_
cious. serve as a subjeci of P .. which
reveals how the individual's actual
nlOlil'es and alii __cqrresQorul_lO
his Ideas aoOU! the laller, Both con-
scious and unconscious Jl5ychic proces-
ses are achieved by neurohumoral
mechanisms operating by PhYSiOIOg_ ")
ical law!); however they take place
by their own laws, not by the
afore-mentioned ones, since human
psyche comprises both natural and
. .the life X
the acting IIldlvldual. ActiVity per se IS
not a subject-mauer of P.; nor is human
activity as a whole. for il is studied
by a number of disciplines. P. examines
a a\peCl of human activi-
ty, The dependence of human behaviour
on biological and \ocial factors deter-
the of its study in P.,
which in a "dialogue" between
e\idem:e on nature and culture, an
integratl'd in the psychological
u\ed by other S\:iences. .
The dialedico-malerialistic teachlllg
on being an active reflec-
tion of reality conditioned by ::,ocio- -<
practice, allowed to elaborate
the ba.\ic of scientifIc P.
from new methodological positions,
These are: the psychophysiological
problem (con.:erning the relation of
J'l'>ythe to ;b corporeal
the psycho,ocial problem (on the depen-
denl'e of p,yche on social proces.ses, and
on its active role in actuatising those
pro..t'l<,\l'"'> by II1dividuals and
the problem
(011 Ihe formin@ of pl<yche in Ihe cour.e
r
I
of practical aCllvity. and on the de-
pendence of that activity on its psychic
regulators, VIZ., Images, operations,
motives, and personal properties);
the psychognostic aspect (on the rela-
lion of sensory and mental psychic
images to the reality which they reflect);
and so on. These problems are ela-
borated on the basis of such prin-
ciples as determinism revealilig tne
determination of phenomena by tne
action of their productive factors),
systems quality (interpretation of
these phenomena as inherently re-
lated components of an integral psychic
structure), and development (re-
cogmllon of the fact that mental
processes transform and change to pass
from one level to another and 10 devel-
op new form!; of psychic processes).
The elaboration of the bask problems
of P. rl'Sulted in its cDtegorial system.
whi":!l inl"ludes the categories of image,
motive. action, persondl'ity. elc. Psy-
chological is imeparable from
social research, from social demands for
knowledge necessary in such areas as
training, educating, and !;electing per-
sonnet for industry. agriculture and
culture, and for indi-
vidual and collective activity. In
reflecting reality in its orig-
inal characteristics, P.'s C'ah'}!orial
structure, is the foundation or "trunks"
of the entire diversity of the ramifIca-
tions of contemporary p, which appear
in the form of separate branches, many
of which have now acquired an inde-
pendent .'>tatw. (see Aviation P., Mili
tary P., Deveiopmellwl P.,
lial P., Animal Enl:ineer-
inK p" Hi.\lOrical P., SpaCl! P., Medi-
24,1
cal P., Neuropsychology, General p"
Pathopsychology, Pedagogical p"
Psychogenelics. P."ycllohygiene, Psy-
chodiagnosis, PsycholinguiHics, Pw
chomelry, Psycllosemullfin, p, of
Art, P. of Science. p, of Prop-
aganda, P. of Sport, P. of Crea-
tive Activity, P. of Lahour. P. of
Mallagement, Political P., Psycho-
therapy, Psychopharmacology, Psycho-
PSyclrOl,hy .. i%gy, Defee/a
psychology, Social P., Comparative P.,
p, of Economics, Elhnic P., Ethology,
and luridical P.), Differential and
integrational processes that turned P.
into a "cluster of branches were caused
by the demands of various tields of
practice which make P. run into prob-
lems related to a particular tield, As
a rule, these problems are complex and, )
hence, worked out by numerous discip-
lines. The inclusion of P. inlo interdis-
ciplinary research would only be pro-
ductive when P. would enrich the laller
by concepts, methods, and explanatory
principles inherent only in itself. AI
the same time, as a result of contacts
wilh other sciences, P. ilself is enriched
with new ideas and approaches 10
enhance il.'> knowledge and categorial
system. which ensurCl; integrity as an
independent science,
In the currelll revolution in science
and technology, the transfer to electro-
nic device.'> of certain func\iolls pre-
viously inherent solely ill Ihe human
braill, namely Ihe fUllctions of data stor-
ing and relrieving. management and
control, had a serious impact 011 the
further development of P. This made
it possible to widely use cybernetic
and dat3-proce;sing concepts and
244
models to help and
lise P. and inlroou(e a cybernellC style
of thinking with its caused
b,' the use -01
U.,'
de .. ice'. Automation and computens8-
tion have sharply raised the interest in
quick diagnosis and. alld
effective use and (UIIlV8110n of human
funcliom that cannot be transferred
In ele":lfonic devices. primarily c rea-
abilities ensuring further progress
in \I.:ience and engineering. The study
of urtiJiciul infellecl, on the one hand.
and of r;rf'ulil'(' actil'ity. on the Olher ,
are currenlly becoming important
trends. in P. This is accompanied by
rapid development of social P. and
management P. both of which solve
problem, concerning the role of the
"human factor"' in slXial development,
In managtmtnt and also in
rrstarch conctrntd with space explo-
talltJO and with demographic, ecolog-
Ifal and olher urgenl issues of our lime.
The inleradion of P. with various soci-
al. nalural. and applitd science (both
in Ihc-oretical and applied research)
makc-s it panicularly important to
provide a methodological analysis of its
conctplual means, explanatory princi-
ples. theorics and procedures for re-
vealing most proml'iing development
All this in the struggle
of opposite l<'orld Olltlook.\, which
fact determines the important role of
P. In Ihe (urrent ideological struggle
and Its dlrttt relationship with so.:io-
politi"al laking place in the
.. orld IOt1ay.
0( An. the study of the
of artislic
aClisity. parllcularly the manifestations '
of personalilY in creating and percei\'_ V
ing works of art. The Iraditional pro- /'
blems of P. of A. in its different forms
(music. paint1llg. literalUre. theatre,
cinema. choreography. and architec_
ture) include creative work at all stages,
from project to c reation, perception,
a nd asses::;ment of the work in question.
P. of A. studies processes whereby an
artistic image appears, the processing
of past experience, creative imagination
and thinking, creative psychic states.
and also the (1clil'eness and orien-
lation of a given personality, his or
her artistic abilities and talent. The I
works of Soviet psychologists from I"
the Kharkov Psychological School
(Alexander Potebnya, and others) were X
instrumenlal in developing the currenlly
accepted concept thai the process of
artistic perception is inherently a col- /
lective one. Soviet P. of A. studies
the process of artistic perception in
various groups differ ing in age, educa-
tion, cultural level, a nd :socio-demo-
graphic features. It examines the
meehanism:s of psychic perception
adequate to the :struct ure of a given
work of art, and also the conditions \Ii
under which that proces:s is distorted; f-
the p:;ychological a:spec is of arlis.ti.c
educati on; the forming of artistic ablh-
tie:s, taste. aestheti c sen:sitivity: and
the of children':s creative
activity. The Soviet psychologist Lev
Vygotsky developed an original ap-
proach to P. of A. He believed that ItS
main problem concerns the psycholog-
ical mechanisms of the aesthetic re-
spon!'.C of people perceiving a work of
art. In his view, this aesthetic response
is programmed by the very structure
of the work in question. Contempo-
rary P. of A. uses a systems approach
which allows to sludy the psychological
aspects of a given work of art and the
process of aesthetic perception in cor-
relalion and unity.
Psychology of the Blind Deafmute. see
Typhlopsychology.
Psychology of Creati ve Acti vi ty, a
branch of psychological study of peo-
ple's creative activity in science (see
Psychology of Sciem'e). literature. mu-
sic, graphic and scenic art (see Psy-
cllO/ogy of Art). in"elllion. and
rationalisation. Methodologically, P.
of C.A. is based on the principle of
historicism. A special section of P. of
C.A. is the study of child crea-
tive aCllvity. SpecifiC P. of CA.
problems concern the study of the role
of imagination, thinking, intuition,
inspiration, situationally independenl
activeness (see Activeness, Silllationul-
Iy Independent), and individual psycho-
logical features expressed in the course
of creative activity, such as abilities.
talent, ingenuity. etc., effects produced
on personality by its inclusion in a
creative collective (see Social Faci-
litation), various factor:s capable of
stimulating creative activeness (group
discussion, brain storming, certain
psychopharmacological agents. etc,).
Psychology of Labour, a science which
studies the psychological regularities
that govern the forming of eoncrele
aspects of work and human relalion
245
thereto. The foundalions of P. of L.
formed under Ihe influence of medicine,
physiology, technology, sociology, and
psychology, The inclusion of these
disciplines in the slUdy of labour was
prompted by recognition of the faci
that good organisation of labour could
raise productivity better than inten-
sification of labour. Each of these dis-
c iplines helped develop P. of Land
formulate its tasks. The accepted view
is that P. of L became an independent
scientifiC discipline following the publi-
cation of Psychology and Production
Efficiency ( 1913) and The Funda-
mentals of (19 14)
by G. Milnsterberg. A substantial
cOnlribution 10 the study of labour
was made by the Russian physiolog-
ist Ivan Sechenov, whose works,
such as Physiological Criteria for
Establishing Working Day Duration
(1897), and An Essay on Human Work
Mm'emenJs ( 1901) initiated research
on rational organisation and plann-
ing of labour. However, much
time was needed for P. of L.
to overcome Ihe ecleclic nature of
its polydisc iplinary legacy and to dis-
tinguish its own subject so as to prompt
new relevant investigation trends. viz ..
engineering psychology, al'iation psy-
chology, space psychology, and ergo-
nomics. Investigations by Soviet scho-
lars Alexei Gastev, Konstantin Plato-
nov, and others helped P. of L. become
established and its tasks comprehended
on the basis of the Marxist-Leninist
view that labour is essentially huma-
nislic. Today. the main tasks of P. of L.
are to study the psychological
of complexity, reliability. producunty,
labour quality, development ?f permna-
!ih' in work, muwal adaptatIOn of man
an'd the implements of labour, and
orientalion, and to
mine the psychological charactenSllcS
of different professions.
Psychology of Management, a branch
of psychology that swdies the psychol-
ogical regularities of management. The
basic task of P. of M. is to analyse
the psychological conditions and spe-
cifics of managerial activity in order to
enhance management efficiency and
quality. In the USSR. P. of M. has in-
tensely developed since the early I 970s.
At the present stage of developed socia-
lism. the CPSU is focussing on further
improving all managerial elements.
Management is actualised in the mana-
ger's activity, in which P. of M. dis-
tinguishe5 the diagnosing and forecast-
ing of the state of and changes in
the managerial subsystem; the forming
of a programme of actIVIty for
employees, one aimed at changing the
state of the managed object in a given
direction; and organising the execution
of decisiom. In the manager's personal-
ity. P. of M. distinguishes his needs
and abilities. and also his individual
managerial concept, comprising the
supertask, problems, schemes and
accepted principles and rules which he
has sel for himself. The managerial
subsystem studied by P. of M. is normal_
ly represented by the joim activities
of a large group of hierarchically inter-
related managers (executives). P. of M.
eXClmines the coordinating methods that
!11
ake
, it possible to transform their
indiVidual actions imo integrally collec_
live management. These methods dc.
pend on Ihe. managcrs. legal. rights;
the interrelatIOns of IllS dutIes; the
incentives for his work; sex and age
differences; human relations; and so on.
The imperfect nature of those coordi-
nating methods manifests itself in
connicts, departmental barriers. and
parochialism. P. of M.' s major task X
is to slUdy the psychological conditions
required to make the managerial system
function integrally. Inasmuch as the
subject of management is Ihe collective
labour of a given organisation admi-
nistered by that managerial mechanism
and since the work and working condi-
tions of these organisations essentially
differ, the psychological peculiarities
of management would in each case
assume a specifiC aspect and be subject
to specialised study, such as economic
management and troop control.
Psychology of Propaganda. a field of
applied SOCial psychology which studies
regularities- of. human interactions in
systems formed by the propaganda
source and audience, and also Ihe
effects of Objective and subjective fac-
tors on the course and results of this
process. P. of P. examines: (I) pro-
cesses involving dissemination of mes-
sages at of forming, fixating
or changin . signifi-
cant objects; () the
aspects of processes inv9lvlIlg the Oflglll
and functioning of Rublic opinioll;
(3) ways of inducing peO"ple 10 actioll \
in connection with the objects Of at-""
tilUdes and opinions (Yuri Sherkovin ""l
and Boris Parygin). P. of P. is designed
to reveal the socio-psychological char-
, I
b

I
actenstll.:S of the content and form of
with regard to the audience's
consciousnes.\ and the pos,ibilities of
specifiC mas.1> media for opti-
mally resolving cenaln SOCia l and politi-
cal is . .':iUes. One of P. of P.'s research
problems is to study real and potential
a.udiences from Ihe viewpoint of their
I'a/lle orierllaliolll and need for infor-
mation. P. of P. also analyses processes
connected with perception of messages;
their further processing and, fmally,
their acceptance or non-acceptance by
a given individual. An imporlant trend
in P. of P. is to reveal the effIciency
criteria of propaganda, regarded as
something that serves a specific class
and its pOlitical party. As. an indepen-
dent branch of-social psychology. P. of
P. was developed in the first quaner
of the 20th century by American scho-
lars. namely Bernard Serebon. Hadley
Cantril, Paul Lazarsfeld, Gordon All-
port, and Wilbur Schramm. While
differing in detail. their works proved
the same in their manipulatory
approach to the audience's consci-
ousness. even if they did proceed from
mutually exclusive idealistic and vulgar-
materialistic philosophical postulates,
Today, their works have become the
foundation for theories in
[:::> manipulat ive propaganda and "psycho-
logical warfare", both aimed at obtain-
ing maximal dTec! and characterised
with minimum social
In some countries, introcluction of
these theories into practice is connecled
with propaganda of moral permissive-
ness, Ihe cult of violence, exploitation
of fears and prejudices, and fanning of
war hysteria. The desire to make class
247
.. \
propaganda look like objective informa- Z
tion in the form of allegedly unbiased
transmi'l-Sion of facts and
has become an important fealure in
bourgeois P. of P. studies. In the USSR.
initial investigations of P. of P. problems
were conducted in the 1910s by several
Soviet psychologists. who studied the
effects of various publications on diffe-
rent audiences, the functioning of
public opinion. and the influence of
rumours on the minds of propaganda
listeners al a time when the country was
living through an acute class struggle,
and most of the people were illiterate.
With the appearance of new mass media
devices, such as radio. television, etc. P.
of P. began studying their psycholog-
ical characteristics and pOlentiab.
Contemporary P. of P. lake!> into acco-
unt thai now that mass media technol-
ogy is highly developed and millions of
minds are susceptible to diversified
propaganda. including that which
objectively contradicts their vital inter-
eslS and is conducted in the form of
ideological sub\'ersion and psycholog- (
Ical war rare,
interaction has become highly intel}Sifled.
Psychology of Religion, a branch of
psychology that studies the psychologi-
..:al and socio-psychological factors
which condition the specifics, struClure
and functions of religious consciousness.
P. of R. appeared in the late 19th-
early 20th centuriel) (Wilhelm Wundt,
William James, Theodule Ribot, and
others) and accumulated considerable
material on the cOrllents of religious
consciollsness. which includes such
notions as god (spirit). hdl,
'" -
,in ell', and also on p{'ople's emotional
\Iates and durmg prayer,
confes.\ion, and other riles. SovIet
of R., which is ba!.ed on Marxlst-Len.,-
nist is designed 10 heir In
atheistic work with believers, and also
10 elaborate scientifIcallY based
live measures against religious preJu-
dice!) and superstitions. P. of R. uses the
lenelS and methods of general and
social ps}'chology. sociology, ethnog-
raphy. and history of religion. The
laws governing Ihe forming, develop-
ment and functioning of religious psy-
chnlogy are aiong the following
lines: (I) the general theory of p,
of R. studies religious ideology, the
contents and structure of religious
consciousness. the specifics of religious
and the psychological func-
tions of religion in the spiritual life of
the individual and society: (2) differ-
entia; P. of R. religious
consciousness and believers' sentiments
with account for the social environ-
ment and historical era in which they
exist: (3) the psychology of religious
Kroups examines the socio-psychologi-
cal structure of religious communities;
the mechanisms of communication (1).
imilation, sURgeslion. and altitudes; and
their impact on the minds. sentiments
and behaviour of believers; (4) the
psychology of cul! studies the impact
of religious rites on human mind; (5)
the pedagogical psychology of atheist
education, based on the achievements of
P. of R., develops effective methods for
atheist activities among the public.
Psychology of Science, a branch of
psychology that studies the psycholog-
- -
il'a] farlor .. of sncntift( ii(lIvity 10
enhan(c it' P. of S. rcltards
\l'ien(c n .. a ,ol'ially organi\ed si"em
a form or inlclle(lual aUivity:
whose proou(t\ reOl'ct reality in emrir-
ically controlled logical forms. Hence
, .
P. of S. i\ iu.'Separnhly linked with Other
fields of the integral ".'Science abOut
science", i.e. the .'Study of the logic,
history, .'Sociology, organisation, econ-
omy, and et hics of science. This stand
is instrumental in overcoming an individ_
ualist ic approach to research, which,
in all its aspects (intellectual, motiva_
tional, communicative, etc.). is believed
to be conditioned by objec t ive laws
governing the developmerll of science
and by its historically variable struc-
ture, both objectively logical and social
ones. P. of S. studies the psychological
mechanism instrumental in producing
scientihc knowledge in individual and
collective activity: examines issues
related to psychological training of
research personnel, to diagnosing and
forming of corresponding personal
qualities and orientations. and to the
age dynamics of creative activity; and
analyses the psychological aspects of
scientifJc communications. perception
and assessment of new ideas. and of
automation (computerisation) of re-
search. A branch of P. of S. is the social
psychology of science, which st udies
the aClivity, commullicati on ( ] ), and
interpersollal relations of scientists in
differen t organisation.'S and collectives
with both formal and informal
The latter include, for instance, scien-
tific schools and "invisible colleges" (as-
sociations of scientists working in diffe-
rent institutions and communicating
-
<

1
J(
--- -,
,
wilh Ullt" allother Ihr.)u/th Jk'r'lOnat
hoth oral and wrltren).
l)sychOlogy or Sex a
of diUnenlilJ1 p,y(-hll/01(Y whs.;,.h
diffcrt"lIcelo betwt't'n individual:s
that arc or conditioned by their
sex, or a\\ociatcd with II. In addition
to ul1ivenal biogenetic di.\linc\f(JI11
between men and women, many- or
their empirically observed features
have been caused by hi'>torically estab-
lished differentiated masculine and
feminine social role!;. sex-dependent
division of labour. distinctions in
and educating boys and girls, and the
cul t ural stereotypes of masculinity and
femillily. As men and women become
socially equal in reality, sex relation-
ships based on subordination of women
loose their previous nature: the sphere
of joint activities of men and women
expands to cause their psychological
distinctions, formerly regarded as hard-
and-fast, to either disappear or diminish.
The degree and essence of sex distinc-
tions are 1101 the same in different
spheres of vital activity. The most
signiftcant ones were established in {XS)'-
chophysiology <including different
physical development and malurlty
rates). Some psychological features in
females are connected with their specihc
maternal func t ions, whk'h manifest
themselves both in their interests and
correlation of their socio-productional
and family func tions. Many s<;!,
tions are altogether immea.'Surable.
being, as they nrc. not so mlfl'h quanti-
tative but qualitative. Test measure-
ments of masculine and feminine quali-
ties are higly cOII\,t'tllional. and the
'"
-
ma,,;:ulinity and femtntnit) .. scales uwd
repre1Cnt relatively mdependent dimen.
1tDf'5. Awareness of ont"s -.ex aHllia-
"Iem IS the inHial t'kmenl in the image
of one'. Self. P. of S.D. ha" imporlant
pra(tical ugnificance f"r vOl:ational
.elttlion ,'> P\Y('holf)/(lcul Sde('lion)
and vocational orit'nlation, and for
numerous relating to
medicul Pf),cholo1(}' and the family.
Psychology of Sport, a branch of psy_
chology that examines various
of activitit."i. and physical culture.
In the LSSR, P. of S. began to bt' in-
tt'ruely studied in the 1960s and 19i(h
by PYOl:r Rudik, A\'ksenti Puni, Vla- <.
dimir '\felniko\. t't aL P. of S. al.'So
studies the psychological aspe-cl'i of the
alhlele's penona1iIY. II de\elops diag-
nostic lechniques for St'kcting
for specific sponing e\ents and t'ffec-
li"e training melhOlh. P. of S. also
elaborates methods for pro\'iding tht'
necessary psy.:hologi.:al suppan of
athlete beha\'iour at differenl compe-
tition stages. II examines the athlete's
{XSychic states in \'anous complex situa-
tions. The main tas];. of tht'oretical
and applied P. of S. investigations is
to ht'lp opumL<;e sperlLng acuv-
i,,. which is distinguished by compel i-
nature. regulated by spe.:ihc rules,
and assessed by tht' public. P. of S. is
also designed 10 de\-elop the psycholog-
ical foundations of sporung skills
by teaching optimal locomotor habits
and proper control of one's body. and
b,' the athlete's willpower and
, -
all-round development.
PS' .. chometr)'. initially: measurement of
250
time characteristil'S of psychic
. owadays p. is oflen un er-
'l('S. indudc the entire range ?f
stood 'ted with measurement, III
Cj..\UC.!. cannl!(; . . p also 1Il-
'imporl t
feature or' psychometric IS
their standardisation, which mtphes
investigations at constant
external conditions .. Basmg on the, data
b
' -d the investigator would comet-
ota1ll ... , "dl
fuet various scales of indlVI ua prop-
enies and infers the and
\'ulidity of a given test technique. Rec-
ent years have witnessed a tendency to
psychametri.c and
models that make It to ac-
count for both variable Situations
the individual peculiarities of the subject,
Psychopathy, pathology of character,
il.1 which the individual is found to
have virtually irreversibly pronounced
prape:ntes
adjustment III a given SOCial environ-
ment, P's resull from: (I) desease
(brain injury, infection, intoxication,
psychic trauma, etc. I, and (2) inborn
deficiency of the nerl'ous system, caused
by heredity, influences detrimental to
the foetus, birth traumas, etc. These
injuries, called constitutional or true
injuries, show up already in childhood
in the form of disturbances in Ihe emo-
tional-volitional sphere: in Ihis case,
the intel/ecI may be relatively intact,
In adult age, the degree of prominence
of P. would depend on upbringing and
environmental effects. P's manifesta-
tions are various. Despite the fact thaI
pure type! of p, are rare and that mixed
forms prevail, the following classical
.- -
types 01 p. art' di\tlll_
gui,hed (P.B, (;iinnmhklll): (I)l'ydo_
'd rharlh.:ter,,<"d by l'ontmuoU\
I ,. I n
in 111011(/, the l'yr <"
vorying from !)l'vcral tn
month,: (2) >;(:ll1zol(h. charactcfI\cd
by avoidance of corllaCb, reserved
disp(),l,ition, vulnerablllty, absence
of ('1t1Pdt/IY, and awkward.
(]) .whos.e mal11 IS <
extreme irritability Willi fIts of angUish,
fellr, anger, impatience.
touchiness. cruelty, and far
quarrel (brawl); (4) . charac_
terised by increased and
psychic eXcit.ab.ility. With.
exhaustion, IrntabllllY, and
psychasthenics. characterised by
and lack of self-confidence, and melll.led
to constant brooding and pal/tOlogleal
dOl/bls; (6) paranoiac
who lend 10 form slIperl'alellt Ideas,
and are stubborn, egotistic, highly
self-assured, and characterised by
gerated self-appraisal; (7) hystenc
psychopaths, by the
desire to auraci Ihe attention of
people by all means; in this case, thelr
assessment of real events is always
distorted in Iheir own favour; hys-
teric psychopaths are also character-
ised by affectation and
(8) unstable psychopaths, chleny
typified by weak character, absence
of profound interests, and
susceptibility to other people's
eneI.'; (9) organic psychopaths, d15111\-
guished by innate mental underdeve-
lopment; they may be good students,
cannot apply their knowledge or ..
initiative: again they can "lo.ok. WIse
at social gatherings. but their Judg
e
-
\
-
menh "rt' bi.lnal. "f ht're- l'5 110 distill t
hOIlf1(I<lry betwt'en P"IYlh0l'illtu: and
norm,,1 ch<lril\:tt'rs. N,)rmally, people
with 'iimililr dlilr<ll ter" hUI wllhout
pathologilal (p\ychopilthil' prOJllj.
nence hee CllIJracler A('crnlutJtion),
corrc'ip(md to Ihe <lbCJvc-mentioned
type,> of po;yc:hopath .... Under the t"(fe:CI
of or P'iychi\: tr<lumas, po..},cho-
paths may develop acute and prolongt:d
reactive and neurotic \tates (\ee PI)"'
cho1;enies), and abo {Iepus\iom. Ade-
quate education, and psyc:hOlherapeutic
(see Pi>Y('holltempy) and P'>ychophar-
macological hee Psychopharm.tJcolof/Y)
treatment, are of major significance in
prevenling P.
Psychopharmacology. a branch of
psychology related to pharmacology.
medical psychology, pathopsychology
and neurophysiology and conce:rne'd
wilh the effects of pharmacological
agents, particularly psychotropic agenls.
on human mind. In the LSSR,
effective remedial agents for trealing
neuro-psychic disorders and arresting
ravmg, hallucinations. psychomotor
excitation, memory disorders. dt'pres-
s;o"s. etc. are developed and inlro-.
duced into practice under compulsory
cOrltrol by the USSR Ministry of
Health. A recent development has
been the forming of \'ocarional P.,
oriented to correcling people's mental
states under extreme conditiOlls (emo-
tional tCnsion, tirnl"e.u, adaptatio"
to extraordinary ecological factors).
In addition to cliuical and rhysio-
logical methods. P. also psycho-
logical techniquC!;. relealing dl:!ep-
Sl:!ated mechanisms Ihat make p:;ychic
1.'1 I
-.. --
funl'ILoru; dt-pc:ndC'nt on their bIOlogical
$Ub-,trata. the hra;". The
me:nt, uf P. Importanl natural
scientific and phitowphil"al
t:ance.
Ps)chophysicallntrraclion. an Ideali.sti\:
approa\:h to Ihe' PH,hophy.li(u{ prohlem
according to which nm.I'n'ouMel\
and its (bodily) are
two independent facto,"" influencing
one anOlher. The duaJj,m of this
concept (dating back 10 DC$\:artcsJ
IS incompatible with the :o.cientiflC
explanation of the psychi\: regulation
of the bt'hal'iour of man as a whole-
some' creature.
Psychophysical Parallelism. an inter-
pretation of the Pi)'choph.\'si.al proh-
It'm. according to whictt the psychic
and Ihe Iphy-;iological)
ent IWO independent which.
though being and
correia red, are nOI causally con- '(
nected. The PoP. concepl was ad- A.
I'anced both in Ihe s\"slems of materia-
listic (Dnid Hanley. Alexander Sain,
and othersl and idealistic (Nicolas
de Gottfried Leibniz,
Wilhelm \\'undt. and others) views
on psyche. In the former, P.P. signi-
fIed the inseparability of consdOIlSflt'U
from the brain, and in the laller-Ihe
independence of consciousness from
material effects. its subordination to a
spe..-ific psychological causality. In both
cases. the psychophysical problem was
nOI sohed positively. since COII-
sclOusness was regarded only m
its relationShip to processes inside
Ihe body. The renecli\'e nature of men-
252
tality, and its regulati\-e. rOI.e in heha+
I'iour, could not be sClenofically ex+
plained within the framework of P.P.
Psychophysical Problem, broadly
understood as referring to the role
of the psychic in nature narrowly,
as the question of correlal1on of psycho+
logical and physiological (neural!
processes. In the second instance, It
would be more correct to term P.P.
as the
P.P. became particularly urgent III the
I ?th century, when scientists began to
take a mechanistic view of the world,
basing on which Descartes tried to
explain the behaviour of living crea+
tures __C!f
action. Acts of conSCiOusness, lIlex+
plicable from such interpretation of
nature, were ascribed to incorporeal,
non-spatial substance. The question
about the relationship of that substance
to the work of the "body machine"
led Descartes to the concept of psycho-
physical interaction, namely to the
view that even though the body only
moves and psyche only thinks, they
may affect one another by cOnlacting
in some specific part of the brain.
Hobbes and Spinoza, who spoke out
against viewing psyche as a specific
substance, claimed it to be fully
deducible from the interaction of
natural bodies; yet, they failed to resolve
P.P. in a positive way. Hobbes suggest-
ed that be regarded as a
by-product of material processes (see
Epilhenomenulism) , and Spinoza,
a.'>suming that the order of ideas is the
as the order of things, regarded
thinklll!>: and expansion as inseparable
and. at the same lime. causally un-
related attributes of inflllite matter,
i.e. Nature. Gottfried Leibniz, by com-
bining mechanistic picture of the world
with the idea tilat psyche is a unique
substance, advanced Ihe idea of psycho-
physical paralleli.\"fn, according to which
the soul and. body perform their
operations independently of each other,
but with high precision that creates
the impression that they are coordinat-
ed. They are, in fact, like a pair
of watches that always show the same
time, though working independently.
David Hartley and other naturalists
gave psychophysical parallelism a
materialistic interpretation. Psycho-
physical parallelism became highly
popular in the mid-19th century, when
the discovery of the law of conser-
vation of energy made it impossible
to represent consciousness as a specific
force capable of changing behaviour
at random. At the same time,
Darwin's teaching on evolution of the
organic world required that psyche be
understood as an active factor in
conlrolling vital processes. This led to
new versions of the concept of psycho-
physical interaction (William James).
The late 19th and early 20th centuries
were marked by the spread of Mach's
interpretation of P.P., according to
which the soul and body consist of the
same "elements" and, therefore, the
question should concern the correla-
tion of "sensation complexes", not the
actual interconnection of real phenom-
ena. Present-day logical positivism
regards P.P. as a pseudoproblem and
assumes that the difficulties involved
can be solved by applying various
---
languages to describe COI1SClousne<,,>,
behaviour and
processes. III contrast to
theorie<" dialectical materialism inter-
prets P.P. by basing on an under-
standing of psyche as a property
of highly organised mailer. a property
that originates in the, interaction of
living creatures with the environment
and, in reflecting the lauer, can actively
affect the nature of this interaction.
Various branches of psychophysiology
and related disciplines have accumu-
lated enormous knowledge on the
diverse forms of dependence of psycho-
logical acts on their physiological
subslrata, and on the role of these
acts (as brain functions) in organising
and regulating the vital activity of men
and animals (teaching on the locali-
sation of higher mental functions:
on ideomotor acts; evidence provided
by some sections of neuro- and patho-
psychology, psychopharmacology,
psychogelletics, etc.).
Psychophysics. a classic branch of
general psychology developed by
Fechner. The specifics of P.
IS 111 that it explains the diversity of
observed forms of individual behaviour
mental conditions primarily by the
dIfferent physical situations that evoke
such behaviour and psychic conditions
(see Psychomet.ry) . . Most developed
are psychophysIcal IIlvestigations of
sensory processes. They distinguiSh
two areas of problems, namely
of the threshold of sellsa-
tlOllS. and construction of psycho-
physI,:al scales. Application of modern
techlllques for describing the subjecr's
work allows to ac("ount fnr the ,\rn-if11.:S
of intrinsic acti.'ily, notably the criteria
of decision-making, in a{ldiliol1 tl) Ihe
w!nsibilily of the \t'llsory sy,tcm. An
example of pre\cnt-day P. tCl'hniques
is so-called multivariatt' Sl'UUIIR (RIlger
Shepard, and others). whi("h
10 the relative position
of sensations in
subjective sign spaces. Such procedures
are now widely used beyond sensory
P., e.g. in the psychology of
psychodiagno\'i'i, (see
Subjecti\'{' Semantic Space). etc
reveals the tendency to understand
P. in a broader context and to integrate
it with investigations in olher
of the science of psychology.
Psychophysiology. a field of Inter
disciplinary investigations abutting on
psychology and neurophysiology and
aimed at studying human mentality
in unity with its neurophysiologil:al
subSlrate. Initially, the term "P." wa.s
used together with the term "physio-
logical psychology" 10 designate a wide
range of studies of psyche based on
precise objective physiological tech-
niques (Johannes Muller, Ernst Weber.
Gustav Fechner, Hermann Helmholtz,
and others). Unlike numerous Western
investigations that failed to overcome
the principle of psychophysiological
dualism (see Psychophysical Problem)
a.nd are limited to establishing correla-
tIons between specific psychological
and physiological parameters, Soviet P.
by relying on Marxist-Leninist philos-
ophy. and also on the ideas of the
Russian physiologists Ivan Sechenov
and Ivan Pavlov, regards psyche as
25"
a product of brain activ.ity. The main
ta.<;k of P. is to explam the causes
of psychological by
109 their underlymg neurophysIo-
logical mechanisms. The advances of
contemporary P. are due to the fact
that, in addition to traditional methods
(recording of sensory. motor. and
vegetative responses and analysIs of
the consequences of brain injury and
stimulation), investigators widely use
electrophysiologieal techniques (elec-
troencephalography, elc.) and math-
ematical methods 10 process ex-
perimental data. Within the frame-
work of P., there are individual trends
comprising the elaboration of more
important problems. These are: sensory
P. (P. of sense organs), P. of move-
ment organisation, P. of ac/h'eness,
P. of memory and teaching, P. of
spuch, p, of moth'ation and emotions,
P. of sleep, P. of stress, P. of functional
states, etc. A special trend in P. is
represented by differential P., which
studies the physiological foundations
of individual psychological differences.
The achievemenlS of P. are widely
used in clinical practice; in simulating
cybernetic modds and psychophysiolog-
ical processes; and in such applied fields
85 P. of labour, P. of sport, etc.
Psychose-:nantics, a neld of psychology
that studIes the origin, structure and
functi.on of the individual system of
which conditions perception,
thought, memory, decision-making, etc.
P. various forms in which
meanings exi.\1 in the individual mind
namely symbols,
actions, and also symbolic and verbal
forms; and analyses the effect of the
mOlivational (see Mo/il'ati oll) factors
in and emotional states (see cl1Iotiom)
of an individual on the system of
meanings forming in him. The basic
method of experimental P. is to
simulate slIhjectivt' s.emalltic spaces,
the model represental10n of the cate-
gorial structures of individual con
sciousness. P. studies both the general
psychological and differentially psycho-
logieal aspects of the process of
categorisation. In the latter case,
the task of P. is to reconstruct the
systems of the individual's idea about
the world by restructuring the systems
of his individual and personalised
meanings.
Psychosis., a profound (acute or
chronic) mental disorder manifesting
itself in diSlOrted reflection of reality,
clouaea consclOusne.sS,"- changed self-
awareness and behaviour, and changed
auitude IOwards the environment.
P. is caused by infectional or traumatic
lesion of the brain, or by somatie
diseases whieh lead to relapses of
mental disorders. P. may result from
constitutional or hereditary predis-
position and manifest itself after some
disease or Irauma. so,!,e
P. Iorms may be concomitant
pathological disorders of the cognttlVe
and affective spheres in the form of
raving, superl/a/ent ideas. hallucina-
tions, etc.
Psychostimulants
see Psychotropic
(psychoanaleptics) ,
agents.
PsychOicchnics, a branch of psychO-
logy that studies the concrete (applied)
I
aspects of human practi cal activity.
P. originated in the early 1900s and
was theoretically outlined in the works
of the German psychologists Wilhelm
Stern, G. Miinstcrberg, and others.
who maintained that P. was chiefly
designed for vocational selection and
vocational orienlation; for studying
tiredness and exercise during work;
adaptation of man to machines and vice
versa; for elucidating the efficacy of
different ways to influence the con-
sumer (advertisement); for training
menIal functions in vocational schooling
and so on. In capitalist countries,
P. actively helped to Improve their
system of exploitation and social sup-
pression of the working people. In the
USSR, P. developed considerably in
the 1920s and early 19305. Character-
istically, in research work, its atten-
tion was switched over from vocational
selection mainly to improvement of
poly technical and vocational training
methods, organisation of the labour
process, forming of skills and habits,
and measures against traumatism and
accidents. Outside the USSR, the
concept of P. is now generally identi-
fied with the notion "applied psycho-
logy", and includes various branches
of psychology of labour (industrial and
engineering psychology), military
psychology, psychology of commerce,
and so 011.
Psychotherapy, comprehensive verbal
and non-verbal remedial elTect on
human emotion.t, jud[:emen/s and
self-consciousness in numerous mental ,
nervous, and psychosomatic diseases.
Psychiatrists conventionally distinguish
255
clinic-oriented P., aimed mainly at
alleviating or eliminating the symptom"
present, and personality-oriented P ..
aimed at helping the patient change
his attitudes to his social environment
and his own personality. Methods of
clinical P. include: hypnosis. autoReni<"
training, suggestion and s.elf-suggesliml,
and ralional therapy. Personality-
oriented (individual and group) P.
widely uses different ways for analysing
the patient's conflicting emotions.
In individual P., the decisive factor
of remedial efficacy is the psyco-
therapeutic contact between physician
and patient, one based on mutual
respect and confidence, and the
physician's ability to understand and
penetrate into another person's feelings
(see Empathy). Labour therapy,
group psychotherapy. and family
psychotherapy, which all help enhance
the patient's competence in inter-
personal relations and improve his
ability for self-knowledge and self-
control. are widely used as methods
for producing an activating therapeutic
effect.
Psychotherapy. Group, use of regular-
ities characteristic of interpersonal
interaction in a grollp and aimed at
treating patients (see Psychotherapy)
so as 10 cure them physically and
mentally. P.,G. elements may be traced
from many centuries ago. P.,G. as a
branch of psychology originated in
1904-1905 in Russia and the 'ed
_ In the_ S 1 ., is developing
wlthm the framework of its clinical
application in treating neuroses (see
Neuroses, Clinica/), alcoholism. and a
'\
!5b ___________________________________ _____________ _
-
i.:onditioned by the substance of JOi"t
and determint'd by the maxim
"The Health of Each is Ihe Wealth
I
number of (bodily) diseases.
A psycholherapisl would e'plain .10 a
group of sfIi!'cially selected pallenls
the essence of Iheir palhology, sub-
slantiate his forecaSls for Iheir recmery.
and instruci them in alltogenh' training
and relaxation. P .. G. may also be used
to teach patients to inlerpret Ihe
symptoms and specifIcs of Iheir. own
behaviour. elc. Besides. P.,G.
organisation of psychological
improve
(1) techniques. lJependmg on the
nature of the subjeci of psychotherapy.
.. is divided into: family psycho-
therapy, which ell\'isages simullaneous
work with parents. children and
relations: P .. G. in joint acti\ities and
in \arious psychohygienic clubs: and
!ame psychOfherapy. The main indi-
cation to P .. G. is the presence of
neuroses with Upsel social ties (family
and professional) and difficulties in
communication and social adjustment
(..ee Adjllstment. Socia/). and with
initial stagb of alcoholi::.m and psycho-
<;('Imatic diseases. P"G. of mental
di<.eases is necessary to rehabilitate
patients. i.e. to restore their ability
to work. In this case. P.,G. is combined
with labour therapy. with measures
designed to keep the palients busy,
and with promOling their spontaneous
aClivity and self-government in groups.
In Western Europe and the USA
P.,G. is theorelically based on
of {(roup dynamics (Carl Rogers,
Jacob Moreno, and others). In Ihe
USSR. P.,G. is based on Marxist social
psycholollY, which regards the psycho-
Iherapt'utlc group as a multi-level
structure of interpersonal relalions
of All".
PsychOloxicology. a branch of l1Iet/icul
fJS.\ch%!:y that sludies the neuro_
chemical mechanisms.
and methods of treating mental
disorders cau::.ed by chemi cal agents
called psycholOmimetics or hallucino-
gens (deliside, mescaline, psylocytin,
etc.). Such agents have a highly
pronoun.ced, select ively .9-amag,in& e[ect
on the even in exceedingly
"small-doses -(nlllliollths of a gramme), )l
cause mental disorders. The latter
gh'e rise to colourful hallucinations;
to disturbances in memory, attention,
thinking, and emotions: and to delirious
behaviour (see RaljtfK) , general
psychomotor excitation, and so on
(see Psychosis). NATO plans envisage If
the use of such agents as combat fl
poison substances _'cV.hictl dis;;tble
soldiers temporarily. At Ihe same time,
NATO spreads the myth that such
weapons are unprecedentedly "hu-
... l!Ijlne" s.ince they kee.IL pe:op!e" alive.
There were many cases when people
who were given psychotomimetics
in keeping with CIA military pro-
grammes such as Artichoke. and If
MK-ultra. or had used .litem as .
'narcoti cs, had elther com-milted suicide
or were disabled for life.
Psychotropic Agenls, chemical agents
and nalural products which are
selectively active in relation to normal
and disturbed psychic activity (see
Psychophamwcology). There are

different l'iav .. ifll.:all{lIl\ of P.A depend-

ing on Iheir chemil.:a.1 \Irm:ture,
phannacological dynamlc\, cllllical
effect. etc. Depending 011 the laller.
P.A. are moSI cOlllmonly
into psychoit'ptics. i.e. \ubstances which
suppress and tranquilise, the central
nervous (e.g. allllllasme, halo-
peridol, seduxen, etc.):
analepti cs, i.e. still1ulalors of activity.
]]lood and work efficiency (e.g.
phenamine, caffeine, sidnocarb, etc.):
and
,
etc.). Recently, new classes
have appeared which produce a highly
differenliated effect all human mental
functions. behaviour, memory and
efflciency (e.g. Ileuropeptides. noo-
tropes. ps),choenergisers. elc.).
Public Opinion. the altitude of social
groups towards phenomena or problems
of social life affecting common interests,
expressed in the form of judgements.
ideas and cOll cepts. P.O. results from
an awareness of pres'ing social
problems and shows in a compar ison
and. occasionally, also in collisions of
various views and stances 011 a given
issue, in approval of and suppor! for
or. convNsely, in rejection and condem-
nation of certain aCliOlls. deeds or
line of conduct. The subjel.:ts of P.O.
may be large social groups. i.e. classes,
nations and peoples. The highest form
of P.O. is the opinion of the whole
people, i.e. national on
issues of, common interest. P.O. is
formed under Ihe influence of mass
media. though it Illay also emerge
170111;;
under the influen..:e \11"
concrete and \ltuatlOlI'i.
In a society with antagoni\lic l'ia .. ,cs,
P.O. i .. under strong prcswrc from
all the ma\'; media conccntrated in the
hand .. of a dominant In a \\lcialist
society, P.O. become .. a reliable
for expressing the frame of l!lInd 01
the broad masses on urgent 1"\lIe'
of social life, and an effective instru,
ment for the implementing ,ol.:ial
policies of the Communist and
worker, parri ....,.
Questionnaire. a
method of collcl.:ling
primary sociological
and sodo-psYl.:ho-
logical information
Ihrough I'ernal com
mllnication. A Q. is
,I 1,,1 of quc .. tions. each logically con-
nected with Ihe central task of the
research. Compilation of a Q .. which
is essentially a Iranslation of the
principal hypotheses into the language
of questions. is a complex and
painslaking procedure. A Q. serve::.
to ensure the retrieval of information
which is accurate in relation to the
questioned person and is relevant 10
the problem. Composition of a
scientifically reliable Q. is, as a rule.
a collective task. The first slage in
tltis process is defmition of a Q.'s
contents. It may be in the form of an
array of queslions on the facts per-
taining to the life and work of the
questioned person (his educalion.
social SlalUS. acth'ities relating 10 the
----------- -
r
ast
and the ell:.) ,or <'n his
molin','. t'\'alualiot1s. atllludes, If
informatil\n 011 tht' of opinil\1l
is al,o re-q,uirl"i.l. an approrriate
i" included in the Q. The ,I'-
cond slage in the production a
questi ..mllaire M'it'..:tilm llf the nght
type of They may be .open
qut'stiolls, which allow the
I'lt'r"on to the fl)rlll and cl',n-
tent llf hi" rt'ply in a..:cordance wllh
his o .... n wi"ht's, N "dowd" qUlstiol1s.
.... hidl r!'quire a "Ye," or "No" anSller.
Dt'pending (m tht' function. qu:stil'ns
ma\' be basi..: or leading. l'anfYLIIg or
dar-irying, etc. Tht' type l,f the question
rna, inllut'llce Ihe degr of fulness
and of the answer. As
for Ihe working of sentence"
be shl'rI. dear. simple.
and unequinxal. errors are:
hidden bias. detail" ambi
gill". insufficient differentiation.
Questions must fall in with the usual
critena of rt'lillbilil.\ and \alidin'.
The lasl stagt' is e;tablishment of the
number and order or the questiom.
The l'rder may dilft'r 111 ditTt'rent types
of sun'l'.\".
Rapport. (1) in the
hrl'ad sense l'f the
word. the term "R:'
IS used III f l'reign
literature to desig-
nate: (a) dO')e in In-
pnwnll/ re/Iltions
bilSed on ill high llegree of community
of thoughts., Interests, and feelings:
and (b) an amiable. frit'ndl\' atmo-
-

"phere in a e,-
betwC't'n till' l"perimelllcr
and 'iubject: (:!) III till' narmw of
the word. the term R." the
emergent reioti,,,,,hip bC'lwl'en the
hypnolist and the hypnotisNI during
R. is by a high
degree (If 'iele..:til'ity and perception, re-
sulting from hypm,sis-narrowed .span l'f
consciotlsncs\, by hyper-
sens;tilil), to the suggest-
imls (mainly I'erhall. <lnd by insellsili\'.
it\' to other influences. As a specifiC
of intrinsic lkpendelH.:Y, e'pressing
readiness to fulfil the hypnotist's
sUI!!!.estions. R. deH-lops and
--
wilh deerening of the hypnl'tic
state.
Raling. a term designating a subjectil'e
asses.sment of sOllie phenomenon by a
preset scale. R. IS used to initially
clas.\ify socio-psychological objecl\ by
degree of salience of their common
prl'perty (e ... pert estimate\). In social
sciences. R. serves as a foundation
for constructing a va riel)' of nllillK
scales, e.g. ill assessing various
aspects of work, popularity,
prestige of specifi..: Qlcupatiom. and Sl'
on. The results obtained are normally
in the fl'rm of ordinal (see
SealinK)
Rat ing Scate, a technique that allows
to classify the totality of objects under
study by the prominence of
comml'n property. The lechnique IS
based on subjective rating of a gl\'en
property averaged fur a group of
experts. In psychology and socil'logY,
R.S's were among the first 10 be used.
- -
The simplt':>t example': l\ the usual
school system of marks. A R .S. has
from five to eleven inlervah whidl
may be designated by numbers or
formulated verbally. The common
view IS that man's psydlOll'gical
do nl't allow him to dassify
objects l'ver more than 11-1.1 posl l io1l\,
The possibility to construct a R.S.
is based on the assumptil'n that every
expert can give quantitative 3S"e.'>S-
ments l'f objec ts under study. Pa ired
comparisl' n l' f l'bJetts and their
aSSignment to categorie.s are the
principal techniques of seu/illl:.
Raling Scaling, a method of con-
structing a scale to measure relation-
ships between objects l'n thl:: basis of
expert estimates
Raving (psychOlic), raIse ideas and in-
ference5 that contradict reality. but
which a pathl'logically convinced
person persists in and which cannl't be
modified by reasl'ning. R. is a symptom
l'f numerous mental disorders and may
widely vary in form: e.g. R. of persecu
tioll. poisoning. jealosy, grandeur, etc.
Two types of R. are distinguished.
The first involves l'f the
coglll\1ve sphere, when the patient
supports his incl'rrect jllt/gtlmem by
several subjective proofs combined
in a "logical" system. T hc second type
involve5, in addi t ion. a deral1ged
sphere. when the palien!"s R. is 01
imaginal nature. with predominant
day-dreaming and fantasies. In some
cases, R. is accompanicd by atfeclile
manifestations of fear.
all)o.iely, sensation of "ague danger.
259
(e.g. paronl'id R. of ptrsecullon. in
which the patient interprets gesture\
and actIOns of people as a "conspiracy",
etc. and hence tries to
flee or hide). R. should be distingUIShed
frl'm ,upt'rI<1l1.'1I1 ideas. when a certain
vital problem assumes
high (supe:rvalent) significance in the
mind of a mentally healthy person.
ReaCl ion (in psychology), any re-
sponse l'f an organism 10 changes in
the external or inlemal medium.
ranging from a biochemical R. of an
individual cell
rl'flex.


Reaclion Time, Ihe inten'al between
the presentalil'n of a ,uf(nal (optical.
acoustic. laelile. elc.) and Ihe start
of an inSlruction-conditioned response
l'f the subject 10 Ihat signal. The
simplest motor which es-
tablishes the occurrence of a certain
signal ("detection rea sion") would
normally last about 0.2 second. In l'ase
l'f more complex lasks. e.g. those
in\,oh'ing one or several possible signals
("discrimination reaction") or choice
of one or several forms of response
("choice reaction'"). the R.T. would
lllt'rease. By recording the R.T.
researchers also perform a time study
of problem solution processes, e.g.
reasoning by analogy or understanding
a sentence. The R.T. would depend
on Ihe type of the signal. nature of
the probkm. Iype of Ihe response,
direction of Illlelliion, alli/udl' and Ihe
IlSF-Itic slale. and abo on
his more stable indi\'idual character-
istics. Tillle scort' is being in..:reasingly
2.0
used in and engineer;"g I).\.\'-
,'hoiolU', in neurQf/IydlOlog,r. pn'd/(:-
linj!lIi.\tics, and other maUlly ... 'pen-
mental bram:hes of contemporary
psychology. This is due 10 Ihe
nature of the time ,Icale. whIch
excludes arbitrary transformations.
React ive Slates. specific menIal condi-
dons (ps},chogl'ni(' disorders) whose
clinical picture refle..::ts Ihe contents
of the psychic trauma in question.
The following R.$'s are distinguished:
(1) reactive depressions. when a
psychic traUffia causes the individual
to be in depressed state. which
manifesb in inhibition and poor
mimicry ((he person's movements are
slow, his answers 3Te shorl and tack
expression). the patient's thoughts
are constantly concentrated on whal
happened and he is perpetually
engrossed in relevant pathological
emotions: (2) affecti\'e shock reactions,
normally arising in response 10 some
mass calamities and manifested in a
decrease of consciousness, panic.
disorderly locomotor activity or, con-
versely, in complete inhibition (psycho-
genic Stupor). In response to an
illness or severe psychotrauma. persons
with psychopathic constitution (see
Psychopathies) may develop reactive
in the form of reactive
raving, oneiric states. etc.
Reacl0logy, a trend in Soviet psychol-
ogy that used to interpret it as the
"science of behaviour" of living crea-
tures, including man. R. was developed
by the Soviet p"ychologist K. N. Kor-
nilov. Reaction (all responses of
-
orgl\llNI1", \Jrg:ltl_
i\II1"), tht' notioll of R ..
rt'ganil-J a .. :'I tlIHHr .. al propt'rt).' of
all h\ing ... , the
(If the whoit' hl'Kty. not of a ,ingle
organ, a\ a <ltJalifH.xt by mental
.. (in higher
of the unimal world). The
of R. was 10 ,tudy the veloci ty, int en-
sitv and form of tht' said reac t ion
by' means of tt'chniques. In the
\'iew of who sided with
R .. the transfornHuion of the notion
"rejfe.\'" and its expan,ion to the
l'ategory "reaction" made it possible
to "synlhetise" subject ive and objec-
tive psychology. Yel, Ihis synthesis
was artifIcial and formal. and R. was
developed through eclectic combi nat ion
with certain mechanistic and psychic
energy ideas. As a result, there appeared
III R. a contradiction between the
correctly posed objectives of a new
psychology and the meagre programme
of its concrete substance. The essence
of these contradict ions was laid bare
In psychological discussions of the
early 19305 (the "reactological discus-
sion"). which led to abandon ment
of reactological schemes and el imina-
tion of the concept of R. from psy-
chology.
Reason and Int ell igence (in ph ilO-
sophical and psychological tradition) .
two Iypes of logical II/inking. Being
an element in t he movement of thought
towards tr uth. reason operates wit hin
the limits of ready knowledge by data
gained from expeience to structure
them in accordance wi t h strictly
established rules. T his imparts reason
the rt.t!urc III .1 '\:t' rtain
autolllilti\lrt" (SplllOI-a) with IIlhercl1tly
rigid orderliue .. \ in and
judgcmcut and tendcrtl:Y to \implify
and ....:hemati,e thought.
a corect of evcnt\ and
wstCmati'3tiot) of knowledge. Rea, on
ensure, <;u((",\,ful ut/jll.llme"t of the
individual to habilual cognitive \ itua-
tiOIlS, ..-,pecially in Ulilitarian
problems. The limitat ion of reason
in its innexibili ty and flll ality of judge-
ment s. inability to go beyond the
subjecl-matter in question. [n cases
when human in tellectual activity is
limited by operatio"s of reason. it
becomes abstractedly formal. Intelli-
gence produces deeper and more
genera lised knowledge. By graspmg
the meaning of the unity of
;1 makes it possible to (omprehend
various aspects of the object in ques-
!Lon m their dissimilarities. mutual
transit ions, and essential character-
istics. InteJligence has the ability to
analyse and generalise data of both
sensor y experience and one's own
thoughts and. by overcoming their
unila teral nat ure, to develop notions
that reflect the dialectics of the
objective world. The main difference
between intelligence and reason. which
implies operation with al ready known
concepts, is in Ihat lhe former goes
beyond av ail able knowledge to en-
gender new notions. Intell igence is
constructive, reflexive (see Re/lt-xioll ).
and or iented to high..-r social objec-
tives. In the actual work of logical
thought, reason and intelligence are
intrinsically related l'omponents of
an integral proc..-: of cognition.
101
Recall. mental actiollt fllr
and retrieving
information from Inl1g.term
memory Memo,)'. l.oIIK-Tt'rml.
R. a voluntary form of ff'((lI/t'(
tion.
Recapitulati on, a brief re(:urren(c in
of ,igns of philogenetic
form, (sec Phy/of.wne,lil;
/Jiogenetic law).
Recency Effect, greater probabil ity
of remembering the last items of a
series rather Ihan the middle ones
(see Seqllenct' Effect). R.E. is studied
within the context of memory,
learning processes, and social {*rap-
lion investigations. R.E. was found to
depend on the nature of the activity
performed directly after a of
items were presented to a subject,
rather than on Ihe series length or
item presentation rate: if the subject
was to solve some problem related to
signal detection, R.E. would persi ... t:
if. however, the task was a verbal
one, e.g. an arithmetical problem.
R.E. would be absent. R.E. is cauSl;!d
by extraction of information from
short-term memory {see Memory.
Short-TermJ. When R.E. absent,
that information is superposed by
other similar information arrlvmg
in the shOrl-term memory storage.
Like the sequence effect, R.E. has no
unambiguous explanation. In social
p:;ychology, R.E. (more familiar as
the novelty effect ) is stud ied In
perception of people by one another:
the last. i.e. newer information about
a given person more signif-
'"
icanl with regard 10 a famil,ior
individual, and original mformallon
more meaningful with regard to an
unfamiliar one (see Primacy Efjl!'d).
Receplion, transformation of environ-
mental energy into a neural prIX'ess
of spreading excitation,
mils to the neural centres mforrna!1on
about Ihe effects of corresponding
;rritanl. The psychophysical depen-
dence described by the
lal\' arises in the sensory (perceptual)
already in the very first,
rtteplOry stage. Receptor function is
controlled by Ihe central nen'ous
via efferent fibres contained
In sensory nerves (see Brain).
RettpCor. a peripheral specialised
pari of an analyser thai transforms
only spmc forms of energy inlO
nervous excitation. R's vary widely
in structur<' complexity and in adapta-
lion to their own function. Depending
on the energy of the corresponding
stimulation, R's are classified inlO
mechanoreceptors and chemoreceplOfs.
Mechanoreceptors are present in the
vestibular apparatus, muscles,
JOintS, skin, and visceral organs.
Chemoreceptors transmit olfactory and
gustatory sensibility; many of them
are located. in the brain, and react
to changes In the chemical composi-
of, the body's liquid medium.
VISual R s are also essentially chemo_
rtteptors. Depending on their place
and, functi.on in the body, R's are
cla$tned mto exterocepfors, intero_
ceptors.. and proprioceplors. Extero-
ctplors Include distal R's, which obtain
-
information al It certain distam.:e froOl
the \timulatioll c.g. olfactory.
acoustic. visual. lind R's,;
intcr<Xt'ptClr' signal internal mediuOl
stimuli: IUlll propriocl"ptors the
state of the body\' locomotor system.
Some R\ are IInatomically inter_
connected and form receptory fIelds
that can overlap.
Recipient, an individual who perceives
a message addressed to him. An
individual responding to Ihe message
is the res/wlldent.
Recognition. identification of a per-
ceived object as one already familiar
in past experien..:e (see Identification).
R. is based on the comparison of
available perception . with mnemonic
traces. R. differs in degree o(certainty,
distinctness., completeness and control.
R. is voluntary when it is used to
establish the efffcacy of memorising
or learning. The level of R. is always
higher than that of reproduction, no
mailer what re;:produclion techniques
are used. In Ihe absence of a specific
identification tasks, R. is voluntary
and may be incomplete. indeterminate,
and phantom. In the latter case, the
subject would. for instance, feel he;:
knows another person, whereas he has
never met him before (see Paramnesia).
Sometimes, an incomplete involuntary
R. wou ld task of recall
and turn into voluntary R.
Recot lect i<m. the act of retrieving
from IOftg-term memory (see Memory,
Long.-Tu'!l) of past images.. mentally
localised In time and space, R, may
,
,
-
be voluntMY (rl'wlll ilnd in ... o]unlary.
when images arL'>e I> p')TItancou,>l), in
the mind Csee In
voluntary R, of ,ollle event. the subjed
rl""\()res hi1 altitude thereto,
and this may be accompanied by
emotions relevant to that event. Re<:on-
struction of past experience is never
literal. The degree to which R. and a
past event do not coincide would
depend on variations in personali/y
development (on al/itlldes,
and goals), on the remoteness of the
recalled eyent, and on its significance
for the subject in question. The pro-
ductivity of R, would depend on
mnemonic means Mnemonics),
and also on the conditiom under
which the episode was remembered.
Reduclionism (in psychology). a
conscious or unconscious methodo-
logical position, leading to reduction
of one type of phenomena 10 a quali-
tatively different Olle (fof inslance.
the psychic 10 the physiological, the
biochemical or the biophysical).
R. ignores or bluntly rejects the
existence of psychological regularities
and mechanisms as such, thus depriv-
ing psychology of the status of an
independent science. Besides, R. inter-
prets psyche as a certain side effecl,
an epiphenomenon (see Epiphenome-
nalism). R. disarms psychology in the
face of tasks posed thereto by social
practice, specifically those thai involve
the study of the fundamentals under-
lying the moulding of personality.
of its consciousness and behaviour,
and is with dialeclico-
materialistk methodology.
ReferentialilY. dependen.:e of an Indi.
... idual upon other people in the fOfm
of selective allitudes therelo when
there is a need to or
explain some object, a perwnal
trait, R. i1 a factor of penonuliw/ion.
A5 a spec ific type of R. mani
fests it self under a need constantly
arising in a {(fOUP to correlate the
subject wilh that are essentially
meaningful to the lalter in conne(tion
with his activity. Such objects may be
goab-. tasks, norms and values of Joint
activities, objecti\e and subjective
difncuhies arising therein (see 8arriu'\,
Psychological), the individual's perso-
nal qualities, as well as those of other
participants in ghen aCli ... ities (see
Group, Reference). The object of
reference relationships may be any
group of which the subject in
tion is a member, or a group to which
he refers himself without being its
actual member. An actually non-exis-
tent indi\'idual (some literary hero,
imaginary ideal worthy of imitation.
ideal notion of the individual about
himself, etc.) may also be a reference
object. One should distinguish non-
internalised R. relationships. when the
reference object exists in reality as
one that determines ("dictates") to the
individual his behavioural norllls.
from internalised relationships, when
the individual's behaviour is outwardly
not conditioned by any object, and
when all reference relationships are
removed and "remoulded" by his con-
sciousness and manifest themselves
as his own subjecti\'e factors. However,
in this situation. too, reference rela-
tionships would also lake place. albeit
would be more complex in form.
F,'r other group numbers. the. fact
L,f the individual's R. is e<tabhshed
hr rderentometry (Sl'e
nlt'lrh' Me/hoc/). a special e:l.perimellial

Referentometric Method, a techniqut"
for the rl'/l'rl'ntialit)' . of
croup members [0 each ntspt"i.tlve
gr(lup mcmher. R.M. includes [1'.'.0
In the preliminary (au;\l-
liarv) one, a questionnaire is used to
elarih the view (opinions, 3S'>essments,
anitudes) of each group member
towards a silZniflcant object. event. or
indilidual. The second procedure is
performed 10 rel'eal persons whose
position. reflected in the questionnaire.
is of intere'lt to other subjects.
All this ..:ompels the subject to show
high selectil'it)' towards tho:>e group
position is most signi-
ncant for him al the given moment.
An important aspect of R.M. is the
deeply motivated beha\'iour of the
subject, preoccupied with the possibi-
lity to Decome acquainted with the
view Slated by a reference object
regarding some significant object.
Hence, R.M. allows to reveal the
motives of interpersonal choices and
preferences in a group. At the same
time. the measure of an individual's
referentiality (preference) is. in this
case, determined indirectly, via the
interest shown by the subject for the
positi?n .of that individual regarding
the slgl11fi.canl object. Data obtained
by R.M. are processed mathema_
lu:alJy. and may be expressed graphi-
cally.
Reflection, ;I un;1 I'r .. ,11 of
matter, th<' ahilih' "f objel't,
t(l repre'l'nt with \arylllg dl'grl'l' {\f
adequa(y the ft"Hun'... \lrudural
chara(tl'ri,til's <lml rl'liltioll,hilh of
othl'r Thc llillUre of R.
dejle11lh 011 the org<llli\:ltion level of
mattcr. a\ II r\'suh 01" whidl rdlection
qualitatilcly 111 1Il0rganie and
organic nature, in thl' animal and
'OI.ial domain. in 1Il0rt' elt'mentary
and highly organised syslems. hI the
orgallisl1l. R. initially shows in irrilU_
bililY, due to external and internal
slimllii. in the form of living maller's
ability 10 respond to effects by selec-
ti\'e rellclioll corresponding to the
source's speciftcs. Such prepsyehic R.
in the course of den:lopment of organic
mailer transforms into as an
ability to poSSt!SS viz. primary
psychic imul{l's of the environment
thaI serve the purpose of orientation
therein and regulation of actions ade-
quate to its C\:ological uniqueness and
the organism's needs. These simplest
forms of R. serve as premises for the
development of more complex forms,
which include both and mental
images of realily that allow to represent
its space-and-time and causal relation-
ships to impart behaviollr an increa5-
ingly adaptive (see Adjllstment)
and active character. R. becomes a
leading factor in relation to the
organism's direct reaction to II dire(;tly
acting irrilalll. On the human level,
owing to the fact that human adivifY
is conditioned, R. be(;ome.s
nOI only more active, but also qualita-
tively different. At this level. the
tive and purpo-;eful nature of R. is
,
lkICrllllll\tI hv th\ /If(If In Ir<ln\fnrm
uatur<'. 1\1 dl<,d l"i,1/ IIdil'il/1'\
iu\"olving th<' U\C. of Innl,. In the'd,'
proc<'S\CS, I'"ydlic R. l't\!11t'S !lut a, the
production of illlllgC' lint nilly of
wn\or.v, but <lho of IluIIJ.Im.:
(notion'>, hypothcws, etc.) lind
fantasy, ones, which are ohjccllfted
in produ(;\.s of culture (induding
symbolic like languagd. Thi,
radically chllnge'> the nature of R.
causing ideal objl'cl\ 10 appt:ar. Ade-
quacy of R. to it'> '>ource a
certain similarity between the material
of that source, the pro-
of in the brain,
on the onc hand, and that which
rcpre:>ented in the subject's
formations. Lenin made an exception_
ally signifIcant contribution to Ihe
teaching that cognition R. of reality.
Hence, the
theory of R. is ealled the L<'ninist
theory of R. It oppo<;cs
tive and objective idealiMic on
and serves as a methodo-
logical foundation for a scicntifK study
of psychic reality.
Refl ex, a natural of an
organism, by the
to an irrilalli. The ren<,x prin..:iple
of brain activity was formulated by
the Fre nch philosopher R<'n"; Dt'\carte\.
even though the term R. call1<'
to be used ill scienc<, later. following
the publication of the works of Thomas
Willis. a British neurolngil1. and Ihtl,>e
of Georg Prochaska. ;J CUril ph)'\;o.
logist. R's 3rt' (omllllmiv cla ...
into ul1condilion<,d <lnd
Refiexion, a pnll:e"\"S of indindual'5
,elf -knnwledge of hi'J own I1ll:nlal iilH
and Mides. The notion R. urigmaled
III pllllll..ophy 10 th,- pn"'-I:S$
of '1)<'(;ulati0I1 by an individual ilhout
Ihe in own
Reni' Dt;'s(;artes idelllifled R. wilh
individual\ ability to (;oncentrat<, 1m
the con ten I of his own thoughts hy
abstracting himself frol1l evt;'rything
bodily. John Lockt;' dislinguished 1,'/1\11
liol1 from R .. interpreting Ihe lalll'r
as a sper.:iflc of knoll'kJge
(inner experien(;e 0pfl'O"<,d to outer
experience based on eviden(c
by the sense IIrI!<Jml. This loter-
pretation of R. became the rrinllral
aXiom of
which r('Sulled in inadequate explana-
tion of actual human abili", for
of (If human
for (If one\
own menIal s[al(".. In v>du/ p5.whll-
IlIgy, R. takes the form of
by the acting subjecl (either indi\'idulIl
or of ho'ol th<Y.>e menial
are actually and
bv mher indi\'iduab or sOl.ial unils.
R. is' not merely knowledg<" or IInda-
standin!.!. b\' the subject ....r him!ielf.
but abo out holl' otheli know
and undersland Ihe "refle(ling" pt:lion
or group, their fealUres,
emoliOllal respons('\ and \'ogl1l11ve
When Ihe content of
ideas thl' of inillt 11<'/11'/111'.1.
this r<,suits in ohiecl-reJlt't"lillg rdu,
liml.,hips. a specift( form of R. A
r(ll1lpll''I. R. process involves a mll1l1nUm
,
of .six posilions redprocal
reflection of subjects; the subject h,lm-
as he is in reality: the subJeci
as he sees himself: Ihe subjecl as he
is seen by another person; and the
same Ihree positions as seen by another
subject. Thus, R. is a process of double,
mirrored reciprocal reflection by
individuals of one another, Ihe essence
of this retleclion being reproduclion
or recQIISlrUClion of one another's
features. In Western social psychology.
the !radilion of R. research dales
back to Ihe works of Theodore New-
comb and Charles Cooley, and is felal-
ed 10 experimental study of diads.
pairs of individuals involved in inter-
action processes in artificial, laboratory
situ8lions. SO\-iel researchers (G. M.
Andreyeva and others) nOie thai in
order to obtain a deeper understanding
of R., one should examine it on more
complex social groups im'oI\'ed in
jQint aclillities, not on diads.
Reflexology, a natural-science trend
in psychology, developed chiefly in the
USSR between 1900 and 1930 in con-
nection with the studies of Vladimir
Bekhterev. In following Ivan Sechenov
Bekhterev believed there is no
of t.hat. not would be shown by
speclbc objective manifestations. In
!his c?nnection, he studied all reflexes
the brain ("correlative activ-
Ity"). Representatives of R. sought
10 use exclUSIVely objective methods
as. a. "solid point of support" for
sclentLflc They regarded
menial actIvity 10 connection with
neural p.rocesses and used facts from
the phYSIology of higher nervous act iv-
ity. to explain that (Iclivit)'. HaVing
orlglnaled 10 R. ]"I<'nelrated
into ptX!agogy, sociology,
and the study of art. Despite a number
of empirical achie\'emcnts, R. COuld
not go beyond mechanistic inter_
pretation of mental a.'S by.
products (:sec Epiphl'flOmencl/ism) of
behavioural acts. By the lat e 1920
R. became an object of increasingly
:strong crit icism by Marxi:st psycho.
logists, consequently Illany reflexo_
logists realised that it was limited in
concept and revised their views.
Regression Analysis (in. psychology),
a method of mathemallcal statistics
that allows studying the dependence
of the average magnitude upon the
variation of another or several other
magnitUdes (in the latter case, psycho-
logists apply multiple R.A.), The
notion R.A. was introduced by Francis
Gahon, who established a definite
correlation between the stature of
parents and that of their aduh children.
He nOliced that the chi ldren of very
short parents were somewhat taller
than the latter, while those of tall
parents shorter, and he termed this
regularity regressi on. R.A, is used
chiefly in empiric psychological studies
to assess the influence of, say. intel -
lectual giftedness on good resuls in
studies or of motives on behaviour;
to construct psychological tests: and
$0 on.
Regression of Behaviour, a form of
individual defence respon.se in frusfra-
tin" . . In this case, the individual would
subslltute a meaningful complex lask,
-_.
whose wlutiCln i .. dirrl(ult ;n a given
sill/ulian, for an casler one. Th" would
impoveri.'Sh the repertory nf behavioural
acts performed by the mdividual, sin...:e
the laller would u .. c 'implcr or more
habitual (Paul Prai'l'>e).
Un like (Kurt Lewin) ,
displacement. genera that ion
Nullin), and other forms of overcoming
excess emotional tension characterised
by stability of purposeful activity and
search for new ways 10 actualise that
activity, R. of B. is characterised by
changes in and needs.
Regressive (inner) Inhibition, see
fflhibitiOlI Proaclive.
Reinforcement (in teaching on higher
nervous activity), unconditioned ir-
ritant causing a biologically meaning-
ful reaction whiCh, on combining with
its precursory indifferent "tinw/lls.
develops a classical conditioned reflex.
R. that harms the body (e.g. an
electric shock) is termed negati\'e
(punishment). R. in the form of food
is called positive (reward). At in.'Stru-
men! training <to develop some loco-
motor reaction). the function of nega-
tive R. may be fulfilled by cancellation
of a reward, while cancellation of
puniShment may turn into a
live R.
Relaxation, a Stotc of quiescence
arising in an individual foll owing Ihe
removal of tension after inten:;e t!mo
lionu/ eXfN'rit'lIce or physical elToft.
R. may be involuntary (when going
to sleep) and volullwry, when a persOTl
takes a quiet posture, imtlgilll'S \Iate;
--
-
'h" . ,
normally ("orrespondi ng to
or relaxtS invol\'ed in
tyf":'i. of AUloJ,:t'flit' r,u/II.
inlo:). An effective method for Ie-aching
R. would be to etablish a fee,]ba,'k
by means of which di'play
the level of bioelectrical attivity to
make it to perception by
the ,ubject. R. is an auxiliary te-ch,
nlque for athlete training. autogenk
training, logOpedics, and so on.
Reliability of a Test. a triterion of
lest quality (see- Tt'lliflr:) relating
10 accuracy of psychological measure-
ments. The higher the R. of T., the
relatively more free it would be of
errors. Some regard R.
of T. as stability of results in repeated
testing. Others regard it 85 a mani-
festation of the degree of equivalence
of two (parallel) tests similar in form
and purpose. The definition of R. of T
mav also be connected with the notion
of ihe test's internal consisten'Y. This
is manifesl in the separation of a te:.t
into parts wilh sub:sequotnt compartson
of the results. R. of T. is also deter-
mined by the methods of
and factor afla/YIiI.
Reminiscence (in psychology), fuller
and more accurate recall of informa-
tion retaint."CI ill the memory as
compared with that initially retained
(memorised). R. may be observed
111 memorising of an)' I"/'rbal
visual material, and also ;n
.'Sensory-motor habib. R. mamfestS
itself particularly often LIl work ":'It!l
large \o[umes of. loglcall.y or
tively associated LIlforrnalloll affC<.:
ILIl
8
a ptrson emotionally. R. is more pro-
nflun..:ed in childhtlOd. A number of
hypothese'> ha\ e been !)uggesled 10
explain R. According to one of them.
tiredllt'H during memorising of !jonle
material lead::. 10 impairment of its
direct recall. Delay would permit 10
re,>wre opTimal functional stale to
thereby improve ft"produclion. Another
hYPolhe;b b based 011 the assumed
existence of proces:;es of concealed
repetition of the malt'rial, one Ihat
after Ihe obvious cessation
of which leads to an
impro\'ed reproduction following the
delay. R. may also be explained by
faci that. following the delay,
liller/nella by information slOred in
the memory decreases. So far, none
of hypotheses can claim to
exhausti\'ely explain all cases of R.
Repetition. reproduction of mastered
and actiom designed to
memorising. In general
ps)<.;hology. R. IS regarded primarily
III with memory research.
R. IS \ludled as a mean:; for establish-
new, semantic links. revealing new
I.:orrelallons III an object, and effecting
of an individual's
R., IS also designed to improve
adlOIl\ wnhm different d'm .
S .' ens IOns.
peually exercises and R.
0r, some actIOn III changing conditions
ow .. R, to become generalised and
I.:on.s .. lous. Frequent R "nd .. ,
d" . erSlmlar
con leads to
Representations. of b
scenes d ,0 Jects
, .an .events that arise on
basIS 01 theIr r('collec/ion 01 od
pr uc-
-
live Unlike.' ""r,-"",
, ,1-- /(IfIS,
R. be generahsed. Whereas per-
cepllons relate only to the nl
,. esent
R. belong to the past and
future. R. dIffer perceptions in
that they are conSIderably less "e
N
. <.; ar.
everlhe[ess, theIr sensuous nat
all?ws to classi.fy them by
(\'Isual, acoustIC. olfactory, tactil
and R. Reliance on the R. :i
well-familIar scenes or places serves
a most effective mnemonic tech-
(sec Mllemonics). Transforma_
tIon. of R. play an irnportaru role in
solvmg mental problems, especial1
which require new "vision" of
.. In characterising the dialec_
tIcal relallons of R. and thought. Lenin
wrote: "Is sensuous representation
closer to reality than thought? Both
yes and no. Sensuous representation
cannot apprehend movement as a
whole, it cannot, for example. ap-
prehend movement with a speed of
300,000 km per second, but II/ollghl
does and must apprehend it."
(V. I, Lenin, Col/ecletJ Works Vol. 38
'27) " p. - .
Repression, a form of "psychological
(see Defelice, Psycho-
10gH:a/) .which is a process whereby
an. II1dlVldual "expels" from his con-
SCIOusness thoughts, recol/eelions, and
experience unacceptable to
hIm, and transfers them to the sphere
of t.he Nonetheless R.
to influence his behaviour,
whIch is fell in the form of allxiety,
fear, etc. The term "R." was intro-
duced by Sigmund Freud (see Ps),cho-
Freudiuniml).
Reproduction. a IIII'll/a/ allioll al.:l.:cs-
sible to observation; one that involves
restoration and rccon\trunion of the
actualised content in ccrtain sign form
(sce Acillalix(llion), Unlike recof,(ni
lion, R. is achieved without the
repeated percep/ioll of a \/illllllu\ and
may show in both \'oluntary and
involuntary forms. Voluntary R,
induced by a reproductive lask posed
either by the subject himself, or by
other people, Like recognition. R, is
used as a technique for determining
the efficacy of memori\illj{. The
number of R. errors decreases when R.
is trained and accompanied by high
molivalioll. R. efficiency depends on
the method used: the more t he R.
situation corresponds to the memorisa-
tion situation. the better is R. Invo-
luntary R. is observed in situations
lacking intentionally set R. tasks. and
occurs under the influence of ideas,
thoughts and feeling'S evoked either
by perception of a given object or
siwation. or by aClil'itil's performed
at a given moment (reading a book.
watching a motion picture. elc.).
Research Programme of a Scientific
Collective <sodo-psychological aspect).
a basic concept in socio-psychological
study of a research collective (see
Collective. Sciellti/ic: Programme-role
TI,cory of a Scielllific Collective).
R.P. of S.c. involves a system of tasks
to be solved by a sc ientifJc ('ollect ive,
and also methods to be used to this
end. and consists of three aspects,
viz., object-logical. scientifIc-social.
and personal-psychological. R.P. of S.c.
develops in an objective research
.. iwation arising in the course of deve!
0llment of science and in connc.:tion
with society'S needs, It includes tht::
following concrete feature .. : pre-plann-
ed future result of research: heuri'>ti(
techniques for attaining that re\ult:
the sequence of using those techniques;
and description of available, reservt::.
permi'>Sible and prohibited ways for
achieving the goal. An accepted R,P.
of S.c. it possible to orgalllse
the work of researchers and control
group processes in the collective,
orienling it to allaining the goab
of the programme. The question of
forming research programmes is a
central issue for the social psychology
of a research collective and for
scientinc research in general. The
cohesiveness and effacien.:y of a
research collecti\'e would depend on
the quality of R.P. of S.C. R.P. of
S.c. is a major requisite for developing
intracollective relations by ensunng
actual "programme-oriented" unity of
the research collective,
Resoluteness. ability to independently
take and steadfastly implement
sible decisions. R. part1.:ularly mani
fests itself in complex situations. when
an att entails cenain risk and the
need 10 choose from several options,
R. also signifies the ability to boldly
take responsibility for the decision
made, to perform timely a':lions. and to
quickly execute Ihat decision,
actions would be morally justifted
depending 011 their social 1I11(10rt.
Respondent, the subject of a
psychological study who is
SOCIO-
asked
270
Depending on the nature
of the studv. R. appears as the teslee,
dienl, informant. patient. Of simply
rarlner in a
Rtsponsibilil)'. control over a subjeCl's
activity from the viewpoint of accepted
norms and rules exercised in many
forms. External fOrlm of control,
which the subject's R. (ae-
puni.shment, etc.) for the
of his acti\'iIY, 3re distinguished
from inlernal forms of self-control,
(e.g. sense of R., sense of duty).
Personal R. before society is charae-
teri'ed by conscious obeyance \0 moral
and legal thai express
some 5()f.;ial nttd. As a personal trail,
R. forms in the cour...e of jOint aelil'-
Iti('$ as a result of inte,io,isa/ion
of s(Kial \'alues, norms, and regula-
Ij(lOs. Works by Soyiel psychologisl!.
Ihat the level of group
d'Vtlopml'nt and f;roup cohesion. Ihe
af!lnilY of orientations and
emo!lonal identifkation play an impor-
lanl role in a per'On to take R.
$UCl:e\$ or failure in joint
'Illes: Soviet also claim
that 11 d plYlllible IQ exert a purpose-
ful influence on the
formll1g 111 members of work collectives
\If and adequate a:>sess-
of Ihe degree of their perSOnal R.
for rhe OUlcome of their common
work.
Rtltnlion. a memo,), ph", -h _
. ...., L arac-
!eJ'lSlI1g :.torage of perceived
anformallon 111 a hidden \tat, R
be ' . may
only by ob..erving other
mnemOI1lC thai pre<;upPO$e R .
-
such as reproduction. recogllition
and repetition. The pOwer of R:
es.-;enllally depends 011 the organisation
of mnell10nlC means hee Mrlemonin)
and on measure, that prevcllt forRel -
tinll (see Rl'f)ctitiollj.
R. may be active and passive. In active
R . the retained data is subjectcd 10
inner tran1)formations, ranging from
simple cyclic repetition to inclu1)ion
in new scmal1lic associations, which
sharply increase the likdihood of
subSl..>quent reproduction. In passive R.
researchers fail to reveal such active
t ramf onnat ions,
Rigidity (in psychology), diffIculty
(up to total inability) to change Ihe
programme of actil'ity charted by the
subject in conditions that objectively
require it.s restruclUring, Psycho
logists cognitive. affective
and mOlivational R. Cognitive R.
manifests itself IrI a difficulty to
reslTucture (X'rcepliol/ and ideus in a
changed situation. Affective R, shows
in inertness of affective (emotional)
respon.ses to changing objects of el1lo- \ /
lions. Motivational R. is seen in stitT .x
restructuring of the system of molil'es
in circumstances thar require the
subject to be flexible and change his
behuviour. The level of the subject's
R. would depend on how his personal
traits inleracl with Ihe environment,
including on the complexity of the
task facing him, its attraction for him,
the danger involved. the monotony of
stimulation, etc.
Risk. a ,ituational characterisllc of
actil'ily involving an indeterminate out-
-
COllie and possihle unfavourable conw-
in cast! of failure. In PWdlO-
logy, the following three corre-
lated corre<.pond to the
term hR.": (I) the measure of antici
pated failure dclerrnined by combined
probabilily of failure and degree of
possible unfavouraulc consequences;
(2) an action which threatens
the individual with failure (loss, injury,
damage), Experimentally,
distingu;"h motivated R. reckoned 011
situational advantages in some fIeld of
activily, and unmotivated R. (see Actil'-
elless) , Besides, proceeding from the
correlation between the anticipated gain
and in implementing a given aClion,
dislinction should be made between
justifled and unjustified R,; (3) a
choice between IWO possible ways of
action. on{' less attractive bUI more
reliable. and Ihe olher mort! altrac-
tive but les\ rdiable (with problematic
oulcome involving p01>Sible unfa-
vourable consequences), In this case
psychologist' traditionally dislinguish
two classes of situations. in which (a)
success and failure are asses\t!d using
a spt!ciflC achievemenl scale (situa-
tion of the "1('1'1" 0/ (lspiralio//\" type;
(b) failure enlails punishment (physi-
cal tlireat, pain. or social 1)anctions).
There is an important distinction
beTween siwations in which the Oul-
come would depend on chance (chance
situations) and those in which it would
depend on the individual's ahililil'.1
(situations It has been re-
vealed Ihat, other condition:. being
equal. people show a milch higher R. le-
vel in involving rather
than chance. i.t'. when D believe:.
271
-
- ... -
\omething depends e...erltially on
In psychology, the nOli 011
" R," manifests itself chieny in accep
lance of R .. i.e. when the individual
prders a hazardous opTion TO a safe
one, Researchers show inlerest for shifls
towards higher or lower R. levels in
group discussions of some activilY
(see Shift),
Risky Shift, increasingly risky group
and individual decisions following
_.".--- - .
a group discussion as compared to those
inilially taken by members of Ihe same
group (see Group
Grollp Polarisation), R.S. was repea-
tedly demonstrated in various experi-
mental silUalions. There are three type'>
of experimental procedures for exa-
mining R.S,: (1) comparison of initial
individual decisions with coordinated
group decision: (2) comparison of
initial individual det:isions wiTh indivi-
dual decisions after a coordinated group
decision has been taken: (]) compari-
son of iniTial individual dtcisions fol-
lowing a group discussion. wilhout
compuhory coordination with po:.t-
discussion individual decisions. Seve-
ral hypotheses have bt:en suggested
to explain R.S. The nlOSt popular
one holds that each group member
revise!> his decision in Tht! course of
discussion so as 10 bring if nearer
to Ihe group norm.
Role (in social psychology). a social
funclion of pen(IfIaliry; human behav-
iour corresponding to acceplcd norms.
depending on peopk's staTUS or pll.Sl\lOIl
in society and ill a gi ... en syst.crn
of i/llerpersOIwl re/ufi(lllJ, The nO\lOll
'R:' ..... a' introduced inlO social
by Gt'l,rge 'tead IlIlerU("
tioni,lmL Performing a R. by a
ha$ a specific ren,ollal, linge ..... hlch
depends primarily on knowledge
and ability to be III Ihat R.:
impl.lrtalll"e III him. and Oil hIS d;lre
tIl mel't the expeltatiom of people
surrounding him. The range and num-
\1('r (If R\ ..... ould depend on the
mullihmnil\' of so..;ial group. types
Ilf actil'ilie; and relati(ltlships involving
the individual. and needs and
intert:M\. be made
\1etween s(lCial determined hy the
indil'iduaJ's status ill a given system
Ilf l,hjectilt: social relationships (voca
tlonal. s(lcio-demographic. and other
R'II and interp,:nonal R's depending
on the lIIdilidual\ \Iatus within a given
"I' interpersonal relalions (lead-
er. Illltl."a\t. de.). also
distingUish 3<"1il'e Rs. performed at
a gilen moment, from latent R\ that
aft' rI<l1 Ilhserval1le in a gilen slIua-
'ion. Besidl,.'S. they distinguish in\titu
IlonaliSt'J (offll'ial, cOlwentiona1) R\
.... ne('"It:<! wllh formal reqilirements
III some organi\ation of which the
ndividual in que.tillll a member.
('elm R"s \onne..:tt'd with
and
forms Ill' adilily, We\tern sociology
anti p'y.:hology largely \.'ariO[l,
individual R, tht'nril'\ general
mt"lhOo,lnl')gi.:al \hort.:oming i\ thaI 1111'Y
Ignllrc ohjel"1ive hi\tori\'al and so,:ial
nm,jllwns whil'h in the filial accnUlll
l<.tll"lal dcmand, and ell.pe..:ta
tions .nlohed 111 R, !le-haviour. In those
lheor
i
es., Ihe IndiVidual appear\ as a \ct
or odd roll' mask, which determine
his OUTward bt:ha\iour, irrespeCTive of
his inner world. and ignore the
uniquenc\-s of personality. Its active
nature and integriTY.
Rumours. a specifll,: type of il11er_
personal nlll"1II1II;('ulioll (2), in the
course of which a story, to Some
extent renccting certain trUThful and
untruthful events, becomes familiar
to a large number of different people.
[n addilion to the given evenl, R.
aho renett puhiie opinion and mood,
the more common social stereotypes
and of the audience: and lhe
informational situation in the region. X
R. are of len Ihe source of .false.
are com-
-classified hy two parameters:
(I) expn'ssivene\!>. 1. e. emotional
Slate,> that fmd in the R.
t:ontent and cQrresponding of
emOlional such as desired
R., R,. and aggres.si\e R.:
(2) informativene'>\, i. e. the degree
of authenticilY of the slOry. invol"ing
R, which range from tOlally false to
Jrllthfu..1 ones. The main
fa..:lor fat:ilitaling R. circulation caused \ .
b,' umaTisfled lIltcrest is an informa- X
110n vacuum filled either sponTaneously
or through the efTl,)rts of hoslile
propaganda. Knowledge of the causes
and principles underlying the .'>pread
of R. hdp, orgall1sc informational
poliq' so as to reducc 10 a minimum
The likelihood of R. and, in case
Ihey do art.'>c, 10 etTecti ... dy counteract
them.

Sanguine Person, an
individual pO\Sessing
,1111' of the four basic
and
characteris-ed by high
mental (lcl;I'eneu,
energy, wor/.;, ('UIJa-
,1/.1', agilily, diverse and abundant
mimicry, and quil'k speech. S. P. seeks
frequent changes of impressions, read-
ily responds to all events, and is a
good mixer. S. P. is characterised by
quickly developing and changing emo-
lions: also, he gets ovt'r his failures
relatively easily and (Ildckly. The
famed Russian physilllogist Ivall Pavlov
believed that, in S. P .. excitative and
inhibiTory processes are quite intellse,
balanced, and mobile. Under unfavou-
rable condilions and !legativt' educa-
tional innuences.. mobility 111 S. P.
may ill lack of concentrallon,
unju\tifted haste, and superficiality.
Scale, an jnl>trunlcnt for measuring
permanent properties of all objt'ct.
consisting of a numerical system in
whidl relation), hClween vilfiom prop-
erties of obJet:ts arc expressed by Ihe
properties of numerical series. In psy-
chology and <;Qciology. various S\
are used to sludy characteristics of
socio-psychological phenomena. Ini-
tially, four types of numerical systems
were dislinguished 10 dett'rmine four
respective levels (or scales) of
measurement, namely, Ihe nominal
S., Ihe ordinal S., the interval S.,
and the proportional S. These are
distinguiShed basing on maThemal-
tran .. formation'i allowt'd by each
\. The llifft:rencc III the mea .. -
'. Q ,
,
17.1
uremenl levels of some quality may
be illustrated by the following sim-
ple example. If peorle were to be
divided solely into those and
dissaTisfied with their work, one would
obtain a nominal S, of job
tion. If one can also the
magnitude of satisfaction, one would
construct an ordinal S. Again, if one
establishes the extent to which, and
by how many times, some people are
more satisfied than others, one could
obtain interval and proportional S's
of job satisfaction. S's are distin-
guished nOl only by their mathematil'al
properties, but also by Ihe
used in collecting data. Each S. uses
specified methods of data
analysis. Depending on the type of
problems to be l>olvt'd by
one would construct either rulillg
or In sociological
and psychological research, each S.
(irrespecTive of the measurement level)
has a special name associaled wilh
the property of an objel't under study.
Scaling, a method for simulating real
processes by means of numerical
systems. In social science'. c. g. anthro-
pology. sociology, and psYl'hology S.
is a major method of maThematical
analysis of a given phenomenon, and
also a way to organise empirical data
obtained Ihrough ohsen'ul;oll, study of
documents, experi
ml'flfS, a11d lI'stiIlK. M(Y.,I social and
psychological objects cannot he mea:;-
ured wilh regard to exal'l plal'e and
time. and. consequenlly, cannot be
measured directly. gi\ot's rise TO
the question concerning the s[lt'cifK\
274
- -
of a TlUmeril'al thaI .:oul\1
corrdale with such empirical J:1I3.
In elTect. S. methods (('pre -
sents 'peeial f()r
forming qualitative charsl'teri"i .. , IlItO
a given quatuitathe The
general S. rom,IS!' Ul COII-
structing a Kale in 3n:(lrJanct" with
certam rules. and in\'ol\'es [\I'l)
stages. At the initial stage of d:lla
gathering, whose methods would e,,
alTect the resultant \vpe
of socio-psychological information,
one would create an t'mpirical sys-
tem involving the objects unO(,f study
and specify their interrelations. AI the
subsequent slage of uata analy::;is,
upon whose methods Ihl!' volumt' of
information would depend. the inws-
ligator would construct a numerical
system simulating the relationships of
the empirical system of objects:
this stage Is also called
the !.election and implementation of
the S. method. S. method!; are
to two type:. of
(a) quantitat!I'e representation of
objects in their totality using their
averaged group score; and (b)
quantitalLve representation of the
inner qualities of individuals by
e:>tablishing their attitude to some
socio-psychological phenomenon, In
the 1ln.1 case, this is done by means
of rating scales, and in the second-
alti/ude scales.
School, in psychology, a form
of organlsallon of joint scientifiC act iv-
unite the of
('08nlllOn and of accu-
IIIl1tltt'(1 )."11\'111,,,1).',', ..\ S" S implil"\;
(I) " r,',,',ltdl ,III.] \',1111 "tl,llI'll \d1\ltll
thilt !r.lIn, futlln' ,(il'lIti'l\ ,Ind "II\II.,h'
(1) .\ r,'\l,.lrl'll (\llk,'lil l', .1
of \(ll'IIII'1\ Illhl l'lahnfiue
under tlte ,upl'n 1,1(111 of .1 le'lder
(h"'hl of ,(11001) till' rl"cardl pro_
gr,lI1HIl" Ill' ha, ,Il'l is,'.I: (,H tlricma.
ti(11i ill ,,'iclI,'c nn thc
of .1 dl'f11lit,' traliitilill
tHlnl,'r(HI\ ,(i,'lIti,t, and
group', ,0\. S.,S. Ita, plll\,'d all impor_
tallt rolt: ill (1"ll'I{lpillg
front anci,'lIt timc), II'hcn
knowledge de\'l'Illped within philo-
and doctrines
(school, of the Ancienl Orient, for
example, and also Ihe Anci..:nl Grcek
of Hippm:rates,
ami PIOIO, and those of the
etc.). The
trt'lld of was from schools
Ihat stored non-personifled knowledgt'.
like in the Ancient Orient, 10 schools
which were prototypes of re\earch
like Ari \totll;'\ ,dlOOI. In medi-
e\'al, usually develop-
ment of psydlOlogical knowledge
was chieOy reproducliw, and some,
times also reactionary. The role of
as., S, grew in impor-
tance in modern owing to rapid
scientifIC aud to the fact
that it b..:came a profcs.sion, and
that scienti fIC activilY was no longer
individual, but collective. S .. S, became
the main organisation III which
logy from a branch of
philosophical ioto an
pendent Wilhelm Wundt s
school, which both scienliflC and
educalional III nature, played an
imptlrl'lllt (,)1(' 11\ III Llct, II
Irailll'lllht' I'lr,t "I fl'SC'alh
,'r, whu ,uhwIIU,'ntl) ",I up I.,bora
Hlril.'\ fm C\IWTllllt'ut.,1
rC\l',lrdl in v,.,i,lu\ rt'IlHITI("S, 1];1\1ll1!
rCJt'I.'lcd IIH,' l'dn Ii, n,tture "I W lilitH'
(1II1l"1.'ptitlll, nw\t III thc'l'
({hWilld tdilpc, Slank), /1,,11, Jamc'
Caltell, VI,lttinllr Uugn
M lill\ll'l'bcrg, "nd 01 hCI", <1(11 alKed
lIew re)eardl progralllnit" "nd l'reatcd
Iheir own S. S, AI Ihc 'dille tlll1C,
Edward Titchel1cr ill Ihe USA hce
Slr!l('lliral P,wch%grJ dllli (jeorgi
Chelpdllov ill Ru,\id (\lIIlinued 10
follow orientalion, Chclpano\
orgal1ised a big rC)'e<lrl"h alld t'uu(a-
tional for ledo.;hillg e)"j"lcrimellial
10 )'ntll1g i Palel
Komlantin Korniltll, Scrgt.'i
Kravkov, Nikolai Rvbnikm', Pyotr
Sht'varyov, and othe,,), who
quelltly criticiwd the !>ubjc([lI'e rJlt'thod
(see Int rospection) "ml aduptt'd the
Marxist approadl to
and signifIcantly l"lmtributed to Ihl'
development of SO\ iet p'ydwlogy.
The dcvdopment of J):l'hult.lgy in the
20th ccntury IS (OIlIle;:-o.;led with
specifIcally oriel1lt.'d ,cltooll. ..... hieh
determined the of prest'l1t-
day J1'>ychology, for t'xarnpk, \truc-
tllralisUl (sec S'rlll'wrul P,I.I'<'ilolo,lu)'
functionalism (see FIIl/clio",,1 P,\.I'cllo-
logy), behm'i 011r j,WI, neobehm'l Oil ri.\/Il,
Gestaltism (set' Gt.':;talf Pswlwlogy) ,
Frl'lltiiani:;m, and Nt'o"-f('u(/ianism.
In Sov!.::1 psychology, (0111111011
phi losophical fOllnd.ltioll i:; diakcti,"al
and hiSlQrical materialism, all important
role belongs to the schools of Mikhail
BasM, Ll'1 Vygotsky, Sergei Rubill-
:"7J
,t<'HI, Alc"e;:-i N, l.c"llt)'CI, AIc,,tI1,kr
Luria. !J"", An.H1Y<'\, ["p'UY.
DllIIITi t 1.l1a.lt', <lnll 11lhl'r\,
Second Signalling S.,,,em, SfpllIi
lillg Snl,'IIII.
Self. the rt"\1I1t of marl's "Wdrl'IIl''''\
of " Icparale "ojnl 1Il
Ihe CI1VlrUIHlIelll, hnn hi
regard him\elr the mh/L'l'/ uf 1m
phy)il"al and mcnlal IlI.'l/Ilf/l
and proce"e), and t:xpeTl
enLe own i11lt:grily and idenlltv
with him!.elf in retation I() hl\ pa,i,
and future. S. 111 the;:-
cour<oe of u.dl\"ili/!.I and ('Jmlllllllli<u.
lir", (I), By l'hanging the
world in the cour..e of ohJl'et-
rt'iatl'd al'IlIII)'. and 'n IIltt'''h'!In,
with OIhl"r tlte \lIbjrxt \ I
his S, from the non-So 10 l'moli,mally
l':\perieme his nnll-idl'ntity wlih Iltht'r
oojl"Cls. S. evaluated by the;:-
in Ihe Self ell/ln'pl to form Ihe nudeu\
of hllman personality.
Self-accounl, see SelfO/lwr\'lI/ion_
Self-aclUalisa.tion, human dl"\ire 10
ma\imally .lnd dt'I'elop onc'\
/Xrsonal potentials, In roml' trend) of
LOlltemporary P>'>ydlology, S,
a&igned the role of tht' principal
lllotivaling factor in \0
hehal'iourism and Frf'lIdi"niwTt, which
rt'gard personal behaviour to Ix pro-
pelled by biological forces /lnd alkl!edly
designed to the h!lIsion
these forces create and 10 adapt the
,-.
-,,,
ilH.li\'idual 10 the t'm;rollmenl. Ho,w-
eyer. the concepl of S. failed 10 receive
adequate interpretation in Western
p ...ydwlogy. '}ince the Jailer conSiders
the indi\'idual [(I be capable of S.
onlY when he is free of all \ocial
In realilv, Irul' S. imp'!e!>
the eXlstclH:C of favourable :;OClO-
historical
Self _appraisal, by an indi-
vidual of his own and his
PrD'.;pcc\s. qual!ljc:. and pasiOO!) among
other people. S. i... an important
regulator of pCf:;onal behaviour. An
indi'iidual's rclalioll\ wilh other people.
his l'fuici:;m and towards
him ')elf. and his attitude 10 his own
"'U(I:C'''''' and failures would depend
on S. In this way. S. affe..:l:; man's
a_l,ld, runher of
he;, S,T connected
With the it'I'd of u.\pirUlions. ,. e.
with the difftculty of the goals the
indIVIdual ha .. WI for When
a per-lln's claim.. and hi.. actual
pI'Iencies dll not coincide. this leads
10 wrong -apprai,al and resultant
madequate hehaviour chara..:teriwd by
frll',trat;llIl" increa,ed anxiety, etc. S.
manift\t1 it,df ohjectively in how an
individual 3\\1.'\,1.', the (lO:.!>ibihties
and re!.ult'> of other pt"op\e\ activity,
whether he dl'preC1ate,> them in
Ilf S. In their work'>.
SOHI.'I han' .,hown the
innuenre of S, 011 human cognitive
ad1Vlty rt'prnl'n/u/ion
... '
so Illmn (If II1tdlcclUal ta.\ks) and it'>
ol .. ,t 1Il inll'rpl'r,\IIfw/ rl'iuliof1.). They
jlaVl' IlctC"rmined procedurl"'> for
an allequatc S, and. in ca .. e
of deformed S., techniques for trans_
forming it through edUl.:ation.
Self-awareness, see Self Conc-cpt.
Self-comfort, a sensation of physiologi_
cal and psychological comfort. S.
may be def11leJ both as a general
characteristic (feeling good or bad,
vigour, indisposition, etc,) and as
more specifIC emotional l'xperiences
pertaining to funcitons of organs,
and systems (a feeling of discomfort
in different parts of the body, dif-
f,culty to perform certain motor and
cogn1l1ve acls. etc.). Characteristic
symptoms of changes in S. are clearly
seen in different individual states, e. g.
in fatigue, tension, and stress. That is
why S. characteristics are traditionally
used as the basic group of symptoms
in subjeclive assessment of 311 indi-
vidual's psychic state.
Self Concept. a relatively stable and
more or less conscious phenomenon,
emotionally experienced as a unique
system of the individual's idea,;; abO_VI
basing on which- he ' inieracts
wIth' other people and deveTops an
anitude towards himself. S.C. is an
integral imaKl' of one's self. albeit not II
devoid of inner contradictions. It is an
311itude towards himself involving the
cognitive which is the individ-
ual's image of his own qualities.
abilities, appearance, social signifICance.
etc. (self-consciousness); the emotional
which involve.. self_re .. pect.
self -love, -depredat ion, etc.: and
the e\'aluative-volitional aspect. which
in the desire to play up one's
x
self-appru;sul, 10 win other people\
respect. S.C. the cause and effect of
social interaction _. is determined by
social experience, and its components
are as follows: the real self (the
idea about oneself 111 the present
time). the ideal self (what the sub-
ject thinks he should be proceeding
from moral principles): the dynamic
self (what the subject intends to be),
and the imagined self (what the
subject would wish 10 be if that were
possible). S.c. is an important structu-
ral element in the psychological image
of a given personaliTY, an ideal image,
conceived by the individual in himself.
as if in some other person. in the
course of comlmmicut;ml (I) and
Being in the end caused
by a broad socio-cultural background.
S.c. arise:,; in social exchange, in the
course of which the subjeci looks at
another person as if in a looking-
grnss ti:f lhereli1.
and correc! me images Of his own
self.
Self-COfurol. rational refle;o;ifJfl and
assessmenl by an individual of his own
act lOllS on the basis of personally
signifICant mot;I'f'S and
involving comparison, analysis and
correction of 'he relationshil)S between
the Kouls. means and consequences
of actions. The form, type arid concrete
coment of S. arc determined by the
object, conditions and ,ypes of actions.
and also by the degree of the subject"s
awareness of them. The individ-
ual's ability for systematic S. i\.
among other factors, indicative of his
willpower (see Wi//).
277
Self-determination of Personality, a
conscIous act of identifying and
a\serting one's own stand in problem
situations. Collectil'ist
rio" and professional self-determination
are specifIc forms of S. of P.
Self-education, control by the .mh-
je(t of his own activity in order to
change his own personality in confor-
m,ty with his consciously set goals
and established ideals and beliefs.
S. implies a def11lite level of personality
development and of self-consciousness,
and also the individual's ability to
analyse by consciously comparing his
own actions with those of olher peopk:
S. also assumes a stable attitllfJe
towards perpetual self-perfection. The
individllal's attitude to his potential
abilities. correct and the
ability to see his shoncomings charal'-
tedse his malurity, and turn mlo
premises for organising S. When the
ideals. norms and principles of Com-
munist ethics become major componenls
in the individual's consciousness. the
lauer's desire to follow Ihem would
acquire profound meaning
and they become constant incentives
for continued socially valuable develop-
ment of the individual. prompting him
to further S. S. involves the of
such techniques as self-commitmenl
(volullIary selling oneself goals and
tasks for self_perfection: decision to
l'ultivate certain qual il ies): self _account
(retrospection of one's past over a
defmite period or timeL comprehension
and assessment of ones own acTivilY
and behaviour (by revealing the
of one's own and failures);
1'7<1
- .,
-
and .(i'If.l,,/!/Iro{ (<;v\\em3Iic flxat;oll of
(llle\ s.ate and behaviour \0 10
pn:H'1l1 unJe-.irable consequelll'cs)
Self .obM'r\ alion, (lb<-l'n' alioll by an
ind;\idual of thc inner ,ide of his
own "wnlal life, a pro..:e'>.') that re
rmll
\
him \0 fnate ih manifeslaliclIls (emo
Illllla! expl'ru.'nrcs. thoughts, ft."elings.
t"lc), S. ari"t"\ in Ihe cour..e of ("(JIll
mllmrll/ion (11 with Olher peopk and
3'"irnilal;011 of \!\JlCrience and
mean., for ils c(lrnprehemion. S. plays
3n IIllpt1rtal1\ role 111 forming till'
and self.
nmlrol. 111 modern p\ycholngy. Ihe
resulh of S. Iml taken on lru\l;
they are (3(IOr\ which require
liftr explanatil11l. The resulb of $. may
Ix- rel'ordl'<1 In various
e.g. lellers. aUlObiographie... ql/c'st;-
m,nalfC J. S. nOI be ":011-
fooo(1..-d with the subje..:ti\'e method
of InITll$pcl:lion (Stt Intrmp('clil'e
P'ydlrJ/"RY). In solme the re.ult
of S, IS self-a..:(ounl, i.e,
by an mdi\'iduat of himself ill 3 lotaht\'
of hi .. own Inl"ntal and pt'rsollat mani",
feolallons. SlImt'limt's, wlf-3c..:ounl i,
... nsed hy ...... ,
Ihl' m,)St important \)lIe being Ihat,
In ,:avlng ')('Ifa,,:(ounl, a
numher of art' apt to prt'\enl
111 a maximally favourable
light.
Sflf .ptrC('pfioo. \t'e Perceptio/l, Inler-
pt'r.\,mul,
man\ abilitv to acl
In lIiituations aff ...".
IR, he l"rnOiORIlI \flht'rl'_ S.
indl("8tl\C Ilf \'olitiollal
illl! 01 the menTal prOce-';es
that rC!lulatl' '>w,:h a..:ti\"ity, a d also of
tll\: indi,idllal\ cllwtional and so..:ial
matunty
Self:r('gulation, purp(l'>eful fun(lioning
of liVing WITh dllTerent levels
of and complexity. Mental
S, a k'vd of regulation of the
u('(il'('nl.'\\ of the>;e showing
till' of Ihe psychic means
of rcflel,tillg and 1I10deiling reality,
in..:iutiing the r('flexions of the subject.
\1('ll1al S. is a..:hieved a unity of
its energy, dynamic .. , and semantic
a\llCl'ls. Dcspite il.\ diverse manifesta-
$, Thc following structure:
the individuah Wkl/ of voluntary
a..:li\'ity, moJcI of significant condiTions
of act;, ity. programme of executive
a(lIons propcr, ,>yo;tem of sllccess
..:rllena, information on actually
achievt'd e\till1atc of conformity
('If a..:t1l81 to sucU'ss ..:riteria,
and about the need alH.! nature
of al"tivity ..:orreuioTlS. S. i\ a closed
regulation C<'IIIOUf lln'olving fin inform
ali\lO;" pnl\"l"" who'iC are
memol fllrlll\ of tht' rene..:tinn of reality.
D ... on the type,> and condi-
tion\ ('If actIVity, S. mav be actualised
by various p\ychic 111\.'<1;\'>, e.g. sensory
image" Idea" (on(t'pt.\, etc. The goal
a(ct'ptl'd b)' the individ ual dOt!S IIOt
ullambiguouslv (il'It!rrnillc the condi-
l ions needed' to devise a programme
o! actinm: with similar models of
meaningful l'ondit imls of activity,
ditTerent Illetho(h may be used to
allain the same result. The general
regularitie\ of S. arc a(lUalised in
individual fornl'> whidl dept'nd 011
..:on..:rete (ollditiol1s. and on neural
3(tivity c!laraderi\tie\, the individual\
personal trail\ iJnd hahit'>. formt'd in
the of I'(/I/('cllioll.
Self -suggestion (autO\uggeM ion), .mg-
KI".,tio1/ addre\.\ed to oneself, a proccs,>
in whi(h the suhjecl and the obje..:t
of the suggestive effect coin(ide. S.
leads tn a higher le,d of w/ffI!f<lIla-
fion. cnabling the individua l to evoke
in himself various \!'lI.\ulio/l.l and
perceptions, aud 10 control his utlel/-
lion, melltory, and emotional alld
somatic reactions. VolunHlry S. ;'S
achieved through \erhal
tioTl'> or by mentally reproducillg certain
situations Ullambiguously a!>.'>ocialed
with Ihe required ..:hange in one's
mental or physi..:al (see Allloj.!ellic
TrainiTl,ld. Effe(tive \'oluntary S. is
promoted by mClltal reiu.wliOlr and
powerful Involuntary S.
by The individual's
uncriti(al atlitude his own
ideas, and a ... by
the absen(l' of doubl in their cor-
rectness and authenti..:ily; and by
de..:reased control functions of COII-
This causes
rigidity (lack of ill"xibility) of mental
actiyity. S. may manifest itself in
disturbed furll,tioning of vMious body
systems owing to anticipa-
tion of a giVt'1l disorder, and due
to the belief Ihat it will r.:ertainly
ocr.:ur, or has already occurred (see
lafrogellic IIIl1e\s). An opposite pht'tlorn-
en on observed in the placeho
effect. S. may also be uscd as a method
of self-control in psy(hotherapy, '>port.
279
iJnd pedagogy.
Sensation, reflection of Ihe properties
of objects in the objective world,
oc(urring when the latter directly
affect Ihe reaptor\. According to the
dialectical-materialist theory of refle(-
lion. "sensation is indeed the direct
connection betwet'll consciousness and
the external world; it is the transforma-
tion of Ihe energy of extt'rnal excita-
tion into the fact of consciousness"
(V. I. Lenin, Collecfl.'(J Worb, Vol. 14,
p. 51). Within the framework of Ivan
Sechenov's and Ivan Pavloy's reflex
(onceplion, studies were made TO show
that. in regard to its physiological
mechanisms, S. is an integral reflex
which combines, through linking inpul
and output, the peripheral and central
seClions of the allal.ner. At
the problems involved in S. are being
subjected to intensive siudy in the
of sensory proce!;St'S and
various branches of physiology. Tht'
divt'rsity of S's reflecls the qualilative
diversilY of the surrounding world.
In distinguishing the refle(lion of
quality as the principal clement of
S .. Lenin wrOle: ''The very first and
most familiar to us is sensation. and
ill it there is inevitably also quality ... "
(V. J. Lenin, Collected Worh, Vol. 38,
p. 3 17). S's may be classified basing
011 a variety of principles. A
method is to distinguiSh S's by modal-
ity. when distinction is made between
visual, auditional, tactile, and other
S's. Within individual modalities, a
more detailed classification is possible
(e.g. into spalial and visual colour
Ss). To some extent, this classification
made difftl"uh by the c,i<"ence of
intNmodal or,),nut',\lhf.'sias. Charlt's
SherringlOn. a British
di\tingui\heJ thrt.'e malTl of S s.
(11 cxtenxeptil't'. i.c. those OC,cu,rnng
under the ad Ion of external Irritants
I'll le(Cptl)r., \ituated on the body
\urfa(c; (21 {kllleS-
thctid. rencd the motion and
re!ati\c pt.l\itioll of body parts due to
the work of re(eptors situatcd in the
and arti(ular bursae;
and (3) intcHxcptive (organid. which
\ignal hy meam of re(cplOrs
the \lHurrenl"e of metabolic
til the internal medium.
In turn. extao.:eptive S\ have tWO
namel). (visual and
auduionall and proximal (tactile and
guslaton), Olfal"lOry S's occupy an
intermNiatc between these
Yel, this dassiflCation fail!.
to take aC((lunt of the cerIa in depen-
den.:e of the function of S's upon the
rnorpho\ngllal lOt:ali\ation of reccptors.
FM li\ual S\ may fulfil
an tOlpt)nant proprioceptive function.
W developed by
\O\l('t S. occurs in
IIhyiolownni,1 on Ihe basis of elementary
Irril'lh;/ily as sen,ibility 10 irritants
thut ha\e Ill) dm:ct ecological signifl-
l'allce and thul renel"" an objective
relationship between tJimic and abiotic
tnllirtlrllllcntal factors. Unlike animal
S'5, man\ S\ are n)nditiol1ed by his
pradllal u{IIIil/n. by tht: elltlrl!
h"tllry Ilf \Ixial dl'wlopml!n1. Numl'r-
IIldicallng the
of r('\tru(\unng under the
of specifl( labour activity
&peal< III favour of the ap-
proadl to S. a product of World
history. The lIlay be about
the dependence of the pern>plioll of
tht indi .. idual propt'rlies of Objects
lIroll socially develor1ed "ystl'ms of sen-
sory the system of
phoneme'> in the lIernacular, the scale
of sounds, or the scale of basic
hues in the spectrum.
Sfnsalion Threshold, intensity of the
;rrilalll or ..::hanging a sellsa-
1;011. The minimal irritant i1l1cnsity
10 cause a sensation is called
the lower S. T. The irritant
intensity at which sensation either disap.
pears. or cha nges in quality, e.g.
into pain. like with increased
lIolume or light brighlness. is
termed the upper absolute S.T. A
minimal increment in irritant inten-
sity accompanied by a barely percep-
tible sensation change is called differen-
tial S.T. of absolute and
dilTerential S.Ts havc IIOW resulted
in the idea that a more or less broad
zone" exi .. h, and that inside
Ihat zone -till.' probability of a response
would vary from 0 to 1. The values
of all separated types of ST. would
change in the cour\e of adjustmefll
and be subject to thc c!Tects of many
factors. rangmg from spatial and
tcmporal characteristics of irritation 10
individual features in the observer ...
functional state. S.T. is inversely
proportional to the intensity of the
corre'pondillg form of
Sense of Humour, ill common language.
man's ability to note and cmotionally
respond to the comic sides of events.
x

x
j(
S. of H. I'> inwparatJly
with thc subJccts's ahility to revcal
contradi.;tiOlI\ in \urrounding reality.
e.g. 10 110tC and ... cxaggerate
thc contra\t of pO'>itive and lIcga-
tive trait,> III a pcr\on, '>omehody"s affec-
tation of Irllportanr.:c accompanied
by contrasting behaviour. and 011.
In mainLuus a
friendly allitude Q.f
humour, wholn hc subJecb to a kind
of emOlional criticism. S. of II. implic\
the in the \lIbject of 11 pO'jitive
ideal. without which it degcllur,ltes il1-
to a negative trait. e.g. vulgari ty. cyni-
cism. \!Ie. One can judge abollt the pre-
sence or absen(e of S. of H. by how a
person takes joke,;. anecdotes. friendly
jests. and caricatures. and by whether
he ,sec.s the comic sidc of a ..,ituat ioll
alld by whether he call laugh 1I0t only
at others. but also when he himself i.,
made fun of. Lack of or ullderdellel-
oped S. of H. is indicative of the in-
dividual's declined cll1oliollal k\d and
in mc ie nt i tit dlcct ua I dc\e\opmenl.
Sense Organs. nerve serving
as receivcr,> of ,\i1>:I/(/1.\ Ihat inform
of changes in Ihe ,subject'.'S cnviron-
ment (extcroccption) and body (inte-
roccption) (.'See Sensalion). It is
cuSiol1ltlry 10 distinguish flYe external
sense facultics. viz. vi.,ioll. hearing.
smell, taste. and tactile semitivilY
In r..:ality, tIler..: arc nHlIly more
senses (for instance. an elfecl 011 the
skin alone causes S('nsations of prc\-
sure. pain, cold. hcat. etc.). S.O.
consist of receplor,\. IIcrve conduct on.
and nervc centre ... Every S.O. pro-
duces only its inherent "\ell\atioll (\ec
Spl.'d/ic ElIl.'rf,(it',\ /)oc/rill('). The
specialised S.O. of hUOlan, and higher
animals halle resulted from the ellolu-
lion of and nondifferen-
tiated S.O. of lower animals. Through-
out thaI evolution. S.O. and the
effector {primarily thc muscular-
locomotor) systcm essentially cor-
responded: S.O. ensure the dciivery
of precisely Iht! infonnati()\J Ilceded
for organising the of the
cffector systcm. The work of S.O.
is induded in the subJel't"s adil'ily:
it provides Ihc laner with Ihe 11CCl'S-
sary informatiol1 and, at the sallie
time, is subordinate to that activity:
from Ihe abundance of signals affec-
ting the the S.O. distinguish
those that are needed to carryon
currenl actlYity. The sciecti()n of
certain <,ignals from a gcneral flow
depends 011 their significance for Ihe
\ubjec\ (see PeHollu/ised Mt'ullilZg)
and on his (see Prohu-
bilil}' Forecu.\tiIlRI. Thi\ a.:tille
nature of per"t'ptirm.
Sensibilisalion. a irritulll-induced 111-
crease in of neural cent-
re.o;. In caSt' of sensory i,ritulIl\.
S. i .. usually conceakd by the accom-
panving process of sensorial (It/jl/M-
lIIe,;I. The correlation of S. and
.ldjuslrm'nt ilia), be estimated by para!-
leimeB.'Surt'mellt of sensibilih' to t'lectn-
cal and sensori'll irrit:lIlts. For [n-
stancc, wlwn exposing an eye to light,
one would Ihat decreased sensibi-
lity \0 light is anom-
panied by increased sensibility, 10
electricity (S.). An IIwer\e relatIOn-
ship would de\ciop ill Ihe dark The
282
method of measuring S. I!>
stimulation by electricity of the
analyser neural elemenls situated above
the receptOr-;.
Sensibilil)', (11 general ability for
It'm;ation. S. appears in pilylogenesis,
when living organisms begin to respond
to environmental factors that act as
signals in relation 10 stimuli with
direct biological significance; (2) In
differential psychology and character-
ology, S. is increased disposition to
affective responses. (3) In psycho-
physics, S. is a magnitude inversely
proportional to the sensation threshold.
There are, correspondingly, absolute
and differential S's. The classification
of types of S. coincides with the
existing classifications of sensations.
For instance, we distinguish types
of S. by the thoroughness degree
of a sensory analysis. Depending on
the nature of the stimulus, one may
of S. to mechanical, optical,
chemical, temperature and other stimuli.
S. of an organism may be assessed
not only by sensations. but also by
changes in various psychophysiolo-
gIcal This generally results
1Tl slightly different indices. For
example, visual S. determined by
changed response in integral brain
rhythms proves higher than S. esti-
mated on the basis of the subject's
oral .account. In recent years, psycho-
phySIC> has developed thanks to the
use of new theoretical concepts, such
as the theory of signal detection
more generalised definitions of S. which
are not dependent on the concept of
<;en'iatlon threshold.

Sensitiveness, a human property mani_

festing itself in elevated \"1"lI'ihilit)'
of a given individual to events that
imolve him personally. This is
usually accompanied by increased
h'orr),: fear of new situations. people,
various tests, and so on. Sensitive
people are timid, shy, and impres_
sionable. and tend to experience
durable emotions about pasl or future
events: they also show an inferiority
complex; tend to develop increased
moral exactingness towards themselves
and a low level of aspirations (see
Accentuatio/l of Character). With age,
S. nlay smooth out, for instance, due
to a newly developed ability to cope
with situations Ihat cause anxiety,
an ability that develops in the course
of education and self.education. S. may
be caused by both organic factors
(heredity, brain lesion. etc,) and social
ones, e.g. emotional rejection in family.
Maximally pronounced S. represents a
form of psychopathy.
Sensory Deprivation, prolonged and
more or less complete deprivation
of man of sensory stimulation for
experimental purposes. 'The subject
is placed in a sound proof and com-
pletely dark room, or in a bathtub
filled with water (34.5C) where he
cannot move. Thb causes a strong
need for sensations. Suggestibility
increases, and concentration and nor-
mal trend of thought are impaired.
Depressive
sometImes
noted that very similar changes are
observed in protracted social isola-
tion: these cases have been described
I
,
lIB
--------------------
by peopl e who experienced shipwred.s,
by polar ctc.
Sensualism (in psychology), a theory
which postulates that sensory impres-
sions constitute the foundation of psy-
chological al.:llvity. In the ancient
world, representative; of several philo-
sophical schools (the Cyrenaics, Epicu-
reans and. in a more moderate form,
the Stoics) adhered to this doctrine.
In insisting that extra-sensory cognition
is impossible, the Stoics suggested
that the intellect be regarded a tabula
rasa, on which experience imprints
its characters. 'They also maintained
that there is nothing in the intellect
that would not be initially present
in the senses. Later, these views were
popularised by supporters of S. in the
Rennaissance and Modern Era (John
Locke and Etienne Condillac1 in
their dispute with adherents of rational-
ism, who tried to prove that cognition
contains a substance basically undeduc-
ible from sensaliolls. Philosophically,
S. is no\ a homogeneous trend, and
involves long-time controversies be-
tween idealist and materialist views of
sensation. The former deny that sensa-
tion is caused by external objects,
and the latter interpret sensory impres-
sions as the effect of external irritants
on the sense organs. S. influenced
the development of associative
logy (see Associationism), in which
in line with philosophical differences,
the association of elementary sensa-
tions that engender complex psycho-
logical products understood to be
either the property of the mind
(George Berkeley, David Hume, James
Mill, and John Stuart Mill), or a
derivative of the system of material
interaction of the body "machine"
with the environment (David Hartley
and Julien La Mellrie). S. had a
strong influence on early experimental
studies in psychology, since experi-
menters thought that their task was
to reveal the primary sensory elements
(sensations), which they would use
to build the entire complex architec-
tonics of mental life. The further
development of experimental piiycho-
logy showed that the real structure
of human consciousness is much more
complicated; that intellectual acts
cannot be regarded as associations of
sensations: that the intellect contains
a substance un reducible to sensory
images: and that S. is totally unable to
explain the motivation of behaviour
and the role of action in bllildint;:
these images. Dialectical materialism
laid bare the theoretical limilations
of S. caused by its contemplative
nature and lack of understanding of
the historical nature of human cogni-
tion and the qualitative uniqueness of
thinking as the supreme form of reflec-
tion of reality and social practice.
Sentiments, a principal and relatively
stable form of attitudinal response
towards objects and phenomena. Unlike
situational emotions and affects. which
rellect the subjective meaning of
things in concrete conditions, S.
out phenomena with a .mol1va-
tional (see Mothalion) slgl11ficance.
In revealing to the individual the
objects Ihal meet his needs,. and
in prompting him '0 aClivilY designed
2R4
-
I(} them. S. represent concrete
,ubJecti,:e form.., in which those lleeID:
e"i,,\. The forming of S. IS a
for man's development as a personality.
Knowledge of motil'l-'s, and
of beha\'ioUf would III
be imufncienl for a man to. be gULd.ed
thereby; only when assocIated With
stable S. lhi::; knowledge would tUfn
into real incentives 10 a':livilY Man's
S. are socially and historically condi-
tioned as man's personality ilself. the
lallef changing in the course of social
de\-elopmenl. In ontogenesis. S. appear
laIN Ihan situational emotions: they
form with the development of individual
under the educational
influence of the family, school. the
arts, and other social institutions.
The primary objects of S. are phe
nomen a and conditions upon which the
course of events. meaningful to the
individual and. hence, perceived erno
liollally. would depend. Arising from a
generalised emotional experience. S.
become the leading factors in man's
emotional sphere and, in their turn.
stan determining the dynamics and
substance of situational emOtions. For
instance, depending on the circum
stances, a S. of love for a cherished
person gives rise to anxiety for him
. '
sorrow 111 separation. joy at seeing
him.' anger when he fails to justify
one s expectalLons, and so on. Such
situational emotions specify the content
of S. in relation to existing conditions
and the subject in question
to act III line his S. Occasionally,
S. and emotions may cause
controversial altitudes towards the
object (see Amhil'ulence of Senti.
- -
mellH). A\ the personality is bC1I1g
moulded, S. become organised III a
hierarchic systcm wherein some be
come the leading ones, while others
remain pmential. unrcalised tendencies.
The content of dominant S. is a
major factor in perso1lality orie1ltation.
The most COlllmon classiflcatioll of S.
singles out certain subtypes for the
respective spheres of activity in which
they are rnanifested. Higher S. compris-
ing the whole thesaurus of man's
emotional relationships to social reality
constitute a separate group. Moral S.
include everything that determines
man's attitudes towards social inst itu-
tions, the state, classes, political parties,
other person, and himself. Cognitive
activity engenders in man intellectual
S. involving both the very process
of acquisition of knowledge and its
result. The highest among intellectual
S. is the generalised S. of love for
truth. Practical S. associated with
activity, viz. labour. studies, and sports.
hold an important place among higher
S. which also include aesthetic S.
implying conscious or unconscious (see
The Unconscious) capacity to be
guided by notions of beauty in
perce1vlllg the surrounding world.
intellectual, practical, and aesthetic
S. ari.se in unity with moral S. and
the latter amplify them. Depending
on the degree to which the content
of S. is Objectively generalised, the
latter are classifIed into concr ete
(for instance, S. towards a child
or some work of art), generalised
(S. towards children or music in
general), and abstract (S. of justice
or of tragedy). The absence of a
detailed classiftcation of S.
their great variety and
variability.
--
i<; due to
hi<;torical
Sequence Effect, a phenomenon show
ing how end items of a <;enes,
i.e., those located at either extrt,:mity
of a material, are remembered better
then those in ' the middle. S.E. '-was
eslablish"e-d" 6y --ttre German- psychol-
ogist Hermann Ebbinghaus and subse-
quently confmned by many other
psychologists. S.E. appears both in
direct and delayed reproduction. Ac-
cording to the French psychologist
Marcel Foucault, S.E. results from
interaction of internal inhibition pro-
cesses that simultaneously act in learn-
ing and in delaying the latter (see
Illhibition Proactive; Illhibitio" Retro-
active.) in contemporary investigations.
S.E. is studied as the primacy effect
and recellcy effect.
Set. Theory of, a general psycho-
logical system of ideas which distin-
guishes the principle of set (atliwde)
as the central explanatory notion. S .. T.
was developed by the Soviet psychol.
ogist Dmitri Uz.nadze and his school
(Alexander Prangishvili. Vladimir
Norakidze. and others). The cate-
gory of set was suggested by Uz.nadze
10 overcome the postulate of imllle-
lliacy, the methodological premise in
traditional psychology, primarily in the
introspeClil'e psychology of consci-
ousness and behaviourism. Having over-
come the methodological limitations of
these approaches, Uznadze developed
the view that set is an "integral
modification of the subject", his read i-
285
to perce1ve future event'S, <Ind 10
perform specihcally directed <1\.'11011..
being the foundation of his pur
poseful selective activity. Set ari'>; in
an "encounter" of twO factor<;, \'i/,.
the need for and situatioll of ito;
possible satisfaction. designed \0
mine the trend of any manifesta-
tion in the subject's psyche and
viour. When impulsive behaviour
encounters some ob!)taclc, it is Inter-
rupted and replaced by a machanislIl
of objeclivation typical solely of
human consciousness, due 10 which
the individual distinguishes him!)elf
from the environment and starts regard
ing the world as something existing
objectively and independently of him-
self. Sets regulate a wide range of
conscious and unconscious forms of
human menial activity. For experimen.
tal studies of set, a method of flxa
lion was suggested. and its different
varieties are applied in analysing the
development of psyche in phyloKene-
sis and ontogenesis: cognitive pro-
cesses; personality; and illrerper,wnai A
relalions. Special allention is gIven
to the study from S .. T. positions
of unconscious mental phenomena,
whose interpretation cardinally differs
from that of the in
Freud's A pro.mising
trend in S.,T. development 1S the
theory of levels of mental activeness
(Shota Nadirashvili). S.,T. is a can
crete scientific methodology for various
special branches of psychology (med-
ica/, del't:'/opmellia/, .wei-
ai, etc.).
Shame, an emOlion arising from
28.
by an inJi\'idual of real
or imaginary illl'ompalibililY of his
action!; or cerlain individual mani-
festations wilh the and moral
requiremenb of a given SOl..'iel} shared
by S. may be due 10 one's
own behaviour or 10 manifestation
of personal Iraib by olher people.
as a fut!!, either one's close relatives
or friends (So for another person).
S. is experienced as dissatisfaction
with oneself, as condemnation or
accusation of oneself. The desire to
avoid such experience is a power-
ful behavioural motive for self-perfec-
tion, acquisition of knowledge and
skills, and development of abilities.
Different people have different S.
thresholds conditioned by their "alfle
orienlations. personality orientations
and sensitiVity for other people's
relevant opinions' and assessments.
By focussing the subject's attention
on his own actions and qualities,
S. helps develop
and self-criticism, and is
conSidered to be the most reflexive
(see emotion. By enhancing
the subject's sensitivity to other
people's assessments, S. takes pan in
regulatmg. communicafion. (I) (to
either faCIlitate or complicate inter-
S. is a fully
soclally-condulOned emotion that forms
III o.ntogenesis. in the course of
conSCIOus assimilation of ethical norms
and rules of behaviour in a .
social system, given
Sign., an object (phenomenon) repre_
sentmg another object, phenomena
prOce1S. The science of S -sem ,.
. 10 ICS-
which ellll'rgl'd L.lIe 1 (hh ;Jnd
early 20th celli line).. 1.\ COIH1Ctlcd with
the mlllle.., of Chnrlc). Pierce, Charles
Morns, Fcrdilland dc Suwisurc, GOt-
tlob Frq;e, Rudolf Carnap and others
and is triditionally subdivided
pragmatics (colH:erncd wi th the rela_
tion of S's to man), semant ics (con_
cerned with the relation of S's to mean_
ings) and syntax (concerned with the
relation of S's to S's at an abstract lev-
el). It is directly relevant to logic. lin-
guistics, cultural analysis, sociology, etc.
Psychological analysis of S. is customa-
rily assigned to pragmatics. Psychol-
ogists study the S's of commullicat i oll
(l ), above a II the n al ural S's (as distinct
from artiflcial ones- mathematic, astro-
nomic, etc.), including language. They
single out several types of S's. Accord-
ing to Ferdinand de Saussure, a
Swiss linguist, S. is an entity with
its own structure composed of the
signifying and the signified. the link
between which is eslablished by society
and does not depend on the "substance"
and form of S. and the object.
Different theories of psychology offer
varying interpretations of S.: S. as a
stimulus in the "stimulus-reaction"
pattern among the behaviollrists: S.
as a symbol, a vehicle of unconscious
drives in psychoanalysis; S. as a
signal. a vehicle of social relation-
ships in symbolic interactionislll. S.
plays a particular ly great conceptual
and functional role in cogllitil'e
psychology in connection with its
initial computer metaphor, i.e. an
analogy between the structure of
man's psyche and informational-logi-
cal computers intended to receive.
-
prOl':C\\. n.tncve and tran,> mit
S. information. The 1I0tU)Il ()f S. in
Soviet p\ydHllogy play,> an important
role in the ("lIltllrullii\ioricul theory
of the 11I('lItul devdf)pmt'llt.
Signal, a proce,,, or phenomenon
(external or internal; of which an
individual is aware or unaware) that
carrie). a mes,>age about some event
to orient living organi).m accordingly
(see Irrif(IIIIS). In conformily with
the nature of and other
perceptual systems. di stin-
guish optical, acoustic. tactile, ther-
mal, electro-magm:lic, chemical, bio-
rhyt hmi cal, and other signals. The con-
cept of S. is widely used in psycho-
physiology and neuropsychology (see
SigflUWIIK Systems); in psychophysics
and in engineerillg and general
psychology when studyi ng perceptual
(see Perceptiot') processes; and in soci-
al p!>ychology when studying commu"i-
catioll (2) processes.
Signalling Systems- the first and the
second s ignal syste ms ( 1st S.S. and
2nd S.S.) - ways for regulating the
behaviour of living creatures in the
enVironment, whose properties are
perceived by the brain either in the
form of signals or directly intercept-
ed by the .wmse (}rR(.I. /l S as sensutions
of colour, sound, odour. etc. (lst S.S.).
or are represented in the sign system
of a given language (2nd S.S.). The
term was introduced by the Rus-
sian physiologist Ivan Pavlov to charac-
terise distillctions between the signal
activitv of the animal and human
brain, 'and to reveal specifically human
2S7
- -
type.., of higher lIen'Ous activity. In
man, relative prevalence of the lSi
S.S. in an anbtic type of
.. lity. and the prevalence of the
2nd S.S.IO an intellectual type.
The 2nd 5.S. arises in the historical
development of ,>ocielY as an "emer-
gency addition" Ihal introduces a new
principle in the work of the central
nervous system, it allows reneet-
ing the world in a general (concep-
tual) form in the processes of work
and speech. The 2nd S.$. intera(.:ts
wilh the 1st $.S. to form a qualitatively
new entity. By orienting towards speech.
Ivan Pavlov started to transform the
signal concept into notion.
a meaningful unit of human intel-
lectual activity ((he word generalises.
abstracts. etc.). This concept was
funher developed by Leon OrbeJi. in
whose theory signs were a form of
,ehicles of cultural meanings. encom-
passing. along with speech. other types
of semiotic relations (musical sounds,
drawing!>, and
so on).
Significant Other, a human being who
is an authority for the given subject
of communication and activity (see
Re/ere"liality). The concept was intro-
duced by the American researcher
Harry Sullivan.
Situation. a system of external (in
relation 10 the mhjed)
inducing and mediating his activity.
The quality of "being external:' in
relation to the subject signifies: spallally.
perceived external location with regard
10 the subject; temporaIJ). autecedence
to the \ubJe\.'t's a.:tiol1; and.
independ(l1t:c from. thc subject of
l'{1rre'IHIIHling at the moment
of adi(lIl. S. elements may aho lI1c1ude
the own ,tates at the preceding
mOlllcnt, if they condition his
qucnl hehMiour. Complete descript.ioll
of S implies identiflCaltOll of requlre-
m(tlts impo\ed up(ltlthe individual from
Clut\ide. and '(Ir worked out by the
IIIdividual hit1l\df as initial require-
ment, hee Prohlem SiIU(l/inn). Imple-
mentation (If S. requirements creates
premi\e\ for transforming or over-
(('tnmg a given S. The subject can go
Ixy(md the bounds of a given S.
{w-e ,ktil'em'\\, Silll(llionllily (nde-
(wmknt). depending 011 the extetll
to which he (if thc givcn S. b signifi-
cant for him) slart) de\eloping and
implemenling n(IV demand,> !awards
himself that would exceed the initial
()nl ....
Skill. an uctimt formed by repe/ltlon
and hy a high degrec
of rerlormance and performed more
or automal1callv. There arc
intdlectual, and mOior
Percepti\c S. IS automatised setl,>ual
r(flectlon of the properties and charac_
Il'mtl ..\ of a familiar object which
ha, heen repeatedly earli-
N, Intellectual S. i\ an automatised
Il'\'hnlqur {Ir tnetll(xI for a
prllnlt'm t'nnllll1!cred Motor
s. IS an automatiwd action formed
a,s a rt'Suh of repeated transforma_
or th( onJect. Motor S\ include
percqmve and intellectual S\ and are
regula!C'([ th(n'hy through automali\ed
ren(,CllOn nt the obJet'l and of the
conditions and sequence In which
an action aUlIed at transforming I
b
'd '" o Jects tS pcr orrne .. Also to be dis.
tlllguished are baSIC automalisM S'
I
. s
forn)t'( wllhout Ihe per<;ons\ awareness.
and secondary automallsed S's formed
when the person is aware of the
aclioll componenl\ involved. When
necessary, secondary S's are more
easily subjet"led to conscious COntrol
and more rapidly improved and
restructured. S's are also characterised
by varying degrees of
the wider Ihe class of Objects in rela_
tion to which a S. may be applied.
the more generalised and labile it is.
The skill-forming process
determination of its components and
mastering of an operatioll that
would permit to attain the best results
through perfection and consolidation of
intercomponetlt links, their automatisa-
tion and high level of readiness for
the g.iv..'n aclion for sub.sequenl
reprOduction. The following factors
aITect the formation of S's: (a) nlOIiI'a-
tiOIl, ahility to learn, the prOl.css of
learning, eXl!rci.l'ing, and reinforcement:
(b) for understanding Ihe contellt of
an operation -the subject's level of
development. presence of knowledge
and capi/ities, method of explaining
the operation's essence (direct com-
munication. indire" guidallce,
and feedback: and (c) for mastenng
an operation completeness of th(
comprehension of its essence. gradual
nature of transition (magnitude of
jump.,) from one level of performance
10 another for 'reciftc indicators
(auto11lati\alion. inleriorisation, speed,
etc.), and \0 on. Various cO!l1bin
a
-
I

280
--------
tions of the above-mentiollcd ai,:tors
create different picture, of the skill-
forming proce,<;'<;: rapid in the
beginning and a slow-down at the end.
or vice versa: mixed variants are also
possible. The theory of skill-forming
mechanisms. the factors and
conditions without whil"h can-
not he formed. are a particular
case in the tht!ory of learning Ifl
general.
Sleep. a periodil: funcrillilal stale of
man and higher animals, characterised
by specifiC .:hangcs in tlH.' vegetative
and motor ,,\'stems bv ab\enl'e of
. '.
purposeful adivity and sens\1Ty intt:rac-
tlOll with the emironmcnl. In S.,
man is charal:lcriscd by thc inhihilion
of mt'nlal activilY, S. repre.
a combin.llion of two ba'ik
alternating pha.,l"'S calk'd ""low" S.
and "rapid" (or "paradllxl..:al'") S.,
whose phy,iologil:al characteristics arc
largely Both pha'it'\ han: a
complex multilevel \tructure, which
tht de\elopml.'l1t of brain
procc' .. charactl'risfic of eai,:h phase,
'Slow" sleep i .. noted for toni.: (sta-
ble) change ... in \CgeWtivt! and mOlor
indi":t!s, muscular tension decrl.'ases, and
respiration and tht' cardiac rhythm
slow dl)wn. During "rapid" S .. the
elcl"troencephalogram records rapid
low-amplitude os..:illations. similar to
tho,>c in the initial stage of S., or
l'Vcn wllkf',/ulnc.\s. Also, phvsical
changes art! obser\'ed in the Il)rm
of rapid eye movements, twitching of
facial and disturbed
and heart rale, and hyperten-
Sion. When awakening from "slow'
S.. the subject does nOI
seeing "Slow" S. may involve
somnllmlJlllism, talking in sJeep, and
nightmares in children, who do not
remember them ai"ter waking up. After
"rapid" sleep, 75-1}{) per (.:ent of the
individuals report eerie dreams. The
phases of "slow" and "rapid" sleep
form 60-90 min cycles which repeat
4-5 times ill natural night S. In nor-
mal individuals, aboul 20 pcr cent of
the entire period is taken by 'rapid'
S. Towards the morning, "rapid" S.
phases become longer, and "slow" S.
phases shorter. Afler S, deprivation,
flrsl "slow" S. is restored. and then
"rapid" S,
Social Desirability, a factor .hat
distorts self-ClccOllnt.\ (for instance,
replies 10 questions in personality
inventaries) by increasing the frequen-
cy of self-accounts Ihat appear more
altractive and socially acceplable 10 the
subjecls. since they present Ihe laller
in a favourable light. Psychologists
should account for the influence of
S.D. in developing all questionnaires,
tesls and scales that use seli-al\-ounts.
There are several ways of reducing
Iheir influence, such as by induding
alternalive items in a questionnaire.
equal in S.D. Besides. rnNhods
have been developed for measuring
the subject's propensity to give social!v
desirable answers.
Social Facilitation. a maO!fCSlalio1 )f
re(<l/;on.'i n K; ,;,JpS
through facilitation of mterac
tion in Ihe pre,>ence )f 0 hel pt:orle.
remo\al of psychologio.:al b If ers. and
I
I
)
290
enhancemenl of individual aClivilY and
performance. S.F. was experimentally
studied by Walter Moede.
x
Social Perception, perception, compre-
IIension and assessment by individuals
of social objects, such as other people,
themselves. social groups, elc. The
term S.P. was introduced in 1947 by
the US psychologist Jerome Bruner, ini-
tially to designate the fact thai percep-
tion is socially conditioned and de-
pends nOI only on the character-
islks of the stimulus, i.e. the object,
but also on the subjecl's past expe-
rience, goals, and intentions, and on
the significance of the situation in
question. Laler, psychologists began to
regard S.P. as integral perception by
the subject not only of material
objects. but of so-called social objects,
e.g. Olher people, groups, classes, na-
tionalities, social situations, etc. They
established that perception of social
objects is distinguished by a number
speci?c that qualitatively
1\ from perception of in-
animate objects. Firstly, unlike inani-
mate objects, social objects (individuals
gro.ups, etc,) are neither passive, no;
the perceiving subject.
By mfluencmg the subject of percep-
tion, the perceived subject seeks to make
a favourable impression about himself.
the attention of the subject
of S.P, IS focused primarily on semantic
and evaluative interpretations of the
object, the causal ones
inclUSive (see Causal Attribution)
rather on the reflective
of the. Thirdly, perception
(If $oclal objects is characterised
by of cognitive and
emotional (aITectlve) components, and
by greater depemlenl,.'c on the mo-
tivational-semanlic structure of the per_
ceiving subject's acl;\'ity. Hence, in so- )
cial psycholoRY. the term "perception"
is interpreted in a broader sense than
in general psychology . . Structurally, any
perceptual act would mvolve a subject
and object of perception, its process
and result. In general psychology ac-
cent is made on the study of the pro-
cesses and mechanisms of the arisal of
sensory images, whereas in social psy-
chology the study of S,P. started
with attempts to specify the character-
istics of the subject and object of per-
ception, and also of the role of S.P.
the. and activi-
..... ties of a individual and social
group (see -Cogfllti've -Balance, Theo-
ries of). Initially (in the 1950s), psy-
chologists distinguished three classes of
social objects, viz., another individual,
group, and social community. The in-
dividual was regarded as the subject
of perception. Later publications (in the
1970s) considered not only the indi-
vidual, but also the group as the sub-
jects of perception. Depending on the
correlation of the subject and object
of perception, researchers distinguished
three relatively independent classes of
S,P. processes, viz., interpersonal per-
ception (see Perception, Interper-
sonal), self -perceplion. _and _ interscQllP
perce.m..i(:lrl- (see Perception, .t
nter
-
group). In Soviet sOCiaf psycnology,
first studies in S.P. were devoted to
perception and assessment of man by
man (Alexei Bodalev, 1965).
tion of the principle of activity mtO
S.P. studies made il po!>\ible 10 iden-
tify the social group a\ the subject of
activity, and on this ground as the
subject of pen.:eption CGalina Andreye-
va, 1977). Eight S.P. variants were
distinguished, viz., perception by group
members of one another and members
of another group; perception of one-
self, one's own group, and an "our'
group: perception by a group of its
own member and a member of an-
other group; perception by a given
group of another group (or groups).
Thus,the "group context" (affiliation to
one's own or "out" group) was introdu-
ced into S.P. studies to account for the
principle of dependency of interperso-
nal relations on group activities. This
helped to start examining the spe-
cifics of perceptual processes during
joint activities in groups with different
development levels. These investigations
concern the forming of norms and
standards of S.P.: the structural typol-
ogy of interpersonal and intergroup
perception: the perception of an indi-
vidual's status within a group; accuracy
and adequateness of people's perception
of one another; the regularities and
effects of inter-group perception; and
so on (see Primacy Effect; Novelty
Effect; and Halo Effect).
Social Psychology, a branch of psy-
chology which studies the laws govern-
ing men's behaviour and acti\,jty caused
by the involvement of individuals in
social groupS, and also the psycho-
logical characteristics of such
For a long period, socia_psychological
views were developed within the frame-
work of various philosophical doc-
trines. Some S.P. elements
III psychology and sociology. and
in anthropology. ethnography, crimi-
nology. and linguistics. Initial altempt,
to create independent socia-psychologi-
cal concepts, namely, "peoplt!S' psychol-
ogy" (Moritz Lazarus. Heymann Stein-
thai, and Wilhelm Wundt),
psychology" (Gustave Lt': Bon), and
the theory of "social instincts" (Wil-
liam McDougall), date back to the
second half of the 19th century. The
year 1908 is believed to have started
S.P., for that was the time when the
term first appeared in the titles of
different works. After the First World
War, a number of sociopsycholog-
ical problems were studied in indus-
try. army. propaganda, etc. in the
United States and other capitalist
countries. At the same time, general
methodological principles were devel-
oped for organising S.P. as an experi-
mental science. Yet, S.P. (primarily in
the United States), in which laboratory
experimentation played the leading
role, put too much accent on the small
group (see Group, Smal/), and this led
to underestimation of the theoretical
and ideological aspects of S.P .. disre-
gard of real social problems, and loss of
the 'social context". Works by Marx,
Engels, and Lenin contain basic tenets
of Marxist S.P. concerning the nature
of social relations and the correlation
of individual and social consciousness.
The inclusion of these principles in
actual investigation practice helped
develop soviet S.P., and this was large-
ly due to in gt',!erai psy.
chology which allowed Soviet S.P. to
rely on such
-
________________________________ __
principle. as of unity of
and activity. etc. Today. we (an
speak of the existence of a system of
Marxist socio_psychological knowledge.
As a S.P. involves lhe follow-
ing basic areas: principles ,of human
communication (I) and Interact Lon
(fOf instance. Ihe role of communi-
..-:alioo within the system of social and
inlaper.lonal ,elutions): psychologi-
(81 Characteristics of social groups, both
large (classes and nations) and small
(for studying such phenomena as cohe-
sion. leadership, group decision-mak-
ing. elc.); the psychology of person-
aliI)' (which, among other things,
sludie:. l>ocial attitudes, .wxialisQtion,
etc.): and practical applications of
S.P. In Smiel S,P., all these problems
are examined on the basis of the
principle of activity (see Activity Ap-
proach). Socio-psychological phenome-
na are studied in real social groups
united by joint activities. provided these
acti\'ities condition the entire syslem
of Intragroup processes. This makes
il to each group as a unit
within a totality of social relations,
and to re .. eal the mechanisms of group
development that transform a diffuse
group (see Group, Diffuse) into a col-
leetil'e. S.P. based on such methodo-
logkal principles can fulfil ils main
practical i.e. help optimise manage-
ment .of processes in developed
soclahst socl,ety. The need 10 organise
a J?Sychologlcal service in the Soviel
Union, which help 'Solve applied
S.P. problems In the economy, educa_
lion: media. spon, everyday and
Iile, IS abo becoming increas_
Ingly urgent.
. So:c!al . Psychotherapy. an <lllIi-humane)1
or mel hod .. d('\'elopetl In capi_
talisl COUlllne\ tll lIli1uel1ce SOtial be.
hlll'iOllr. crime, mental
disease", anti actions agalI1-c:rreaction_
ary policies of bourgeois govern_
ments. regarding all thc .. c phenomena
as the of mental disorders. It
\'iews methods of psychotherapy as ade_
quatt' ways of correcting all forms of
deviations. A most striking example
of S.P. is modijiCCltion of beilal'iollr V
practiced in the United States and Bri-
tain. Some American psychiatrists and
psychologists believe that variolls
forms of S.P., ranging from the use
of. agents (see
P.<iYc opharmaco!ogyr: 'lIypilOsis and
electric shock to forced confinement
and brainsurgery. should be compul
sory and applied as government author-
ities see fll so as to ensure consen-
su,> in capitalist
Socialisation, a historically conditioned
process and result of assimilation. and
active reproduction by an individual of
social experience in activity and com-
fllllniculiOIl (I). S. may take place
both during education. i.e. in purpose-
ful formation of a given personality,
and in the context of a spontaneous
impact of various, sometimes opposite
factors of social life on a developing
personality. Education is Ihe determin-
ing factor ill S. In so.:ialisl society,
education and S. arc aimed at all-round
development of an individual. S. im-
plies multifacious learning by man of
his :;ocial environment and assimila-
tion of habits and skills for individ-
29J
------
ual and colledi ... e work. It al .. o in-
volves <;ocio-p .. ychologir.:al mer.:hanisms
that serve to bring human cullure
within the reach of an individual.
Corresponding prOces .. cs and mechan-
isms have been <;tudied mO'>t exhau-
'>t ivdy in developmental and peda-
f),\yc:holoKY. In We<;tern jY.;ychol-
ogy, the problems of S. are chiefly
studied within the framework of fJSY-
c/1(){lIIalysi,\' and interactionism. Psy-
choanalysts understand S. as the en-
trance of an individual, who is allegedly
a priori asocial or anti-social, inlO a so-
cial milieu and his adjustment to that
milieu. interactionists treat S. as the re-
sult of interpersonal interaction which
leads to accord via mutually conform-
ing behaviour (see Conformity).
Soviet psychologists characterise S. as
an increased sphere of activity and
communication of an individual caused
by learning and education. and as the
process of moulding his persona lilY,
including his self-consciousness and an
active social stand. Soviet psychology
assigns a special role in S. to
development of individual contacts
with other people and to joint and so-
cially useful human activities. In the
course of S .. the individual acquires
not only new experience. but also the
opportunity (and capability) to become
a full-fledged personality and to in-
fluence other people.
Socialisation. Political. socialisa/ion as
political development of an
In Weslern psychology. the essenllally
(:ommon feature of various 'interpreta-
tions of S.P. is that they regard an
individual as a passi\'e object of ideo-
logical and political intlllcm'rs aimt'd
at moulding individuals who pen:eive
the political system of tarilali" so-
cietv in a dCH:ile and uncritical wa\.
Sov'iet psychology individual\
political development as a proces., nf
active as<;imilation by him of the
logkal and politital l'utUt'S 'nd
of society. and the forminl; of IIHt-.e
values and norms into a conscious
system of so..:io-polilir.:al allitulles that
determine his behaviour and a1lillidc
toward,> the existing socio-political
system.
Sociogenesis (in psychology), the ori-
gin and development of higher melltal
functions, penonality, and interperson-
al relalions, conditioned by the spe-
cifics of SQ(:iali\atioll in different socio-
economic formations. The regularities
of S. are the subject-mailer of histori-
cal psychology which studies the psy-
chological features of cognition. per*
ception. personality structure, assimila-
tion of customs and riles in various
epochs. etc. S. is also the subject-
matter of ethnopsychology. S. was
studied from the idealistic viewpoint
by Wilhelm Wundl. who analysed the
psychology of peoples by the. met.hod
of studying Ihe products of man s
ing embodied in various forms of liS
hislory. Nor did the study of S. by psy-
choanalysts (Sigmund Freud. Carl
J ung. and Erich by
school of French soclOIogl51S (Emile
Durkheim. Lucien Levy-Bruhl. and
olhers) allow 10 reveal its real mecha-
nisms. since they were eilher des-
cribed as those inherent in the de-
velopment of indh'idual mind, or
2Q4
reduced 10 inlelleclUai communi-
cation people. In using a
different methodology for studying S .
Marxist-oriented psychology interprets
it as a proces; caused by work
il\' within a spedne socia-economic
formation. This made it possible 10
reveal changes that occur in psyche
during transition from anthropogenesis
10 S. (Boris Porshenev's "palaeopsy-
chology"): the regularities of S. and
higher mental functions in their general,
historical development: and the struc-
tural speciftcs of consciousness in var-
ious socia-economic formations. The
study of S. is a direct actualisation of
the principle of historicism in modern
psychology.
Sociogram. a special scheme that shows
the pattern of interpersonal relations
in a ({roup revealed by special so-
ciometric techniques (see Sociometry).
S.'s have several versions. One is a tar-
get S., which represents several con-
centric circles (normally equal to three,
four or maximal number of choices
made by the group members) inside
which, in accord with the of
obtained choices, the names of the
,ro.up ':l1embers are joined by arrows
which indicate the direction and na-
ture of the choices; this is done with
the aid of convemional symbols
Another varian! is a group S., which
IS a relatively arbitrary plane scheme
showmg groups of individuals who had
chosen each other and the
asSCCl3110ns between those groups
The between the groups
resp,lnds the n3IUre of choices
among (heir members. The third type
is an individual S., in which a ran_
domly or purposefully selected group
member is depicted in the system of
all his associaliolls revealed during the
investigation.
Sociometry. a trend in social psychol_
ogy in the United States and West-
ern Europe. The set of measuremen!
procedures developed within the frame_
work of S. is based on various tech-
niques for studying social relationships
within groups. As a tbeory, S. ap-
peared in connection with the ideas of
Jacob Moreno, who claimed that all
prQblems of social relations could be
solved by relocating people so that
those who take mutual liking would
be neighbours. Accordingly, he distin-
guished a macrostructure and micro-
structure. The former represents dispo-
sition of people in space in various
forms of joint activities, and the second
characterises their emotional and psy-
chological relationships. Moreno cla-
imed that the laller are allegedly caused
by a certain unconscious innate force,
"tele", which attracts people to each
other. He thought that to attain "SO-
cial harmony" it would be sufficient
for people to make these structures
balanced so they could senJe accord-
ing to their mutual likings. Moreno
tried to apply his theory to social pro-
cesses via a utopian "sociometric rev-
olution". S. combined in itself the
features of idealism and mechanicism
and hence could not be a scien-
tifically sound foundation for solving
problems of interpersonal relations,
let alone develop and perfect social
relationships.
Socia-Psychological Competence, an
individual's ability to etTenively imer-
act with people surrounding him in a
system of interpersonal relations. S.-
P .C, includes the ability to fwd one's
bearings in social situations; to correct-
ly defme the personal fe,aluces.and emo-
tional of and to
a"dC<jil3te means for treating those
people and for actual ising those means
in the course of interaction. The abil-
ity to put in another person's
place (see Re/lexion; Empathy) plays
a particularly important role. S.-P.e.
develops while the individual learns
how to communicate with and parti-
cipate in Glher people's joint activi-
ties.
Socio-Psychological Training. a branch
of applied social psychology that rep-
resents a set of group methods for
developing skills for self _knowledge,
commllllh:atjon (I) and interaction
within a group. The basic means of
S.-P.T. are group discussions and role
games in various modifications and
combinations (see T-Group; Psychothe-
rapy, Group). S.-P.T. is applied to
form and improve general communica-
tive training of an individual (e.g.
for persons experiencing trouble due to
communicative barriers) a"d to devel-
op specific communicative skills in
people whose professions involve nu-
merous conlacts wilh other people
(e.g. managers, leachers, medical per-
sonnel, sport etc.). West
European and US psychologists exag-
gerate Ihe role of S.-P.T., which .lheX
allege to be the basic. way of !n.dl-
vidual perfection for radically changmg
2Q5
society and a panacea for solving all
social problems (see Humanistic Psy-
chology). In the West, S.-P.T. is ge-
nerally aimed exclusively at develop-
ing the individual, at realising his
strictly personal needs, al forming
intimate relationships with other people,
irrespective of the aClivity that actual-
ly links them. The problem of foster-
ing communication and interaction
skills within a group can only be truly
solved by analysing meaningful joint
activities, rather than "free" communi-
cation outside those activities. In this
connection, group work therapy, and
the forms of group labour education
which were theoretically substantiated
by Anton Makarenko, Yassili Sukhom-
linsky and other Soviet educators. are
more promising than T -groups. To
develop personality harmoniously, an
individual must take active part in the
activities of a collective. In developed
socialist society, S.-P.T. is used
among other psychological methods de-
signed to improve man's individual
properties in communication and col-
lective activity.
Solution (in psychology), the forming
of mental operations Ihat reduce. the
initial uncertainty of problem sltua-
tjon. Solving is usually divided into
stages of search: and reali-
sation. The specificatIOn of S. would
depend on the level of research (sys-
temic, functional, personal, or ,":o.ca-
tional), field of research (C.ogOltlve,
creative. operational, managerial), and
the psychological mechanis.ms of S.
(volitional, intellectual, emollonal,
babilistic, elc.). In literature (In engl-
r:, cring psych;; "';:,y. the nOlion S. 15
$O,"1e:1T1CS idtr Itlied with
r.1.3kill ... Important of I'!>ychology
art discov('ry. a\ses,<,ment,
analn.' an<.! upTimisation 01 the
i"SY' 'hol 'gl!.:.3.1 of problem
I:1g so .'- 10 enhance Ihe
and qualllv of pnlduc'ion.
Somnambuli!>m. a form of complex
oat wardly purposeful. but 1JI1con!>dous
behlvillur til Transilion fmm to
hY'mot ie-like \lale (sec HWmn,\'is).
c'lly wnonym, lunacy,
ongmrtr, from pr("S(-ienlinc ideas
aboc: h efrec of the Moon 011
nan d Jr '1g sleep. a rule, S. epi.
soles ".Iar, I 15 after Ihe
S:'b' - had d<lull 0'- in ',,:;Iow" slct'p.
Ir S. 11,. fels OUI of bed
:ld ' _rrOTr.- veral sTere<)(ype and
.. "'-J:l.' .:lIed '";10ve'11e llS wiTh his eves
<Jpo.11. Ic'io1S may be of
50::'''': .:ITu.. During - S .. the pupils
are ... e';: anc:: ftxe\!, and the
elro, c phal')g:sm rel'ords a quieT-
y .a,:"akm..:d l.;aTc (alpha rhYThml.
wh . , .... ov.'ever IS oot hv
.... mal IJOd pcr-o;isl:s when
eye-are O:'lel. This di\!ioguishes this
c-:m"h 100 fl)m thl' usual relaxl'd
awake! t(l There no spollta-
eo IS lIn ,; fton S. til wakeful_
r: : l'lc S 1'1- ,Jd, sudly with
a TtllJl 0 n':lrmal phvsi\)logi '''1
t ., " . \ ..
, . .... 1o..rng ur rn the moTtling
Ile h '
]t'( (lacs 0 r("ml'mhel what
I;>,,;n al nigll.
Soul. a con .. pI w'1 -")' . h"
--'-"- .. " l'it()-
r.. aUered VIC'WS If mallS hr;
in religioo. !dealisti...: philosoph\' and
flS),hology S. I'> a nOll-material emily X
that independent of Ihe body. The
appearance ("If the wncept "S:'
d
.". can
be trace 10 animistIC Ideas of primi.
live man who provided a pnmitiH"
male.rialistic inlerprelation of sleep.
famtrng. dealh, etc Dreams were re-
garded as of S. depaning
from the body dunn!! sleep alld exist-
IIlg independently. The l'oncepl "5."
..... a.\ further developed within the con-
text of the hi.\/nry of psycho/mu
and expres.,cd in the dil>pute be-
tween idealistic and materiali')tic theo-
ries of psyche. In Antiquity it was
already known that the hrain was the
S. organ (Alcmaeon). while S. itself
was belieVl'd II' be a type of 'one (If
Ihe dements: fIre H-Ieradilus, Democri-
IUS), the air (Anaximl'l1us), or a com
bination Ill' Ihe lour dements (Empc-
do.:k ... l. Ar"lOtle wa') the fm,t 10 pro
pose that S ...... a') _i... "form" (l[ the 1
living hody aiiif di\ti-ng-uistled- three
typC1 of S.; llutril1\'e S .
sensory (animal) S., and rational
(specifically human) S. In the
Agl'S this theoT\- tran,formed Il1tO
an Idealisti.: (Thomas of Aqui.
nill. III mOONII time ... iden
tifted S, with Uln",,IOU.\ne\\ a\ Ihe
renedoll. 1ill'lllpiri.:al psydio- I
Togy IIll' of n:pla':l.'d
hy the CllTKl'pt llf emotional pheno-
mena. In philll\ophi-.:al and p\ychO
logil'ai lilt.'raturl the Il'rlll "S." used X
rardy, as a for
In u\a'ge the term
':S."' to the notions \1
e", "111ncr w<lrld", "l'nllltimul
t1.(ler lI"l':e'"": --
Space Psychology. a hranch of psycho-
logy Ihat in\estigatcs the psychologi-
cal aspecTS of thc work of .:o\mooauts,
the dependl'lI.:e of these 011
a number of SllCCiflc factors (weight-
lessness. hypodynamia. relative
sory deprinJlioll. and ntllers), as well
as the ways and means of thl' purpose-
ful organi\alioll llf Ihe .:osmonauts'
psychol'lgical aellvity during pre-
paration for and in the course of
nights. S.P, is thl' extension of that
branch cof OJ'iulioll pIyd101of,:Y, which,
owing to the extreme of the
cosmonauts' a..:livity and compll'xity of
tasks fulfIlled by thl'm, ha:. additi(l1l-
ally as .. imilated many other hranches
of psychlllogi.:al l'II,J.:ille('rillg.
nlt.'tlin//, wl('id/, and ps.\'-
dlll/Ol:,}'. AI the prl'Sent time Iht.' basic
area\ (If S.P. han' been fOfml'd, whi.:h
it is n(ledient to t.'xamilll' in conllec-
li(lll wilh the sta!!.l'\ of preparation
for and rl'a!isation of spacenighh. The
preparalory stage a num-
ber of problem .. wilh the
p\)'dw/II/{icu/ wkclimr of cosmonalllS,
laking 11110 cumideration their indivi-
dual ..:hara..:teri\tics during the perioo
of proi'l's:-.ional training. and the P'>Y-
chnlt)gical of aClll1iring lipe..:ial
operational ,\kil/\ ,HId psychological
preparation for arllon of
faltor ... as wdl for the speCial COll-
dition" of funrli(lni!lg, LOlls-duration
(lThital Ilights require thl' drawing up
III' a sy,tem of psydlOlogil'al service
for a rouline activity.
ThIS indudt.'s the psycll(llogiral sub-
\tanllatill11 01 rational !->chedule of work
and rest at dillerent Ilight stage\.
malic ':(lIurol and fore(a\ling of Ihe
crew's An rmportanl
measure during the night is pwcho-
logical <,uppon, the t'imelv
..:orreclion of pattern\ of aClivlty.
35 well 35 di\'erse inlluences aimed al
regulating the functil)nal "tate of crew
members. In the po<;l-nip:ht perioo
i,>sues of the psychological service em-
bra..:e a host of problems linked ..... ilh
the cosmonauts' readapt at ion to earth
conditions and Ihe elaboration of meth
ods of facilitating this \Vilh
the development of S.P .. engineering
S.P. becomes a very broad arl'a,
ensuring the stages of planning, design
and construction of manned spaceship,
corresponding to human spe(iflcS and
i.e. to people who will
be living and working in and operat-
ing spaceships, An additional
prohlem of enginel'ring S.P. the
delelopment of training equip-
mellt and simulator,> which would
model most dosel)' Ihe field l'onditions
and factors of spa(ellights.
Special a branl'h \If
chology that ,tudie\ indiYiduab cha
racterised by deviation fr(lrn normal
mental development ("Iwing tn innatl.' or
defects in the forming and
htn(tioning of Ihe nal'OI/\ I)'.,telll, e.g.
the psychology of the blind (t_\'phltl-
PI}"('/W/OI:Y) , dea f ( I/lfi/np'.\'c h%!:Y) .
mentally retardl'd (oligof,l1rt',wp,\,dw-
and thl' of children
with temporary retard.llion \l\" llwnwl
developrnl'nt, speedl ddel", ,l11d ,,' \)n.
Likl' sperial pt'tlJgogy (typhlopl'da
gogy, surdopcda!:ogy,
dag<)gy, l't..:.), S,P part 01 an
discipline called defectology.
which the dc\dopmcntal spe.:i-
flCS of children with ph}.sical and
tal defects, and also the regularities
inherent in their education and train-
ing. In the USSR, S.P. de\'eloped in
connection with the activities of Lev
Vygolsky. Tatyana Vlas\ov8. Yuri Ku-
lag in. Vladimir Lubov\ky, Alexander
Meshcheryakov. and Ivan Sokolyan-
'kyo An initial defect. e.g. deafness,
was found to cause s.xondary changes
ill melltal development, and challges
in the individual's world outlook,
tern of relationships with other people,
thinking, lX'rceptio/l, and so on. Data
obtained by S.P. underlie the elabora-
tion of education and training pro-
for per.sons with anomalous
mental de\el0plllent, and also the provi-
Mon of vocational guidance and
\ele.:tion.
Spttialisalioo of Conditioned Reflex,
a prO(e.,.\ wherein initial generalisation
and sub--equent repetilion of a con-
ditioned reaction causes the latter 10
beco.me ,contingent wilh a strictly
and to actualise only in
the. form. The neurophysio_
logical mechamsm of S. of CR' .
,
"
.. ISIII
nca l\atlOI1 of activity in the brain
thai the given reac-
tmn hee Condilianed Reflex).
Doctrine. the idea that
he qu.allty of a sensulion
which .\('n,\{' orR,m is stimulated
external factor acting
I erent \en\e organs would cause
dillen'nt For in!,tan...... h'
....... w en
-
-
applied 10 rhe eye. elcl,tric shod would
cnuse a when applied
to the car. all acoustic "d
A
,
' , .. n
so on. t '. Ie same_ tllne. a
chnraclenSlu.: of a given organ may b
by mOlly different effect, p'
. . or
e:\ample. a VISual sensation wo 'd
. , . .
when t Ie eye IS stimulated w"h
light, med18nical .,hock. or
current. Muller, a Genna
physiologist, interpreted the,o.,e
men a as law-governed. However, from
corr.ectly noted facts,. he inferred ag_
that allegedly do
not prOVide us with correct ideas about
the environment. In reality. adequacy
of sensation 10 actual stimulation is
ensured because the sense organs nre
formed so as to admit only specifIC
types of external 10 dcflllite
nerve endings.
Speech, a language-mediated form of
human commUllicalioll (I) which de-
veloped ill the course of human activ-
ity involving material transformation
of the surrounding world. S. includes
generation and perceplion of messages
With the purpose of communication
or (in specifiC cases) control and re-
gulation of one',> own activity (see
Speech, IlIn"r: Speedl, E1:0Cenlric).
Psychology is chieny concerned with
the place of S. within Ihe system of
human higher mental functions the
co.rrelation of S. with thinkillg.' COli-
memory, emoliolls, etc.
The specifiCS of S. which renect the
structure of personality and activity
are particularly important. Most Soviet
psychologisls regard S. as vocal activ-
Ity which exists either in Ihe form

--
of all integral act (if the dClivity in
qUl',tion speclfKally motivated and
1I0t a(\lIllli,ed hy other fnrm, nf activ-
ity). or in the form of vocal in
volved in activity other than
The structure of allY vocal activity
or vocal act basically coilH:ide') wilh
that of any action. I.e. involves the
pha.ses of orientalioll. planning (in the
form of "inlier programming"), actua-
lisation, and control. S. may be active,
constructed anew, and reactive. i.e. re-
presenting a concatenation of dynamic
speech pallerns. III oral
S. (sec Speech, Oral). conscious choice
and a!,sessment of the lingual mcam
used therein arc reduced to a minimum.
whereas in wriuell S. (sec Speech.
Wrillen) and in rehearsed oral S.
they playa significant part. Various
forms of S. are constructed by spe-
cifiC regularities. For example. oral S.
permits significant deviation from the
grammar of a given language: again,
logical and. moreover, artistic speech
is a special item in itself. S. is studied
not only by Ihe psychology of S .. but
also by psycholillKllislics, the physio-
logy of S .. lingui.stics. loemiOlics. and
branchc..,> of knowledge.
Speech. Daclylologic. reproduction of
words by dactyl lelter.s. i.c. by con-
fIgurations of flllger and their mo\' e-
ments. S., D. is used in Soviet peda-
gogy as an aid for teaching verbal
speech to the deaf, and also ill
Ilal comlntll1icali()// (I) among the
deaf, and between people with normal
hearing a nd the deaf.
Speech. Egocentric. speech addressed
to one that c()ntrul'l child
practical activity. the SlIviet
chologisl Lev Vygohky in hi1
polemic wilh the Swj..... psycholol"t
Jean Piaget (who laler agreed), S., E.
originates from external (communica-
tive) and is the product of
its partial interioriMllion. Thus. S . E,
a kind of transitional stage from
external to inner speech (.see Spee('h,
Inner). The notion S .. E. is also u'>Cd
in when describing
various syndrome!,.
Speech, GeSlure. a way of personal
communication (I) among the deaf by
means of a system of gestures cha-
racterised by peculiar lexical and gram-
matical regularities, ruled by pro-
noullcedly specific gestures, the basic
semantic units of S.,G., and also by
the functional role of gestures (their
use in informal communication). For-
mal communication (at meetings. in
interpreting lectures. etc.) involves
modelling S .G .. in which gestures are
consistelllly used to reproduce words.
Modelling S.,G. uses elements of daclY-
lologic speech (see Speech. Doctyla-
logic) to designate endings. suffixes,
elc. S.,G. is also used as an aid (in
add ilion 10 verbal speech) in teaching
and educating children with defective
hearing.
Speech. Inner. various types of the use
of language (linguistic 10
be more precise) outside the process
of actual communication (2). Psycho-
logists distinguish three lypeS of
S .. I.: (a) inner arti.:ulation. or
"spt.--ech to oneself", which relains the
strucltlre llf t"ternal .lptt'(h tmt
of phonation, i.e. articulation of
sounds. and IYPKal of \ohing mental
in dlfflluh (bl
S .. 1. pwper, when II is a means. of
,hinking; II makes use of
units ta ((lde of and
an Objed CI'l(ie. oi:tjett and
a MrlH.:lUre, from
that of C\ternal speech: (d inner
prill/ramming, I.e. the act of forming
and 't'luring in uni" a project
Ityre. pmgrammd of speerh utle-r
anre-. a whllle te-xl. and tolLtextual
part .. (A. N. S(lkolov, N.!. Zhinkin,
and In S .. 1.
forms 1JI thl' proce\.s of interiori.mlion
01 e)(tl'n1al
Speh. Oral, \ll'rbal commllnication
{II tnnll,ing linguistic per.
ct."i\lt."d b} hcaring.. S .. O. i\ characterised
hy the fad that the individual com-
Ot)ttetlts of a g.i\ll'n oral comrnunica-
,inn art." pmtiu(cd anti ["It'rcei,ed
cm.l\ldy. S.,O. production comprise ...
clements of nritnting, simul taneous
plan.nina (prngrammingl, lingual ac-
,lilt! Clllltr\ll: in thi"
p am,lng IS ["It'r(urml'l! along two pa.
rallt'l IlIIl" am1 nll1rtrns the lontextual
ind flINGI .anii:ulaIMY a'ipect'i of 5.,0.
\e-rhal nil/1m/mica.
III/.j I! I IIlt'am of wrilten It'xt'),
whll"11 lIlay tltht'r be ddund (like-
01 ,e1l("r, tor II\\tanrt') (lr tlirclt (Iikc
txt hangl: nf. nOll'" at a meeting).
SW 'tS fr(lm mal 'pet'ch
Isc--e Orul) not (lnly ill that it
uxs craphK' s}"mools. out ii!1() with
10 Jt;raITunar (rhietly
--
-
-
cally) and 111 Ihe SYnl
. I ... at.
lI(a anu "perlflc funcllo I
t\pical of .S.,W. The
characterISed 111ghly complex compo_
sltHln and 'itructure. which require spe.
tial trairl1ng: hencc the specifiC task
of tcadllng S .W, at ... chool. InasmUch
3!. S., W. Illay. he perCleved either at
once, or. 11\ big piece .... il.'S perception
largely differs from that of orol speech.
Statistical Methods (in psychology)
certain of applied
cal statistics used in psychology chiefly
to process experimental results. S.M.
are mainly de\igned to render the infer.
enees of psychological studies even
authcntlc. by using probability
logIC and probability models. The histo-
ry of stat istics in psychology shows
many example\ of positive mutual in.
Ouenees. For instance. the idea of
regre.nion and corn,/(,tion uflulysis. so
important for contemporarv science,
rc ... ulled from Frands Galton;" allempts
to examine the regularities whereby
children inherit their parents' psycho-
logical and physical features. To study
intellectual ... everal of
tUdor ww/v.,;.\ were developed. A num-
ber of statistkal 1I1elho(1\ were worketl
(lut to check Illl' quality of psycholog-
ical and 10 be USl'<l in vocational
selection (\el Scll'uion).
Tht' followinp are Ill}" apparent
in Ihe III S.M. in psychology: (I)
dcscripllVl" st'llistic.s involving data
groupillg. tabulation. graphkal
tatioll <lnu (IUUlltitatl\e
(2) theory of \tatistk illferelllc. lIsed
111 studies to
results: ,lnd (3) ,heo" ot
,
-
-
. lanning, which servcs
tO
expertmellt P ... I reiationshlP\
re\le<ll and callS
il
between
(in psychology), the
StatuS . . . a syslem of /fI-
h eel's III .. .
.\U I I . . that determllles
t rperwlldt re d(lOn.\ f
h
e . hl' d<llies alld pnvileges. In dl -
Isng" ' . d I ay
grollp.\. the samc mdlVI ua. m. 1
h . a rJiff erellt S. The
avc . S' I icll the 11ldl-
discrepancies 111 the s, WI. .
vidual in groups WIth (\11Tercnt
Inels of group cfel,e/o!Jllu:nt, lontelll
ucl;I'ity and (1),
cause fru.,tratiom, cOII/llct.\. etc. S. IS
experimentally revealed referento-
metry bee Refl!rt.'IIlOlIIetrtC
Pr('.\tig(' and authority. both specifiC
measures of Ihc inoividual\ personal
recognised by society. are
important characteristics (,f S.
Step", isc Forming of Mental
Concept of, a theory of muitl-
form ehangltS t':lu"ed by the tonnlng
(If nl'W imuge.\ and concepts
in man. It by Soviet
ps\chologi ...1 Pyutr Galpcrin. The (011-
1.:I=pt indudes six steps. The first in-
the forming of a motivational
(set" Mothut;on) basis of acti on (when
[ht' subject develop, all altitude towards
the g(I(I/" and 1I1.1J..\ of the impend-
ing action, and towards the subject-
mallcr to be leamed). The second
step illvolves the milking by on il1(l[-
vidual of a scheme of the orien-
!oll.tldalioll oj un action (by
dlstl1lgulshlllg ... ystems of reference
point ... ilnd indi.:ators that musl be
taken into consideration in performing
thl:! action). As the action is mastered
,
.lO I
-
uld be contillually verr-
the scheme W?f d The third sh!'P III
f ed
and specl1e . .., I _
I . r an action In lila c
volves the 0 when 1111:
. I (matcnalls..:d) form. .
na . f' Ihe required actions
<ubject per onns .
, dl <magiJled actIOn
I . g on outwar Y .
specifically on thl! Sc!lI:me. ut
.. of an action.
the orienting . .jal
The fourth step rnvolves loud soc .
. -h" when repeated relllforce
Ised speel: . . I
, f some action by conl1nUO
US
Y
solutions of diverse prob.lern\
makes unnecessary to the
ing scheme: its content IS renectcd III
spl!ech "hidl is the support of
developing ill:tion. !he sl.ep (I
forming of an acllon III soliloquy)
involves gradual disappearan..:e of the
outward, sonic aspect of speech. At
the final, sixth Slep, the speech pro-
cess 'Ieaves' consciousness where
the final result remains, viz . the obJec-
tive content of a gi"en action (see !n-
terior;sut;otl). At each step, th..: aCllon
is performed first in a developed form
to subsequently become gradually re-
duced or Empirical form
ing of 0. new action (or concept) may
lake place with of some of
Ihe above-mentioned :)tage .... However.
only thorough knowledge of the S.F.
of M.A., system would make it pos-
sible 10 decode the mechanisms of
each specific case and explain the con-
crete dynamics of action formation.
Galperin termed special organisation of
S.F. of M.A .. for obtaining 3n ac-
t ion with definite preset indices of gent,!-
ralisation, reason, conscience, criticali-
ty, etc, as planned stepwise forming of
mental actions, in this case.
changC:) would be planned and rigidly
302
controlled by the experimenter. This
would make il possible 10 establish dis-
tinct correlations between experimental
Iraining effects, the content of human
activity for mastering a new action,
and characteristics of the obtained
elfecl. Planned stepwise forming of
mental actions would. in this case, be-
come a method of psychological in-
vestigation. a variety of the experi-
mental-genetic method (see Methods of
Practical application
of S.P. of M.A., C in general and
special training is designed 10 enhance
the quality of [he forming actions
and concepts in trainees while reducing
their training time.
SteroolYpe. Social. a simplified. schem-
and of len dislorled represen-
tation., charaCieristic of commonplace
("onSCIOusness, of some social object
(a group or person belonging to the
gIven. social unit, etc.). S.,S. secures
sometimes unimponanr but re-
latl\lely .stable features of a given so-
CIal object (see Stereotyping). The
te.rm 5.,5. was Introduced by Walter
LIppmann. It differs from other forms
of knowledgo' h h '
. 10 t at t e mformation
uf?On whIch iT is ?ased correlates not
a correspond1Og object, but with
rna er pIeces of knowledge, which
spr!a:rZrs f;Jse. The existence and
. ., . are promoted by
events in interpersonal com
calion and . I mum-
soc I - .mcla perception such as
la alll(udes, the hal fl'
primacy effect and th 0 e ecl, the
S .. S. formation a e novelty effect.
prOpaganda b.ourgeois
mass or
. Justlfymg race
-
discriminalioll. eh:. (see
Propt.1l!alUla) .
Pxycholor:y of
Stereotypes of Perception, see Ste_
reotype. Social.
Stereotyping, the perception class',.
'd ' "ca_
tlOn an a!Ssessment. of soci al objects
(.eve/us) on the baSIS of specifIc no.
t/OtlS .(see Social). S. IS
a charactefl!St lc of intergroup
and Interpersonal. perception and re-
.the schematlsed nature and effec-
tIve tinge generally inherent in those
forms of perception (see Percep_
N.on, 5.0('la/) .. From the psychological
ViewpOint, S. IS the attribution of simi-
lar characteristics to all members of
a _ given social group or community
wIthout suflicient awareness of their
possible distinctions. Basing on elemen.
tary general psychological mechanisms
associated with data processing. S.
down to a complex socio-psychological
phenomenon which performs several
the most important of which
are malOtenance of individual and
g.roup identification, justilication of pos-
SIble negative attitudes towards other
groups, and so on.
Stevens' Law, a formula established
by the US scientist Stanley Stevens
and linking intensity of sensatioll to
a. specifIC degree of the physical inten-
slly of the irritant. Psychophysiological
eVidence is used to substantiate S.L.
As a rule, however, the results of
measurements show
strong individual variability,
which makes it difflcult to unambi
guously prove the advantage of the
,
-
S.L.-revealed power dependence upon
Fechner's Law (see Weber-Fechner
Lall').
Stimulus, an influence that causes
changes in the individual's mental
states (in the form of reactions). In
physiology and psychophysiology, the
term "S." is identical to irritation.
In behaviourism, the relations between
S. and reaction were understood me-
chanistically: S. included chiefly en-
vironmental changes (external effects),
and reactions-the organism's loco-
motor reactions. In reality, S. in psy-
chology is inducement, whose effect
is conditioned by man's psyche. views,
sentiments, moods, interests. aspira-
tions. etc. S. is not identical 10 mo-
li ve, albeit in some cases it may turn
into a motive.
Strength of Nervous System. a prop-
erty of the nefl'ous syslem that per-
tains to the work capacilY of brain
cortex cells, I.e. their ability to endure.
without being inhibited (see Inhibi-
tion) either very intense or protracted
(though not intense) excitation. S. of
N.S. was identified and studied in Ivan
Pavlov's laboratories, where it served
as a basic para meier for classifying
types of higher flervow; activity. Ac-
cording to Boris Teplov and Vladimir
Nebylitsyn, S. of N.S. is also character-
ised by sensibility of allalysers: a weak-
er nervous system is also more sen-
sitive, i.e. capable of responding to sli
muli of lower intensity than a strong
nervous syslem. The advantage of a
weak nervous system is precisely in
this. This approach is valuable because
it excludes the previously esti
mative altitude towards the properlie.!t
of the nervous system. whereby
pole was ascribed positive char::u;te-
ristics, and the other negative one,>.
Thus. each pole is recognised to have
both positive and negative (from the
biological viewpoint) aspects.
Stress. a term used to designate a wide
range of man's states arising in res-
ponse to various extreme effects (stress
factors). The notion'S.' originated in
physiology to designate non-specific
body responses ("general adaptation
syndrome") to any unfavourable effect
(Hans Selye). Later, the concepl of
S. was used to describe individual
- -staies in extreme-conditions at the phy-
siological, psychological and beha-
vioural levels. Depending on the stress
factor and the nature of its effect, var-
ious Iypes of S. are commonly classified
as physiological and psychological S's.
The laller are subdivided into informa-
tional and emOlional Ss. Informational
S. occurs in situations involving in-
formational overloads. when a person
fails to cope with the problem, or
is slow in making correct decisions
when his responsibility for the results
is high. Emotional S. appears in situa-
tions involving threat, danger, offence,
etc. In this case, various forms of emo-
tional S. (impulsive, inhibitory, gene-
ralised) lead to changes in mental pro-
cesses. emotional shifts, transformed
motivational struclUre of activity, and
impaired motor and verbal behaviour.
S. may have bOlh positive and negative
(distress) impacts on activity, up to its
Iota I disorganisation. Hence. oplimisa-
]04
tion of am a.:li\'ity inchlude a sel
of measures for preven1lng t e cames
of S.
Stress FaclOr. a factor causing a Siale of
.\tres\. Two of S.F's are 10
dislinguisheJ: (i) S.F s,
which imohe excess physIcal load\.
high and 101\. temperarures, pain sti-
muli difli.:ult respiration. etc., and (2)
, .
psychologkal S.F\. which act by sIg-
nalling, say. Ihreat. danger. oifence,
informalional overload, etc.
Struclural Pwchology, a In::nd which
regarded element>; of and
their interrelaTions, revealed
by trained introspection (self.
observation). a!:i the subject-matter of
psychology. S.P. originated in the early
21lth (entury, and dates back to WiJ
hell:"! Wundt. Howe\er. it acquired the
stalus of a school owing 10
the US JbydlOlogisl Edward Titdlener
and his followers., who distinguished
three categories of elements in the
Slru ...1ure of l()fl\.:i,)u\nes:.: sen.\ativfl (&
the St:npk'Sl. quality,
:nlenslIY dIStinctness, and durat ion).
,tr.>lxe, and St'nlimt'nt (in its elemen-
lal y form). They denlt"d the objecti ... e
nature 01 pc-r..:epTil)f1. and ascribed it
to a.stimulus i.e. to the
sUDstliution h)' the !;ubjlX:t of sen::.a-
110"<: II! really experienced for know.
:cIJgC' .. bout the external irritullt.I' that
,latl thcm. S,P. was criticised
bv (fI',Halt m"lh%!:)' and functional
hut this o.:rili.:ism ('hanged
nv. hlOg 'n he then id;al-
ISllc mtnp-ctatlon of .0 .
, . L
Ikew':>1' an.:tpted bv Ih . bo .,
f, .... d "e a ve-men_
" .. e SC1001S.
-
Structure. thl.!' tOtality of Stable r
. n.umerous, oT
ks
g,uen ObjeLl, en\unng Us 1J1lcgriT' a
self.identity. ,Th!.! idea (If S.
that the obJcct be considered es
_ (st.'C _ PrinCiple).
cOlillguratlOn and nature of r k!,
within a ::.y.::.tt:m are. in fact, its Ins
whIch remallls unaltered with chang .,
(within certain limits) in the SYSTem e es
when changing its elemental
SIt 1011. A ::.ystems-Mructural analysis of
'iocial which constitutes the
methodologIcal of the pre.
hl.lmallltles, was originally
mtroduced m the 19th century, and
relevanT t!xample; are found in The
work .. of M an. and Engels on histo.
rical materialism and political eco.
nomy. In the 20th century, systems-
structural analysi\ spread to lin.
gui')tics, the study of culture, ethno.
graphy, and other so.:ial
In psycholl)gy. the principle
of S. dates back to Christian \011
who described pcr.:eptual
S's ('ice Perception: Perceptual Ac
lion.I), which relate 10 the perceive(!
objeCT a::. a whole, and cannOT he
explained bv comhinations of liS
clements. These investigation::. were
directly de ... elopcd in Gestalt psycho
1010'. In Soviet psychology, the S.
principle is associated with the MarxiST
underswnding of object-related activ
ity. The S, 'prinl:iplc is charac!erised \
..QY _ Ih.e f __ f?['S.
formation::. whidl be di\'ided
into \eparate ekments and which are
steadily reproduced in the course of
conTioually changing (in (imd mental
procl's,;es (in this sense, S's may be
regarded as the bedrock
lying all psychoologlcal
interpretation of man's mental. S s as
socially conditioned: recogllltlOrl of
The prJ.!Sence of Ilumer.ou,; of
psychic S's by hlcrarchlc con-
nections. Translllon from a deep-
seated to a higher S. is characterised
by transformations of S's .. Deep-
seated Ss. may remain buned III
COfl,\ciOIl,\lIess.
Style of Leadership (Slyle of
ment), a system of ways tYPIcally
used by a leader (manager) to in-
fluelll:e his subordinaTes. Kurt Lewin
distillgui,;hed three S's of L.: aUTho-
ritarian (involving rigid methods of
administration. ,;uppression of all ini-
tiative and ban on discussion of flllure
eTc.); democratic (collegial-
ity. encouragement of initiative, eTC.):
and anarchic (refusal TO administer,
self-withdrawal from leadership: etc.).
Their descriptive versions may be:
directive, collegial, liberal, etc. So ... ieT
social psychology has shown that S.
of L. is thc rcqulSlle and conse
quence of the level of RNJ/IP de-
I'etopment. It also depends on the joint
activitic,; underlying interpenonal re-
tUlion.\ ill a Typical of groups
with a high level of development is
a collectivist S. of L. (management),
assuming the leader's responsibility
before the col/eclive and the Jailer's
conscious subordination to him, fuJI
power and independence of the
work collective, adequate res-
ponsibiliTy, and The combination of
maximum centralisation and maxi-
mum democratism. Corporatiolls prac.
2009t S
.lOS
tice authoritarian S. of L., viz. bu-
reaucratic centralism inherent, for
instance, III society,
pecially under fasdst and se.ml.
fascist diCiatorships, and characterrsed
by maximum centralisation and mini-
mum democratism. Anar(.;hic S. of L.
is also possible in social US.\ociations
(see also Leadership), when (he SOCIal
... alue of factors conditioning the re-
lations among group members is low.
Subconsciousness, see The Uncon-
scious.
Subject. an individual or RrOIlp as a
source of knowledge and transfor-
maTion of reality: an agent of active-
ness (see AClil'ily). All idealiST phi-
losophies see the source of S:s
activity in the S. himself. However,
dialeClical materialism, (he philosoph i-
cal foundation of, scientific psycho-
logy, regards S. as a product of
historical development, and links his
activity with the specifics of man's
aClivity designed to transform The ma-
terial world. Real. practical changes
in rhe object during thaT activity are,
in fact, the criterion of the adequa
cy, correspondence of reality to the
images arising in S .. which allow him
TO regulate his own activity.
S ubjective Semanlic Space, a model
of the categoria! (see CaleRorisation)
structure of individual consciousness,
on The basis of which objects, con-
cepts, etc. are classified by analysing
their meanings. By arranging certain
meanings in the semantic space, one
306
can 8nal),!ic them to determine
similarity or di!itinction. Mathe'!'all-
cally, S.S.S. i!i expressed by coordmate
axes and points. and by measunng
the distance between them. The
construction of S.S.S. as an invest i-
gallon method and a model of cate-
gorial structures has come to be
widely used in the psychology of me-
mory (semantic models of long-term
memory). the of thinking,
and the theory of decision-making.
This method b also used in the
psychology of differential distinctions,
and in examining the cognitive aspects
of and individual self-
awareness.
Sublimation (in Sigmund Freud's
psychoanalysis), a mechanism of psy-
chological defence (see Defence. Psy-
choio!:ica/) that alleviates tension in
by transforming instinctive
forms of psyche into those more
acceptable to the individual and society.
Accordmg to Freud. a particular in-
stance of S. is the shift of libido to
S. may also be
achIeved by Jokes. show of wit and
other actions that instantly dis-
charge, of tension in forms approved
by s.ocletr- These ideas about S. reflect
a interpretation of psyche,
generally . mherent in Frelldianism.
Beyon.d Its psychoanalytical inter-
pretatIon, the term "S" ,. d
d' , .Suseto
a shIft of individual activity
to a hIgher level.
S.ubstnSOry Percepllon,
d
a form of
IrC4;t mental reflection f
o reality
-
-
by irr,i',!"t.\ whose impact on
mdlvldual actl\l1y the suhject loan
I
" I If no\
exp am 10 11111">1.' : a manifestation of
the ""col1scioll,\. In determining.
"ell _
sation and
psychologists (ivan Scchcnov and
Fechner) "dbco.vered facts
showmg IS innuenced
by unreal1sed !Sl1mull: contemporary
psychology has suggested the notions
"pre-attention" (Ulric Neisser) and
"subsensory area" (Grigori Gershuni)
be used !O designate those facls.
Being associated with data processing
beyond volilionally controlled activ-
ity. pre-attention processes ensure an
adaptive reaction to certain, still ob-
scure. situational changes. The zone of
irrilallts (inaudible sounds, invisible
light signals. etc.) that cause involun-
tary, objectively recorded reaction,
and can be realised when they are
turned into signals. was called the
subsensory area. The study of pre-
and sub!Sensory
Irritants makes it pos::;ible to reveal
reserve potentials in human sense
organs.
Suggestion, a process in which a
person's mental sphere b innuenced,
owing to declined consciousness and
criticality in perceiving and actualis-
ing tile sugge!Stcc( material, and to the
absence of a purposeful active com-
prehension of that material, developed
logical analysis, and of proper assess-
ment of the material as related to
the past experience and the
state of the subject (KonSl
anl1l1
Platonov, Vladimir Myasi!Shchev 1.'1
al.). Subsequently, the content of the
\
consciousness rCl:eivcd thro h S
ug "
would be of obscs .. ive nature; the
subject will l:omprehend and correct
it with. difficulty, since It
a totality of "suggested attitudes"
(Dmitri Uznadze). S. is a component
of normal human communicatio/l
(I). .but may abo be a specially
organised type of communication (2)
that implies uncritical perception of the
suggested information and is counter
to beliefs (Boris Parygin,
Ylln Sherkovll1). S. is realised in
the form of helerosuggestion (out-
side action) and self-suggestion. The
objeci of helerosuggeslion may be bOlh
an . individual person or a group,
SOCIal stratum, etc. {(he phenomenon
of mass S): (he source of suggestion
("suggest or") may be an individual.
a group, or (he mass media. Group
S. is a factor inducing cOllformity.
Self-suggestion means Ihat the sug-
gestor and the suggerend are com-
bined in one person. S. is achieved
verbally (by words or inlona(ion)
and non-verbally (mimicry. gC!itures.
other person's actions. or the envi-
ronmenl). As for implementation tech-
niques. S. b classified into direct (im-
perative) and indirect forms, and also
into intentional and lIninlelllional
forms. Direct intentional S. consists
in the suggestor's using special "verbal
formulae", which are introduced into
the suggerend's menial sphere 10 be-
come active elements of his con-
sciousness and behaviour. The contelU
of indirect S. is included in the
transmilled information in a concealed
form and charal:terised by uncons-
cious, unnoticeable, and involuntary
307
Indirect S. may be both
tntentlOllal and unintentional. By the
cntenon of the suggerend's state'.
the following types of S. are distin-
guished. S. in a wakeful \tale (\ee
Wakefulness), S. in S. in
natural sleep, and post-hypnotic S. The
degree of effective S. would depend
on (I) the suggestor's qualitiC') (his
social . charm, and volitional
TnteTrectu-aT \uperiority' and
strength of character); (2) the sug-
gerend's traits (degree of ,\URKeSrihi-
lily): (3) relations between them
(I rust, authority. dependence): (4)
the manner in which S. is made
(level of reasoning, way of combin-
ing logical and emotional componellls.
reinforcement. and other effects). The
impact of certain mass comllumiwrion
media. advertisements. \'ogue. customs,
and faith in something is partially
based on S.S. is widely u<;ed in medi-
cine to correct the patient's psycholog-
ical and somatic state (psycho-
therapy)' In pedagogy attempb are
being made to use S. ill the course
of teaching (so-called suggestopedia)
(G. Lozanov). In experimenrul pSY- >(
chology, S. is used 3\
a technique for directly changing the
individual's emotional statt', motil'a-
lion. and altillUJes.
The Superconscious. a level of indi-
vidual mental ar/il'il\' in soh'ing
creative lash, uncontrollable by indi-
vidual conscious volition. An idea
about Iht' specifics of this le\ 1.'1 wa,,>
advanced by Konstantin Stani,la\,ky.
So\iet Iheatrical theoretician and
pedagogue, who designated it by the.'
(
-
term "supen:onscience", implying Ihe
highest stage of Ihe aeatl\'e _ process
as distinguished from both liS con-
scious (see Conscience) and uncon-
.. cious components. Subsequently.
Simona\' interpreted
as the creative ;nruilion
responsible for a --recombmallon of
former impressions whose correspon-
dence with reality has been re-estab-
lished. With regard 10 of
individual scientific creatIve acllvlly,
the S. is represented in their regula-
tion of the categorial apparatus of cog-
nition. not realised by the scientist
himself. who is engrossed in Ihe
subject of research. but whose structure
and de\'elopmental requirements are
reHeeled in his hypotheses and indi-
vidual decisions (Mikhail Yaroshev-
sky). Hence. to "decode" the S., a
calegorial is needed. The no-
tion of the S. allows to delineate
two forms of unawared mental activ-
ity, one depending on the information
already imprinted in the brain (deter-
mination by the past), i.e. the uncons-
cious, and the other aimed at creat-
ing what had never occurred in indi-
vidual and collective experience (deter-
mination by the required future), the
S. This creation would occur in the
process of the person's interaction
with the world of cultural values
which the person not only assimilates:
but also creates to reflect the mature
trends of that world's objective
de .... elopmenl. This interaction results in
artistic images, scientific discoveries
and creative products, in which:
In addu Ion to what comes out in the
mind of the individual subject who

-
-
,
had el1gendl'rcd them, there abo the J
objectively l:ontl'nt imprinted I '
in the mind owing to the work of
thought at the level of the S., not
represented in the individual's rl'/lexion
(i.e. not by him).
Superego, sec Freudianism.
Supcrvalent Ideas, concepts, ideas or
engendered in man's con-
sciom,ness by actual situations and
acquiring extraordinary (even pathol.
ogical) significance for him. Unlike
ral'in/:, which is incorrect and inade-
quate judgement of reality. S.I's have
certain (though more frequenrly insig-
nificant) real ground. Yet, as in case
with raving. a person with S.l's can- ")1
not be dissuaded, for he lacks critical
attitude towards those ideas. Running
'into indisputable evidence that deflate
his S.l's. the individual uses un-
conscious defence mechanisms (see
Defence, Psychological) without re-
vealing S.I's in his behaviour. However,
in a situation that reinforces S.I's.
the lalter arise with renewed intensity,
especially if the individual is straight-
forward, overconfident, and authori-
tarian. S.I's are also seen in the
bahaviour of epi leptoid and organiC
psychopaths and in persons with
organic brain lesions, epilepsy, and
certain forms of schizophrenia.
Surdopsychology. a branch of special
psychology that examines the mental
development of the deaf and people
hard of hearing and the possibility
to correct audition by training and
education. S. studies ways for pre
vent
-
-
Illg mlltl,>m in people with hearing
tlcfct:l.\ that exclude normal oral com
municalion (I): reveal ... their cogni-
tive ",pc(,:lfll.:,\; clariftc ... the t:omren ...a-
tory po\, ... ibilitil .... of visual perceplirm,
vibrational ,>cn\ation\, elc in t:a ...e of
impaired acou ...tic per(.:t!ption; and ex
amines the ... peciflc features of lhinking.
memory and other mental processes
that form when acoustic
are either absent or underdeveloped.
In organising the education of children
who are either deaf or hard of hear-
ing. and al!jo their vocational training
and specialised employment, one must
essentially account for available sur-
dopsychological evidence.
Survey. a method of socio-psychologi-
cal research through qtleslionnaires. In
social sciences (demography, sociology.
psychology). S's are conducted for
the purpose of establishing biographic
data. opinions, I'aitle orienlal;ons.
social altilIldes. and personality char-
acteristics of respondents. Depending
on the characler of required informa-
tion and methods of obtaining it. va-
rious types of surveys are employed:
overall (census), random (encompas-
smg a certain age group. work col-
lec(ive, etc.); verbal (interview) and
written (questionnaire): individual and
group; personal or mediated (by phone.
or by post). To conduct a survey of
any type, two problems require prior
solution: (I) volume and degree of
sample homogeneity. for the sun'ey
loses eiTher its relevance if confined
to a narrow circle of persons. or re-
liability (:iee Reliahifil), 0/ a Tes!).
if the subjet:ts conslituting the sample
-
are widely heterogeneous as to the
under study: (2) represel1-
of the 'ielection, i.e. possi-
bility of extrapolating the conclu.'!iions
obtained in the study of the sample
to the entire group.
Symbol. an imaxe representing other
(generally highly multiform) images,
meanings, and relationships. S. is relat-
ed to the notion of sign; however. the
two should be distinguished. For the
sign (particularty in formal logical
systems), polyvalence is a negative
characteristic since the more univalent
a sign, the more constructive its use:j
COI1\ersely. the more pOlyvalent as .
the richer its content. S. is a major
category in the arts, philosophy. and
psychology. In general psychology, the
category of S. was developed in detail
in psychoanalysis and inleractionism.
Traditional psychoanalysis interprets
S's as unconscious Ima2es, mainly
- -
sexual in origin, which condition the
structure and functioning of human
mental processes. Psychoanalysts sug-
gested an interpretation of several
S's (fire. flight, elevation, elc.) observed
in dreams. Later. psychoanalysis
shifted its attention to 'analysing and
interpreting S's of social and historical
origin. For instance. lile deplh psy-
chology of Carl Yung distinguished
Ihe collective unconscious" (reflec-
. . ,
tion of the experience ot past genera
tions) as being embodied in arche-
types-uniwrsal
images. Archetypes are inacceSSible to
direct observation; they are revealed
onlv indirectly. via their projection
onto outside objecls. which manifests
310
.,. If in s)'mbolics common to all man-
I se . ' bel f
\'iz. myths, rehglOus Ie s.
dreams. and works of arl.
analysts proposed an interpretatiOn of
a number of S's that embody arche-
typo (Mother Earlh, hero, wise .old
man, and so on). Ethnopsychologlsts.
ethnographers, cult urologists, and spe-
cialists in the psychology of the ariS
made numerous observations and ex-
perimental studies the
meaning of S's. Marxist ph ilosophy re-
cognises the important role of S's in
the functioning of human mind. How-
ever, il rejects the indeterministi,:,
idealistic interpretation proposed, say,
by psychoanalysts and interacrionists.
Though not ignoring the facts that
they study, Soviet psychology none-
theless rejects their interpretations of
Ss, which lhey consider to be detached
[rom the structure of -socia-eco-
nomic relationships existing in society.
From the Marxist viewpoint, a true
analysis of S. system would be only
possible after S's were shown to origi-
nate from a social system and, in the
final account, through a number
of mediatory elements. from material
production.
Sympathy, a stable approvi ng attitude
of one towards other people,
groups or SOCial phenomena thai takes
the of affabili,y, goodwill, and
a.dmlratlon and stimulates communica_
tion, reciprocal attemion, and mutual
help. S. normall y arises on Ihe basis
of common views, values, interests
and moral ideals. It may also
from selective positive response to
atlracl1ve appearance, behaviour. and
---
traih hee .-\tlmctirm). In the
of its dl'velnpml'llt. S. may becoml'
so 'trong as to turn min l'ither pa\.
':iionatc infatuation or \trol1g affec_
tion: It may also ('nu lip in COOling
and disillusionment and turn into anti_
pathy. In itlterp('rsnn,,1 relatiollS, S.
is a factor of human integration alld
maintenance of comfort.
Synaesthesia, a condition in which an
irritant acting on a given sense organ
would, irrespective of the subject's
will, cause not only a sensation spe-
cinc to that sense organ, but also an
additional subjective sensation c harac-
teristic of another modality. The most
widespread S. is so-called colour hear-
ing, in which the sound, apart from
acoustic sensation, causes a colour
sensation. Colour hearing was observed
in the Russian composers Nikolai
Rimsky-Korsakov and Alexander
Skryabin. In many people, the yellow
orange colour evokes a sensation of
warmth, and the bluish-green colour
that of cold. S. appears to represent
an essentially intensified interaction 0/
analysers. Peculiar S. forms (for ex-
ample. visualisation of what one hears)
are observed in pathology.
Syncret ism (in psychology), integrity
of mental func tions in early stages of
child development. S. is seen in the
tendency of child thinking to correlate
heterogeneous phenomena without suf
flcient ground. Some investigators
(Edouarde Claparede, and other.s)
noted the syncretic nature of child
perception. which manifests itself in an
integral sensory image of a given
- --
objl:l:l. and ai,,, in that the child fails
10 di\lingui,h and (()rrelate lh inner
assouatlon\ and componenh. Jean
Piagel a\\igncd S. to the ba\ic char-
acteristic,> of child thinking. maintain-
ing that a child\ inability to think
logically is explained by the tendency
to for a mere ad-
dition. In taking Ihe association of
impressions for association of things,
the child would unconsciously and
randomly (often in the form of a game
or word manipulation) transpose the
meaning of a word 10 a of only
outwardly associated phenomena or
object::.:. According to the Soviet psy-
chologist Lev VygOtsky. S. is highly
important for developing child think-
ing. By selecting. in the course of
practice, syncretic associations cor-
responding to reality. the child would
recreate for himself the true meaning
of words.
Syndrome. a specific combination of
features (symptoms) with mechanisms
of common origin. The term "S." is
used in pathopsychology to signify
a definite combination of symptoms
of a part icular disease. Recently, S.
has come to be broadly interpreted
in characterising manifestations of
nervous system properties and combi-
nat ions of deflnile symptoms that reveal
accent uated trai ts of character (see
Accentuation 0/ Character).
Synthesis. the process of practical
or mental reconstruction of a whole
from its parts, -or of combinIng
e lements or incorporation of vanous
elements and aspects of an object into
311
---
a single whole, both prOl.:Cs.\C$ being
Illvolved in body-environment inter-
S. is an es.\ential <;tage of cogni.
tlon Inseparably a_\sociated with anal.
ysis, both \upplementing each
another. As an intellectual operation
in humans, S., like analysis,
develops in the course of
work.
Systems Principle (in a
methodological approach to the analysis
of psychological phenomena, in which
a given phenomenon is regarded as
a system thai IS unreouclbfe to thesum l-
-of its elements and has a structure.
The properties of an element
mined by its place within the structure.
S.P. involves applying general S.P. to
some particular field. S.P. ideas were
developed by Gestalt psychologists (see
Gestalt). Psychoanalysts associated
S.P. with analysis of affective proces-
ses: they regarded so-called complexes
as the bask factors of human men-
talit\". In connection with the principle
of development. S.P. was implemented
in Jean Piaget's theory of operational
intellect (see Genel'a School 0/ Genetic
Psychology). In nea--Freudianism, and
also in symbolic inleractionism, the
system of social, sign-mediated
lion with its intrinsic structure IS
regarded as primary and determina.nt
in relation to individual psyche. Soviet
philosophers and psychologists
volod K uzmin, Boris Lomov. Enk
Yudin, and others), proceeding from
the Marxist methodology. regard psy-
chological systems as purposeful and
. .sociaUy'co!1ditioned. In the course of
individual development, these systems
______________ --------
-
pass consecutive stages of struClUral
complication. differentiation.
transformation. The only genetIC
foundation for the development of
cho\ogicai systems is
object-related human activity. IIlcludmg
communication (1).
Systems-Structural Analysis. see
Structure.
Tachystoscope. an
instrument that al-
lows to expose visual
\(imllii for some
.. Iriclly specified time.
including very brief
periods. One of the
fI,,' T. dlt'.lgns, in which stimulus time
was controlled by a mechanical shut-
ter, was de ... eloped by Wilhelm Wundt.
In addition 10 such mechanical T's.
there 3re also electronic T's based on
electron modulation of the illumination
level. In recent years, computer-con-
trolled indicators and displays have
come to be increasingly used -for data
presentation. Projective T's in the
for'!1 of specially equipped slide
are used for collective ex-
penments .. They are widely employed
m theoretical and applied studies of
perception, identification, memory and
other cognitive processes. '
a highly developed level of
ahilltles, pnmarily of special
(see Ahilities, Specific). The
of T be assessed by the results
of mdlVldual activity, which must be
characterised hy hasic novelty anti
originality. of approw ..:h. Being directed
by a Illatufcst neL't1 for ("rt'util'I' liel;
I'ity. man's T. always rt.'fleet') specific
social demands. Hence. the individual's
lI"orld outlook.. and his social stance
playa very important roll' in the de-
velopment of his T.
Talk (in psychology), a method for
obtallling information through verbal
(oral) com""micGriofi (2). 11 is widely
used in various spheres of psychology
(.'Weial, medical, child. etc,), and is
the main way for leading the subject
into situation of psychological expe-
rimentation, from strict instruction in
psychophysical experiment to free
communication in psychotherapy. The
specili.c forms of T. include introduc-
tory T., inviting the subject to coope-
rate; experimental T" during which
workinghypotheseeeeessarechecked;and
interview.
Talk, Clinical. see Jill erl'i ew, eli nical.
Task. a goal of activity set in specific
conditions (for instance, in a problem
situation), which must be resolved by
transforming those conditions
to a speciflc procedure. The proble'!l
Incorporates requisites (goal), condi-
tions (the known) and the unknown
formulated in the question. There eX.ist
certain relationships and dependenCies
through which the search is conducted
and the unknown elements are estab-
lished through the known ones. Resolv-
ing a T. falls into a logic_psycholOgical
category when presented to another
subject for solution. The subject
,
-
- - -
fornllllatcs thL' T., IIltroducL"> additional
!>peciflCatiofl,) and ':iCarchcs for a method
of ')olution, which indicate,) that he
engage'l in the prucc,;,.; of IIlillk;IIK.
In this connection thinking i\ often
interpreted a') the ability to solve a
T. Thc full cycle of productive think-
ing incorporates the statement and
formulation of the T. by the subject
himself, which occurs in posing aims
whose conditions are of a problematic
nalUre (see Problem>. In cognitive
activity perceptional, mnemonic, verbal
and conceptual T's are distinguished.
T's can arise in the process of practical
activity or can be created deliberately
(training. role-playing T's). In the
working out of types of tasks. such
parameters as the number of decisions,
the characteristics of the conditions
(completeness. lack of completeness.
level of contradiction). of requisites
(the degree of their definition), and
the relation of the aim to the societal
and individual are used. A hier-
archically organised sequence oi T's
forms a programme of activity.
Taxes. innate orienting of an organism
in space as a response to favourable
(positive T.) or unfavourable (negative
T.) environmental conditions. In plants,
such responses show in changes in the
direction of growth (tropism). Depend-
ing on the elTect, physiologists dis-
tinguish photo-, chemo-, Ihermo- and
other T. T. of Protozoa and many
lower multicellular animals are repre-
sented by orthotaxes (changed
ment speed) and clinot3xes (changed
direction of movement by cerlain
angle). Besides, animals with developed
central 11(''1'01/\ s),.\If'm and symml."lrio.;
ally arranged WIIW.' flrXdm rnav activo
ely \elect the dire(tion 01" nlu\,e.
menl and mainlain that (topn.
T. are regular compllnenh of
even the mo<;t complex fllnm of h(' .
hav;o/lr.
Taxon, a set of discrete (t;eparate)
objects associated by specific com
munity of properties and symptoms
Ihal characterise il (set! tlloloKY).
Temperament, an individual\ char-
acteristic as to innate intensity. speed
and rhythm of mental processes and
states. Most T. cla'>. .. ifications and
theories include and emo-
tionality. Behavioural activeness
acrerises the degree of energy and
speed or. all the contrary. slowness
and inertia, whereas emotionality char-
acterises the specific trends and valence
(positive or negative) of emotions,
senliments, and moods. their modaluy
being expressed by joy, grief. fear,
sorrow, anger. and so on. Psychologists
distinguish T. proper (a specific stable
combination of psychodynamic proper-
ties manifested in activity and
iour) from the organic foundation
of T. There exist three basict!xplana-
tions of T. but the nrst twO are merely
of historical interest. The fjrst (hum-
oral) linked organic states with
lalion of various body fluids (ltqulds)
r
r T "12.
[0 distinguish our types 0 .. ,
sanguinic, choleric, melancholtc. and
phlegmatic (Hippoaales, Ga.len), and
this terminology became Widespread.
The second (cOlistilUtional). system
proceeds from distinctions In
constitution. viz. physical slruClUre and
correlation of individual elements and
various (Ernst
William Sheldon). The third system
as.sociales T. Iypes with the func-
tion of the central nen'ous system.
Ivan Pavlov's teaching about the effects
of the central nervous system on the
dynamics of behaviour distinguishes
three basic properties of the lIen'OWi
system, viz. strength, balance, and mobi-
lity of excitation and .and
their four basic and typical combina-
tions in the form of higher nervous
activity: (1) strong, balanced, and mo-
bile: (2) strong, balanced, and inen:
(3) strong and disbalanced: and (4)
weak. A sanguine person corresponds
to Iype one, a phlegmatic person to
type two, a choleric person to type
three. and a melancholic person to type
four. The studie\ of Boris Teplov and
Vladimir Nebyliuin showed that the
structure of the basic properties of the
nervous system is much more compli.
(ated, and the number of comb ina
lions much greater than was previously
And yet, being most genera-
lised as they are, the above-mentioned
four types of T. may be used in studies
of individuality. T. is relatively stable
and little .subject to changes caused by
the environment and upbringing;
however, It does change in ontogenesis.
T. does not characterise the individual's
essence (motives, value orientations
world nor does it directly
determine his characteristic features
Yet, T. properties may both foster and
the forming of specific person-
ality tratts, since T. could modify the
meaning of environmental and educa_
-
tional factors .011 which develop_
menl of a given rersonaltty Would
decisi\'ely depend.
Temporal Connection, a synonym for
conditiolled reflex. Currently interpret.
ed as a general term which, in addi.
lion to conditioned requiring
the nervous system to be actualised,
describes analogues that may be devel-
oped in any protozoa lacking a nervous
system.
Territorial Behaviour of Animals, a set
of various forms of animal activity
aimed at occupying and using a specific
space (area, place) with which all or
some of their vital functions (sleep,
rest, feeding, procreation, etc.) are as-
sociated. These areas may be either
constant or temporary, and belong to
either individual animals or groups
(common territory of herd, flock,
family, etc.). The dimensions, shape
and structure of the territories would
strongly vary depending on the species.
To show that the area is occupied,
the "holder" would either make sounds
or display himself; mammals would
also make scent marks ("boundary
marking") on readi ly vis ible objects
(especially at the boundar ies of the
area). Animals always defend the
territory they occupy.
Test ing, a method of psychodiagnosis
inVOlving standardised questions and
tasks (tests) with specifIC value scales.
It is used for standardised measurement
of individual differences. The, three
basic T. spheres are as followS: (a)
education-in connection with the

incrca.<,cd education period and more
complicated curricula; (b) vo(ational
training and \election in connection
with increa\cd growth rate\ of produc-
lion and its becoming more complex:
and (c) psychological
in connection with accelerated \ocio-
dynamic processes. T. allows, with
a certain degree of probability, to as-
sess the actual level of development
of essential individual .')kills, knowledge,
and personal characteristics. The T.
process may be divided into three stag-
es: (I) choice of test (depends on the
purpose of T. and on test validity and
reliability); (2) performance of lest
(determined by test instruction): and
(3) interpretation of results (deter-
mined by a system of theoretical as-
sumptions about the object of T.).
All three stages must involve a skilled
psychologist.
T-Group (training group), a group
organised to influence its members
within a system of interpersonal rela-
tions so as to develop their socia--
psychological competence and commu-
nication (I) and interaction skills
I
'-., (see Socio-Psychological
/ Ini t ial T -G's appeared as a practical
I additi on to Kurt Lewin's school of
group dynamics. At present, group
dynamics is one of the most wide-
spread models for examining interper
sonal relations and group development
stages. A T G. is characterised by
shorHerm existence (from several days
to several weeks) and by absence of
planned structure, standardisation and
regulation. The main T -G. method
involves free discussion (see Group
.11 S
Method of). without any
prellmll1ary plan, combined with role
games and other techniques. In order
to produce good results, a TG.
should be characterised by mutual trust
that would stimulate the participants
to interpersonal relations (which they
would normally hesitate to establish)
and. at the same time, help them under-
stand the processes that take place
in their T -G. In critically approaching
the practice of T-G., whose efficacy is
substantially limited by the artificial
situation of training and its separation
from the practical activity of a given
work colleclil'e, one may nonetheless
recognise that a T G. affords certain
opportunities for organising group in-
teraction and adjusting and regulating
emOlions in personal contacts.
Thinking. the process of an indi-
vidual's cognitive aClil"ity, characterised
by a generalised and media(ed re-
flection of reality. T. is (he object of
complex, interdisciplinary studies. The
correlation of mailer and T., the pas
sibilities and ways of cognising the""-
world with the aid of T. are studied
by philosophy. The main forms of T.
(concept, judgement,. inference). are
studied by formal logiC. The SOCiOlog-
ical aspect of studying T. is char
acterised by an analysis of the proc.ess
of its historical development dependmg
on the structure of various social for-
mations. Physiology studies me
chanisms with the aid of which T.
is realised. Cybernetics considers T. as
an informational process and
common and differing aspec!s 111 th,e
work of a computer and \11 man s
Ho
Ihoughl activity. T,
as cognilive acti,ity. dlvldmg It HHO
types depending on the level of genera-
lisation and characler of means used,
their novelly for the subject, degree. of
his actil'ene,\'s. T.'s adequacy to realllY
The following types of T.
uished: ,erbal-Iogical. visual-Image. \'1-
sua I-active. There are also theoretical
and practical. theoretical and empiric-
al. logical (analytic) and intuitive.
realistic and autislic (linked with escape
from reality into internal emotional
experiences), productive and repro-
du.:tive, involuntary and voluntary
types of T. Like other psychic phe-
nomena, T. is studied by objective
methods in psychology. Wide use is
made here of all the main methods of
collecting empiric material: obsen'a-
tion, experiment, talk., study of the pro-
duct of activity. T. often develops as
a process of solving lasks, which are
distinguished by conditions and de-
mands. The lask must not onlv be under-
stood by, the.subject, but also'be accept-
ed by hIm. I.e. correlated with person-
ality's need-motivational sphere.
. activity is induced by mo-
whIch are not only the conditions
?f ItS de.velopment, bUI are also factors
mfl.uencmg Its .productivity. A person's
T. IS by the unity of the
conscIOUS and the unconscious. A big
role :n activity is played by
emotIOn!>, which guide the search for
a problem solution. A product of T
be the goals of subsequent
tlOns., The studies of goal-formation
COn!;tllule an important sect f
h I Ion 0 the
fh
YC
o.ogy of T. and of personality
ey Involve \Iudies of the t .
rans-
- -
formation of an c-xtc-rtlal tll'lIlalttl
. lilt 0
a real gClal, th..: of Olll' of tl .
d II " eXlstmg emall( .... t IC uwrc-Ialiull f
I
.
voluntary am 1I\\'Olllllli.lry goal-forma_
temporal dy.nrllllil.:'i of goal-forma_
transfo,rmallOll of Ull!.:on!';cioll
s
311_
IlClpaIlO"S IIlIO conscIOUS goab. the
singling oul of inll . .'rmediatc goals. In
Ihe contexi of thc prohlelllalics of
joint actil'itil!s and c0I111l11micClliol/ (I)
T. is studied wilhin Ihe of
illterper.\OfWI relations. T. is an inter_
pretation of the reactions and mol'(:'-
menls of another person, an interpreta_
tion of the results of a person's
object-oriented actions and activity as
a whole, a comprehl'flsioll of another
person's speech products (oral and writ-
ten). hllerpersonal cognition includes
the formation of representations of
another person's mode of T., his cogni-
tive style, what he thinks about the
subject of T . and what he thinks about
what the subject thinks about him,
elC. (see Re/lexioll). T. is included
in the structure of influencing another
person both in the process of coopera-
tion and in eOtI/liel situations. In the
course of communication (I) Ihe re-
sults of one person's thought activity
(knowledge) are passed on to another
person. Knowledge (generalisations)
may relate to the objective world or
to the process of problem-solving itself
(general methods of solution). T. itself
may appear as joint, collective activity.
Communication necessarily presup-
poses generalisation. T. is a part and
special object of a person's self-aware-
ness, the structure of which includes
oneself as the subject of T.,
dIfferentiation of "one's own" and
-
-
"oIlier!';'" Ihollght"i, awart:ne<;'i of llll
resolved problem'i as one's aware-
ness of one'.., own reliliion to Ih.e
problclIl. The dcvelopment T.' l'i
studied in the phylogcnetit.: , hl'ilorlcal.
and fUlH.:lional ao.;pect'i.
Elemcntary T. appear'i III
animals and emu res a dynamic,. or
operational, adjllst"u'n' of an orgalll')m
to the demand ... of the environment, set
in the solution of a concrete 1a:>k. A spe-
cial link is distinguished in a complex
behaviour, viz. a !';earch for Ihe object
required. The type of search behaviour
is determined by the degree of
cialisation of the search (its limitation
to a def1Tlile range of objects at which
the search is directed) and methods
used in organising the search. The activ-
eness of a living creature, as expres-
sed in the search of a required object
which is lacking, is the most general
phylogenetic prerequisite for developed
T. The most complex manifestations
of T. in higher animals are linked with
the production of a "tool", i.e. an object
used as a means of achieving biolog-
ically meaningful results. On rhe
historical plane, the development of T.
is studied in the context of work as
man's spec inc activity and the origin
of language. With the appearance of
the social division of labour into mental
and physical. T. acquires the form of
activity with its own mo-
tIVes, goals, and operation .... The meth-
od of comparative analysis of thought
of people living in societies
which are at different stages of socio-
development has become
Widespread. At present it is considered
proven that verbal-logical T. is the
- -
product uf the hi ... IOfl"aI develop
ment 01 T. and Ihal thl" Irun$lIton
from visual tn a""lrac-1 T compriu>s
onc of the linc'i uf thl'i dC'vclupmcnl.
The ontogcnctil: deveinplllC'nl of a
child's T. take'i plal:c III the course
of hi') object-uricntetl a..:tivtly and
comrnunil.:ation, and iI ....... llflilallun of
"iocial experienl:e. A ... perial rnll" IS
played by the plIrpo..,crul innuel1l'e Ilf
an adult in thl" form of Irailling and
education. Visual-active. vi ... uai-pi..:
torial and verbal-logical T, arc Slll,:'
cessive stages of the ontogenelil' tie-
velopment of T.
Thinking, Creative, a type of thinJ",inM
characterised by the slIbject\ creation
of a new product and new formal ions
in the very cognitive actidty during its
creation. The'it' new formation ... con-
cern moti\'ations. I:(Xl/.<i, evaluation ....
meanings. T.,e. is distinguished from
processes using ready knowledge and
abilities, and called reprodul.:tivc think-
ing (see Creati,'e Activity).
Thinking, Intuitive. a type of thinkin1:
characlerised by the speed of the pro-
cess. lack of clearly defmed stages and
minimal awareness. =
Thinking, Practical. a type of thinki",,!
thai is usually compared with theoret-
ical thinking (see Thinkinl{, Theoret-
ical). T . P. is associated with selling
goals and drawing up plans or projecls.
It often develops when there is a lad.
of rime, which occasionally makes it
even more complicated than theoretical
thinking.
.lIS
Thinking, Theorelical. a type of thillk-
which ;<; usually distinguished from
practical thinking (see Thinking.
Prllerica/). T.,T. i<; directed at the
of laws and properties of
objects. Fundamental research 111
science can serve as an example of
T .. T.
Thinking. Verbal-Logical, a type of
think.ing characterised by the lise of
notions, and logical constructs. T.,V.-L.
functions on the basis of language
and represents the latest stage in the
historical and ontogenetic development
of thinking. Different types of Rener-
u/i.mthm are formed and function
III the structure of T., V .-L.
Thinking, Visual-Acli\oe, a type of
thinkinR by the fact
that a ta.\k i., solved wilh the help
of a real. physical transformation of
Ihe testing of the properties
of objects. The elementary forms of
T.,V.-A. obserwd in the higher animals
were studied by Ivan Pavlov, Wolf-
gang Kohler. Natalya Ladygina-
Kotz. and other scientists. In a child,
T.,V,-A. forms the ftrst stage of the
development of thinking. In an adult,
T.,V.-A. with visual-image
and verbal-logICal thinking.
Thinking. Visual-Image. a type of
thinkinK a$SOCiated with the notion of
and changes in them, The
of different real character-
IstiCS of an object are reconstructed
mn'i'l fully with Ihe aid of T"V.-1.
The 'magI! may record simultaneously
Ihe obJecl from \everal viewpoints.

- -

An of T.,V._\.
I::; the cstabh.\hmcnt 01 unusual .,'
credible" combinations of a"ld-
. . I . "
their 11. ".I1S.
T.,V.-1. IS practically IIldlstlllglllshable
from il1laRinatioll, T,.V.-1. is one of
the stages of the ontogenetic (see 0/1(0_
Renesis) development of thinking.
Time (in psychology), a subject of
numerous theoretical and experimental
studies which mainly include the
psychophysical aspect--a search for
mechanisms of the mental of
topological (pertaining to sequence and
synchronism) and metric (pertaining
to duration) characteristics of "physi-
cal" T.; the psychophysiological as-
pect-sllldy of the effect of biological
rhythms at various levels and of regu-
larities inherent in the organisation of
"biological" T, upon the dynamics of
melllal processe!;; the socio-psycholog-
ical aspect--the examination of the
specifICS of man's rej1ection of ;'social"
T., and the specifICS of Ihis renection
in different comlnunitie::; and historical
conditions; and the per::;onality aspect'
study of the temporal organi!;ation of
individual life and of the structure of
personal psychological time. In addi-
tion to the above aspects, one should
distinguish the situati onal, biographical,
and historical scales in T, studies. The
situational scale involve::; direct percep-
tion and emotional experiem:e of short-
time intervals, non_commensurable
with the duration of human life as a
whole, By general ising these percep-
tions and feelings, the individual ,de-
velops T. concepts in the
scale, limited by binh and dealll, DIS-
tinguished an.' adult and dlild T, con-
ccpt." and tho .. c of reprcsentati",cs of
variolls stlcial groups. T, per-
formed 011 the historical sl'ule are de-
!';igned to t.:larify the regularitie.\
whereby the individual becomes aware
of the past and future. The traditional
form., of this would be the study of
the history of 'Society and one\: own
genealogy. A'S a result, one can ..:on-
..:eive the historical past and future as
his own !last and future, as a !los::;i-
bility for overcoming his own limited
life span (sec aho Psychological
Time) .
Tiredness. a temporary decrease in
work capaci ty under the effect of a
prolonged eOort. from exhaus-
tion of individual inner re::;ource::; and
JID.!d of activity-ensuring ::;ystems. T.
takcs on a variety of forms at diiTerent
levels, viz. behavioural (decline of
productivity, reduced work speed and
preci\ion); physiological (diffIculty in
developing conditioned renexes, in-
creased inertness in dynamic::; of ncr
vous proce.,o;es) (set: Nen'olls System):
and psychological <declined sensibility;
impaired attention, memory, and me!lI-
al (see IlItl'll('cl) rroce<;ses. and 'Shifts
in the emotional-motivational (see
EmotiOl/s) sphere. T. is COllcomi tant
with a number or .,ubjective sellsa-
tion::; of /afiglil'. The ::;pecifICs, of T.
depend!; on the typt: of elTort, Its ap-
plication, and on the tillle needed 10
restorc optimal pcrformance. on
this, psychologi::;ts
melltal, acute, dHonil', and other kuub
of T. Marginal all(l pathological states
of T. may develop in the abseru:e of
.119

-
rnecc,ure::; to reduce T. (lr eliminate ih
re::;idual eiTects. Hence the urgent
for timely diagnO'>i.s and preven,
tlon of T. Preventive measures would
imply rational organisation of labour,
optimisahon and Tt:..:reation
conditions, speciali::.:ed training, and
various mean::.: for enhancing individual
rt:::.:istance to T.
Tolerance, absence of or weak response
to any unfavourable faClor owing to
reduced sensibility thereto. For in-
stance. T. to anxiety in a higher
threshold of emotional response to a
threatening situation. and outwardly in
stamina, ::;elf -control. and the ability
to endure prolonged unfavourable
effects without redu(ing one's adapt a-
bilily (see AdjIlMment) ,
Topological Psychology, Kurt Lewin's
theorv', according to which human be-
havio'ur in the ::;urrounding world may
be described by specifiC
concepts of lopology, a science that
Sllldies spatial transformations, and by
\'eClOr analysis. The starting point I::;
Ihe "life srace" taken as
all integral field. inside which the
vidual's psychological forces (asplra.
tions, intenlioTls, etc.) wilh their
cinc ori(:'n1<1tlol1, magniwdt" and
lion point::; by rnuthcl1lallt'-
al signs) OCOIf and change.
of Ihe "fIeld" attract Ihe II1dl\ldual.
and others would repel him. Tim
quality of .was lermed
\-alence rosltl\t! or ll:gal.1H).
which charactl'rises t.he 11lotlvatlllrlal
of his behu\ lOur ul'tuatell
the "field" forlC!';. Thl' heha\ 1I)lIr 1'0
'II
'-------
the fUIKtion of an integral siwatlllr1
im'olving the individual pef and
his psydlOlogical "space", wherelll the
barriers thereto, ell'. are locali
sed. Lewin's allempl 10 restructure:
PSYl'ho]ogy on the basis of topology
failed; vel, his interpretation of moma-
[ion as'a dynamic "system of tensions",
wherein the individual's motivations
and their objects are inseparably repre-
sented, formed the foundation of a
number of experimental models and
methods that Jed to the establishment
of imponanl facts and
concepts (see Unaccomplished Action
Effect: Ul'el of Aspirations).
Transfer. the influence of a pre-
\'iously formed action (skill) on master-
ing a new action. T. manifests
il<;elf in that a new action is mastered
more readily and quickly than the pre-
vious one. The T. mechanism in-
the dCitinction (not necessarily
conscious) by the subject of genera!
elements in the structure of the
mastered action and of the one being
The more distinctly these
SImIlar are distinguished, the
more readily and extensively is T.
achJeved. It may be said that the
measure of T. would depend on
c.ompleteness of the subjecl's orienta-
flOn to the criteria of and grounds
performmg an action (see Orientat-
. of Action). T. is in-
when oriented to external
sItuatiOnal relations, rather than 10
basic relations. T. may
IOvol\"e any action components, and)
also of a situation in Which
that aOlon 11 mastered or applied.

Transference, tI It'rlll u"t'd in Sigmund

Frt'Ulr .. p,ych(l(lIIuly,\;,\ 10
tr<1nSml\.,:>IOI1 It) the p .. ychiatri.'iT of the
palie.,,'s t'lIIolional aITit\l(Je toward"
peopl.t' .. igniflcilllt 10 Ihe laITer, e.g.
hiS !;.llller. hl\ mother, and so On.
of 100t', admiration, respect
(postllve T.), <lnt! abo hmred, fear,
awrsion (negali ve T.) ari:se Sponla_
neously in the paTient during a psy-
choanalytical session when The psy-
chialrist's behaviour offers no explana-
tory causes. Freud regarded T. as
transmission inherent in any human
relationshIp. and manifesting itself not
onl) in a therapeutic session. but also
in Ihe subject's everyday life.
Trial and Error Method. a method of
evolving new forms of behm'iour in
problem ,<;illiation.\. T. and E.M., which
is widely used by behal'iollrism to ex-
plain learning as a random activity,
became widespread in psychology after
the works of Edward Thorndike, ac-
cording to which blind trials, errors'
and accidental success, which reinforce
successful Irials, determine the way of
acquiring individual experience .by
animals and man. In this way the COlll-
cidence of behaviour with the environ-
ment on a random basis was singled
out. which permilled going beyond
a strict ahernative in interpreting ,he
category of action: either its mech.an-
istic or teleological
SubsequenT STudy of learning IIldlCaled
the weakness and limiTation of the ex-
planatory force of T. and for
it fails to lake inTO consideration
orientaTion of each trial inherent HI
each behaviour, its inclusion in a defi-

nile psychic (;',\Iull p,\ychoi-
O}:y T. and E.M. to
it TO problem
through insiRII1. The inefflciency and
theoretical weaknes.<; of such conTra-
position was exposed by Ivan Pavlov.
T. and E.M. preserved its significance
in only a narrow sphere of artificially
created situations; specifically, it was
included in the set of the design prill-
ciples of cybernetic apparaTuses.
Tropisms, responses of a plant to an
eXlernal stimulus (light, gravity, chem-
ical substances, etc.) by growth in a
direction determined by the stimulus
(see Taxes). Jacques Loeb tried to
explain the behaviour of organisms
that have a nervous system by T. How-
ever, his concept. based on mechan-
istic determinism, proved scienTifically
groundless.
Typhlopsychology, a branch of special
psychology which exafQ.ines the mental
development of the blind and people
with poor eyesight, and ways and means
for correCTing it in Iraining and educa-
tion. T. studies the possibility of com-
pensating impaired visual perception
by means of other (hearing
and Taclile sense), and IIlvesllgaTes the
menTal specifics of perceptioll. memory
and thinking when there is shortage
of informaTion owing to blindness or
weak eyesight. A special branch of T.
is concerned with the study of the
psychology of the
[X'ople with lOla I early loss. VISion
ami hearing. in whose trallltllg and
til'velopml!nt Soviet T. and
(:lioioRY have made noticeable progress
"
.121
._-- --
(Ivan Sokolyansky, Olga Skorokhodo-
va, and Alexander Meshcheryakov).
The use of T. re<)uhs allows to organise
a scientifIcally-based process of train-
ing, educaTion and work for the blind
and people wiTh weak eyesight.
Unaccomplished Ac-
tion Effect (Zeigar-
nik Effect), a phe.
nomenon charaCTeris-
ing the influence on
mnemonic processes
of inTerruptions in ac-
tivity. It was established by Slyuma
Zeigarnilt. who checked Kurt Lewin's
hypOlhesis that, in virtue of relained
motivational tension, interrupted tasks
are remembered better than ac-
complished ones. Experiments showed
Ihat The number of remembered inter-
rupted tasks were about twO tImes
higher than that of remembered ac-
complished tasks .. V.A.E. on
many variables, VIZ.. the subJects. age,
ratio of the number of accomplished
tasks 10 the number of interrupted
ones time used in accomplishing each
task' relative difficulty of tasks, the
attitude 10. interrupted. la.sk,
subject's interest 111
the lask, and so on. U.A.E. IS no
a constantly observed
When subjects were highly 1I11erested
in their tasks, they were found to
remember accomplished Tasks
AT Ihe same lime, weak
lted in betTer
resu k These expenmenh
interrupted Tas s. d',. f Ihl:
SUbsequenTly prompTed stu 0
I
J22
inHuence of lel,,,1 of aspirations and
sel,f-<lpprai.\al on mnemonic
L.A.E. .....a.., found to persISt wIth
adequate and to be
absent ..... ith etevated or reduced setf-
appraisal. Despite abundant experi-
mental material, there is still no ex-
hausti\'e theoretical explanation for
U.A.E.
Unconditionei:l Reflex, an inborn ster-
eotyped response t'O- biologically
meaningful environmental effects or
changes in the organisms's internal
medium. The term was introduced by
h'an Pa,'lov and signifies a qualitatively
unique ..:lass of innate reHexe::; that
constitute the ba;ls of conditioned
reflex associatiom formed during one's
lifetime. Unlike nmdilioned reflexes,
.serve to adapt the body to chang-
Tng environmentalcondTiions, U.R's
ensure adaptation to relatively constant
conditions (irrespe(\ive of reinforce
menl). However, U.R\ are virtually
nO'lexistent in pure form. In Oll/ogene-
sis,they form the foundation of complex
systems of conditioned reflexes Which,
together with U.R"S, determine the
Hnibility and dynamism of behal'iOllr,
There. is no generally accepted clas.
sitiration of U.R\. The most important
ones lIldude the food. sex, defence, and
onentating reflexe.s.
The (I) the totality of
act::; and state::; COII-
hy realities which the indi-
IS unaware of; (2) a form of
psy.hlc . reflectIon, wherein the image
of reality and the subject's allitude
therelo do not come out as object of
'pecifle re/leclioll, and constitute an
integral whole. The U. from
n)llsriQII.HIeu in that the reality it
reflects merges with the subject's
emotional experience and allitudes
towards the environment; hence, one
cannot voluntarily control the subject's
actions and assess their results. In the
U" reality is experienced by the subject
via such forms of assimilation and
identification with other persons and
phenomena as direct "feeling il1lo"
them, identification, emotional con-
and unilication of different phe.
nomena into a single series through
involvement, rather than by revealing
logical contradictions and discrepancies
between objects on the basis of some
substantial features. Quite often, the
past, present and future coexi:st in
the U. to combine in some single
mental act (e,g, in a dr('am). The U.
fmds its expression in the early forms
of child cognition of reality and in
primordial thinking, in iflluition,
affects, panic, dreaml>, habit
ual actions, ::;ubliminal perception (see
SlIh.\{'II_\nry Perceptioll). involuntary
memnrising, etc., and also in aspira-
tion .. , feelings, and actl>, whose causes
the individual in que::.tion is unaware
of. Four classes of U. manifestations
are distinguished: (I) superconscious
phenomena (see The Silpercollcious):
(2) stimuli of activity (motive::; and
semantic attitudes), which the person
is unaware of and which are caused
by some desirable future of perl>onal
significance. This class of phenomena
wa .. revealed in investigating a persOll'S
behaviour after the laller had come
out of a hypnotil: state, in which he
suggested a defmite programme of
action", e.g. to go to a shop and buy
a certain thing. In fulfilling a prc::;ent
programme, a person could not explain
his behaviour. In attempting to ex-
plain the nature of that behaviour from
the viewpoint of Sig.
mund Freud introduced the term "dy
namic suppression of the U.". By the
U. Freud understood unrealised driVel,
which, due to a conHict with social
norms and standards. were not admitted
to consciousness, were al ienated
through mechanism of suppression, and
were manifested in slip::; of the word,
errors. dreams, etc. Such U, manife-
stations are specifiC in that awareness
by the subject of the causal link of
drives with traumatic events
does not lead to disappearance of
emotional experiences conditioned by
those drives (e.g. disappearance of
fears), since the realised is perceived
by the subject as something impersonal
and alien to him, something happeni ng
to someone else, not to himself. In
behaviour. U, effects are removed
when the twnts that caused them are
overcome by the subject together with
another person, say, in a psychoana
lytical or together with several
person.. bee Psychotherapy, Group).
Foreign schoob, primar-
ily that of Freud and his followers,
give a narrow interpretation of U. man;
fe::;tations since they make a one-
sided analysis of the formal dynamic
a::;pects of the U. They ignore the fact
that the U. is conditioned by ...ocio-
historical faclors and unjustiliably sep
arate the U. from the real process
of man'::; interaction with the environ
323
menl, the only process thaI can reveal
the e!)Seuce of the U. and its functions
in human behaviour. Soviet psycho
logists overcome these limitations in the
theory of attitude and activity approach
to the study of psychic phenomena by
proceeding from a dialecticomaterial
iSI understanding of pSYl'he and the
nature and function of unrealiscd
motives. semantic attitudes, and per
sOllafised meanings in man's life:
(3) regulators of ways of performing
activities (operational attitudes and
stereotypes of automatic behaviour)
that ensure its directed and stable nature
without the person's awareness of them.
They underlie control of automatic and
involuntary actions, e.g. the process of
solving tasks. and are conditioned by
images of unconsciously anticipated
events and ways of action based on
past behavioural experience in similar
situations. They can be realised by the
::;ubject if the latter encounters an un
expected obstacle to his habitual auto
matic behaviour. The Soviet scientist
Nikolai Bernstein has studied the psy
chophysiological mechanisms of this
type of the automatic behaviour on
the basis of his theory of movement
structure leveb (see Physiology of
and (4) manifestation of
subsensory perception. A prerequisite
for creating an integral objective
picture of individual psychic life would
be to further develop ideas on the na-
ture of the U. and the specifICS of its
manifestations. mechanisms and func-
tions in controlling man's behaviour.
324
------------------------
Validity, a major
criterion of test qual-
ity (see TestinRl. test
suitability for meas-
uring what it is in-
tended !O measure.
Suitable for assessing
intellect, a lest may be no good for
assessing temperament, etc. The con-
cept of V. characterises not only
testing. but also its purpose or applica-
tion. Test V. implies the question: What
for? The coefficient of test correlation
with some criterion is the measure of V.
Value. a concept accepted in philos-
ophy, ethics, aesthetics, and sociology,
and characterising the socio-historical
significance for society and the person-
alised meaning for individuals of certain
realities. Marxist-Leninist philosophy
sees the sources of axiological auitude
in the social character of human activ-
ity. The whole variety of human ob-
ject-oriented activity and social rela-
tions is the object of that ani tude.
The V. assessment criteria for different
phenomena are of a concrete historical
V's are an important factor
lrt regulation of individual be-
haVIOur and human interrelations (see
Value Orientations; Value-Orienta-
tional Unity).
Value-Orientational Unity, an indicator
of Rroup characterising intra-
group and reflecting the
degree of cOlrtcldence of opinions as-
sessments, alii tudes and of
group members .with regard to objects
(goals. persons., Ideas. events, etc.) most
meanmgful to the whole group. In
a collectil'e, V.-D.U. is primarily mani_
fested in converging judgements and
values in the moral and professional
spheres, in its members' approaches to
various goals, task'S and values COn-
nected with their joint socially-useful
activities. As an indicator of group
cohesion, V.-D.U. in no way presup_
poses complete coincidence of the values
and positions of all the group members
a coincidence that would level out al]
manifestations of individuality. No
mot.ley diversity ?f .tastes, aesthetic ap-
praIsals, readers IIlterests, likings in
sports, personal sympathies, etc. in
group members would prevent them
from preserving their cohesion if they
agree on basic issues (see Group Com-
patibility) .
Value Orientations (in social psychol-
ogy), (I) ideological, political, moral,
aesthetic and other foundations for
personal assessment of and attitude to
surrounding reality; (2) a way whereby
an individual would differentiate ob-
jects by their significance (see Personal-
ised Meaning). V.D. form in assimi-
lating social experience (see Socialisa-
tion) and are seen in personal goals,
ideals, convictions, interests, and other
individual traits. Within the st ructure
of human activity, V.O. are closely
connected with its cognitive and voli-
tional aspects. V.D. form the essence
of personality orientation and express
the inner foundation of individual at-
!itudes to reality. Group V.D. develop
III the course of joint activities which
determine relations among group mem-
bers. Group cohesion (as va/ue-orienta-
tional unity) is guaranteed when the
principal V.O. of group mcmhers coin-
cide.
Verbal. a term used in psychology to
designate forms of sign material. and
also operations involving that material.
Distinction should be made between
comprehensible V. material (series of
nouns, adject ives. verbs, numerals, frag-
ments from prose or poetry, etc.) and
meaningless V. mater ial (groups of
three consonants, syllables, or senseless
words that vary in degree of proxima-
tion to real language). V. material is
contrasted to non-verbal comprehen-
sible material (geometrical figures,
drawings, photographs, objects. etc.)
and to non-verbal meaningless material
(unusual geometrical figures, ink
blots). Depending on the material used.
distinction should be made between V.
and non-verbal communication (for
instance, by means of gestures); V.
intellect (one determined by how a
person solves V. problems) and non-
verbal intellect (characterised by the
ability to solve imaginal, constructive.
and other non-verbal problems); and
V. and non-verbal information (for
instance, imaginal infor mation).
Verst ehende Psychologie. a trend in
German psychology in the late 19th-
early 20th centuries. which considered
the main objective of psychological
investigat ions to be not the causal
explanation of man's psychology but its
understanding by correlating man's
meaningful emotiwwi experiellces with
the world of cultural and historkal
values. The theory was advanced by
32.<
the German philosopher Wilhelm DiI-
they. whose idea was based on oppo .. -
ing the natural to social sciences. and
on denial of the very pO'i\ibility to
learn the socio-historical dependence of
human mind by objective method .... in-
cluding experimental, scientifIc tech-
niques. Dillhey's protest against experi
mental as a science thai
allegedly ignored the most essential
features of human consciousness was
resolutely rejected by some of its ad-
vocates, e.g. by Hermann Ebbinghaus,
a German psychologist who noted that
the V.P. programme was reduced to
intuitive comprehension of psyche.
which has no objecti"e foundation and.
hence. falls inevitably out of the general
context of scientific knowledge about
man. Eduard Spranger. a German
philosopher and Dilthey's student. was
the one to introduce the term .. V.P ....
He distinguished six types of human
behaviour in .... arious fields of culture.
namely the ideal model of the theoret-
ical. economic. aesthetic, social. pol it-
ica!. and religious man (personality).
Subsequently. this typology was used by
the US psychologist Gordon Allport
and others for their experimental
studies of I'aille orientations of persoll-
ality. The phenomenological. descripti-
ve approach suggested by Dilthey in
contrast to the analytical approach in-
fluenced numerous idealistically-minded
psychologists. including Felix Krueger
and others. In their works, Marxist
psychologists criticised V.P. from
dialectico-materialisTic positions for its
strictly idealistic interpretation of the
cultural and historical substance of
human mind, and for rejecting the
pos.\ibility of objective and causal ex-
planation of psychologil.'al phenomena.
Vocational Guidance (in socialisl COUI1I-
ries), scientifically organised profes-
sional information intended chiefly for
young people graduating from general
education sl.'hools and designed to give
them practical assistance in choosing
a profession with account for their
propensities, interests, and formed abi-
lities, and also with consideralion for
the needs of society and the national
economy. V.G.llluSt essentially be based
on available information on the role
and prospects of every profession;
the need for personnel; the nature of
the work to be done; the socio-econom-
and sanitary-hygienic staws of
the S}'!item of pro-
fessional trammg, on the one hand
and. the of a given
medical and physiological
mdl,catlons and counterindications to
8 gIven occupation. on the other. V.G.
helps establish an optimal correlation
personal aspirations and pos_
slblhtle\ and the actual national d
fo 1 nee
r specla .ISts with ne<::essary skills and
plays an role in vocational
self-determination. V.G. is most suc-
cessful when it is conducted on a
educational levels and
and parents interested in
chOO<ilng a profession for the oun
people concerned V G be Y 1 g
. . .. 109 an e em-
:nl : \'OCallonal orientation, is con-
;:I
t
h by p\ychologists and teachers
medic:l
ve
the necessary .knowledge, by
h people and SOCiologists They
ave 10 .... ork in close .
the ed ,Contact with
ucatlonal establishments and
enterprises of their rc!.pcl.'li'llc
and be assisted hy relevant
research celllrc!.,
districts
leading
vocali?nal Orientation (in socialist
a complex Of. psychological,
.an,d. medical measures
amled at 0Pltnl1SlIIg specialised emp-
10;':l11el1t people in conformity
wllh their deSires, propeflsities, and
formed (Ibiiities, on the one hand and
with account for the Ileed of na-
ti.on.al economy and society for spe-
Cialists, on the other. The Constitution
of the USSR provides for systematic
V.O .. which is an organic element of
educational activities in institutions of
learning, since the choice of a profes-
sion as a realised necessity of one's
partic!pation in socially useful labour
IS an Important condition for moulding
a personality of the socialist type. Two
forms of V.O. have become estab-
lished: (1) narrow-based V.O., whereby
an educational institution that trains
specialists reveals to the trainees all
specifics of their forthcoming activ-
Ity, IIldicate optimal methods for as-
similating them to a given profession.
etc. and (2) broad-based V.O. whereby
Y0ll:ng who have nol yet made
their chOice are acquainted with avail-
able professions. The recent reform of
general education and vocational
schools in the USSR was aimed to
improve V.O. in general
education schools through intensified
labour training and poly technical and
practice-orienled education based on
transilion to universal vocational
schooling. To improve the level of
labour Iraining of the younger gen
er
-
ation. thc reform the in-
volvemcnt of pupils. slarting from junior
forms, ill organised sO(ially u<,dul
labour compatible with their health
and age. In shortcncd secondary
schools. the pupil'> had to receive sound
general labour training, and in second-
ary schools labour training in the most
widespread professions with account
for the needs of specific regions. The
Guidelines for the Reform of General
Education and Vocational Schools
adopted by the Presidium of the USSR
Supreme Soviet in 1984 stated that
"correctly organised labour education,
training and vocational orientation. and
direct participation of schoolchildren
in socially useful productive labour,
are indispensable fac1()rs for developing
conscientious altitudes towards studies:
correct civk orientations. and a moral-
ly, intellectually, and physically well-
formed personality."
Voluntarism, an idealist trend in psy-
chology and philosophy that recognises
!he will as a special,. force
Uttt1erlYll1g psyche and bemg in general.
According 10 V., volitional acts are
totally undetermined, but they them-
selves determine the course of mental
processes. The concept that the will
enjoys priority in human life was
developed during the collapse of the
ancient world olltlook. when people
began 10 question Ihe idea Ihat
Ihinking is the principal spiritual
force. The religious thinker Augustine
was one of the flrsl to install the
principle of will. He maintained Ihat
will governs the actions of the so1l1
and body to prompt the soul to self-
knowledge; it from bodily
Imprint\ of things their
extracls ideas embedded in the soul;
and <;0 on. The German philO\(lphers
Arthur Schopenhauer and Edward
von Hartmann absolutised the will
by declaring it a cosmic force. whil.:h
is a source of all human
manifestations. Sub<;equently. under
the influence of this variety of V.,
so-called depth psychology (see Ps.who-
analysis; Analytical P\)'l'holoRY) devel-
oped a view concerning the irrational
nature of drives Ihat motivate human
behaviour. The German philosopher
and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt and
the US philosopher and psychologist
William James also favoured the con-
cept of V. Wundt belie\'ed that mental
causation supremely manifests itself
in the volitional act. primarily in
apperception. while James maintained
that the decisive role in an act belongs
to a totally unconditioned volilional
decision (Fiat! (Lal.)-'Let it be
done!"'). The German psychologist
Hugo Munslerberg. who defended the
idea that the will dominates over all <-
other mental fUIll.:tions. and other
Western psychologists of the late
19lh-early 20th century took the same
view. V. falsely interprets man's in-
herent ability to independently choose
a goal and the ways for il. and also
his ability to make decisions expressing
his personal atfillldes and helief.'i as
being caused by some special spiritual
entity.
UR
Wakefulne ...s, a be-
ha\'ioural manifesta-
tion of the at'/iI'alion
of the nervous
and its junctional
Mute, when an indi-
vidual pcrforms some
\perifil' udil'ilr. In the rycle W.
the following W. Icvel.'> are distil1-
gui\hed: extreme level of active
W., tranquil W., and drowsiness, which
with reduced W. level turns inTo l>Jeep.
Each W. It'vel by
l'orrelatioll (If vegetative,
mtllllr and electroellcephalographic
activation.
Weber Fechner Law, the logarithmic
dcp ... rulenn'" 01" Ih ... magniTude of Sl'nsa-
li(Jn ct:) upon the phy'Sical
0( the ""tUn! (PI: E k IOI:P .-c,
k. and \' are certain comtanl"
deTermined oy a given
Tflis deprnd{'nce ..... a' inferred by Gustav
Theodor Fe,'hner, a German p,ychol-
OCIS! and phy,inlotzi\t, on the b3.'>1\
of v,t'Ot'r's Law hee 11mlJ://{'r-lVeher
l41k') lind an additional \uppo"ition
ahouT Ih(' ... equality of harely
f'CT'l('pt I hie" i\lna I JilT ere nces.
Fmpiriral \tuliin nmflrm Ihi'S depen.
denn' only for rhl' middle section
of Iht ran!l:t' of pl'rccived irritant\
"slUt'S. W ' '' .1 .. (omml)l1ly cOllt ral>tcd
10 Sf .. , rill' I.uk", a(l'nrding TO whidl
Ihls (!t-pt'fldl-l1ee of exponential.
nol IOJarlthml' nalurl', Roth formulae
have twen \'nrrdale!l hy Vuri Zahrodin,
a SO"I("l s"t'flti,sL
man
Olll'
31l.iUCb. the oVernlJnl1lg "<If
liifflcullies in achieving a guul: the
subjecl-creaiea additional motivations
to exTernal or internal aCTions in case
of their insuffIcient moril'atiol/al force.
W. originates and is developed in The '/..
COUf\e of labour, when man learns
the laws of nature and changes i1. In
performing two interconnected func_
tion\, namely, the motivational func_
lion, which ensures man's activiTY,
and the inhibitory fUllction, which
in the containment of Ihat func_
tion, volitional are observed: in
involving a choice of equally
si&.illH.:.aIlL moti)'('s __ and goals_ Lb.al
engender a struggle of lIlotives; in the
absence of actual intrinsic need for
action: in the presence of external
and internal obstacles. and on.
As a rule. the \Iruggle of motives in a
involving a choice results
in the forming of a \ ingl c system of
motives correlated with
the goal. In this the comprehen-
sion of the correlatiollS between the
means and of an ad ion.
on the one hand. and tlte tOTality of
its on the other, constitute
the basis of .\('/j-comrolll,When the
in has no actual Ileed 1
to act. the volitional process ),
in Ihe VOluntary development of atl- l
ditional motives, whil.:h dUlnge The
signiflcatlcc of his action or impart
it an additional meaning through
voluntary change of the
of the aCTing (their lower or
higher by fon:sl'eing anti
emotional 3ntil.:ipation of the
qu ... of that action hee Pl'rsonaii.I't'ti
.\ll'<lIling). Oe\elope-d W. i\ a specif-
. ally human function: yet. its lower
such 3l> voluntary movements
(see MOI'emert/s, voluntary) and
delayed impulsive are
distinguished in atlLlllals. In . Ldeallst
philosophy, W. is either as
a supernatural phenomenon, or as. a
totally unconditioned human capaclly
to initiate and perform the ne:ded
action. Dialectical-materialist . phLlos
ophy regards volitional as
the acme of personal activity caused
by a system of and
one that presupposes "the capacLly to
make with knowledge of the
subject" (Frederick Engels. Anti-
DiihrinK, Progress Publishers, Moscow,
IQ7.'i, p. 132).
Work Capacity. a person's potential
ability to perform purposeful adil'i/),
at a present level of cfflciency during
a definite time. Work capacity depends
on the ambient I.'nVirol,"lclll and the
individual's re-
sources. Depending on the task to be
performed, onc may distinguish
maximal. optimal or reduced capacity
for work. In the course of activity,
the level of work capacity changes.
This change may be described graphi-
cally by a curve which show') the
dependence of effIciency 011 the time
during which work is performed.
Lengthy activity is typifIed by the
following stages of work capacity:
warming up, optimal work capacity,
and compensated tiredness, and fInal
"collapse". These are distin-
guished chiefly by performan-
ce. In analysing changes in tht: fUllction-
Ing of systems that ensure activity,
one can trace a ftner
capacity stages, viz .. Imllal
reaction, hypercompe.nsatlon, compen-
sation, subcompensallon, d.ecompensa-
tion, and failure. Depend1llg on the
Iype of work, individual feat.ures,
state of health, and prof.eSS:lOnaJ
training, the duration. and
degree of promine,"!ce of 1Ildlvldual
stages may vary. With some of them
falling out. of. .capac-
ity stage durations IS 1I1d,cattVe of
optimal organisation of work.
work-Mediated Interpersonal Rela-
tionships. Theory of a
ogical theory tnter-
perwllal relationships 10 any ade-
developed group as mediated
by the content and values of object-
related activity_ It was elaborated by
Artur Petrovsky and was ftrst called
the "stratometric conception". Work
mediation is regarded as a systems-
forming Irait of a collective, one that
determines its basic socio-psychological
characteristics. In reaching a goal in a
certain object of activity. a group
changes itself, improves ils structure
and transforms the system of inter
personal relationships. The nature and,
orientation of these changes depend,
in the end, on the content and values
of the activity which are derived from
a broader social unit. The mediation
of relationships between individuals
through joint activities make it pos-
sible to understand the nature of group
differentiation and integration; to divide
groups into types and reveal the
specifIC traits of having the
highest level of developmen (collec-
330
(h'es). and to demonstrate their
qualitative difference (by
usmg quantitative indices) from other
small groups (see Groups. Sma//):
to orient Ihe psychologist towards
revealing the significance of Ihe
parameters . of group development,
thus promotmg the group's diagnosis
and the prognostication of the outcome
of its activity; to picture Ihe complex,
many-levelled ("stratometric") struc-
ture, of interpersonal relationships and
realise the necessity of laking info
account the relations of Ihe findings
to the concrete level of group proces-
ses; to characterise a collective as a
group in which Ihe individual has
the favourable 0PP0rlunity to
fulfil need to be an inlegral
r,sonatlt? ,and to d,evelop correspond-
ng ThIS conception is
In essence to one-sided con-
ceptions of group dynamics and to
theories popular in Wester
mainly psychology of
groups, Ihe orientation of the
given 5Clenllfic school In the
of e' . course
research a number
of ,nollons of cenain socio-psycho_
10glca_1 phenomena were put into
sclentl.fic CIrculation, and methods
revealing Ihe of a rou
and of the mdlvidual within a ggro P
reflecflng Ihese ph up,
enomena were
(see Methods 0/ Pe;sonality
World Out.look, a syslem of idea f
the obJecllve world and a s
place in it, of a person's a",, d person s
'u d" ' u e lowards
rroun Ing reality and t h'
and also correspondi"g . 0 Ims.elf,
pomts of view
shared by their COUl'ic/ions
pnnClples of cognition a d
aCllvlly and 1'1l11ll' orientation' I;
reality, the subject of W.O. is a n
group and individual. W.O. is
core of socml and individ"al e
. T COn_
he developmenl of W 0
IS a slgnifieanl indication of rna, ...
,
I r
. d' . unty
no o.n y 0 .an 10 IVldual, bUI also of a
SOCial group, social class and
liS party. W.O. is the refleclion
general notion of the world '
. ' man,
society value allilUde towards
which. determines the socio-
pol .. philosophical, atheist (or
aesthetic, and scien-
tific of a person. As a method
of W.O. includes
also vital prmclples which determine
nature of people's aClivily. An
Imporlam component of W 0
'dl .. are
I ea s as crucial life goals. The con-
tent of turns imo a W.O.
." acquires the character of
W.O. is of an enormous
pracHcal Importance in life. It influen-
norms of behaviour, a person's
attllud"e to to other people, the
of life aspirations, his daily
bfe, tastes, IIlterests. W.O. 1S formed
bolh as a. result of generalisation. of
nalural sCience, socio-histOt"tc lectmi-
cal and philosophical knowledge and
the influence of the ex'isting
conditions, passed on from genera-
tion gene.ration, logether with
people s experience, in the form of
co:mmon spontaneous, unsystem-
atlSed, IradlllOnal notions of the
In an antagonistic socielY.
beere IS no single W.O. nor can there
, for each class (for instance, the
,
working class and the bourgeoi,sie
in capilUlist society) has liS own speCifiC
W.O. There those cla'iScs which are
the bearers of the more progressive
mode of production expre!>S an ad-
vanced W.O. Depending on whether
Ihe interests of a class coincide with
the objective trend of historical devel-
opment, with the data of science and
social praclice, its W.O. may be
consislently scientific or unscientific,
malerialist or idealist, atheist or
religious, revolutionary or reactionary
in content and social significance.
The core of communist W.O. is
Marxist- Len in iSI philosophy- dialec-
lieal and historical materialism. In
socialist society, Marxist-Leninisl W.O.
is dominant.
Worry, an individual's tendency to
experience anxiety characterised by
a low threshold; a major parameter
of individal differences. W. is normally
elevated in neuropsychic and severe
somatic diseases, and also in healthy
eX,2Criencing the aflermath of
_a .11 many
)
( groups of mdlvlduaTs with deviant
\ behavi?ur: Generally speaking, W. is
a subjective manifestation of some
misfortune. Contemporary
of W. are designed to dis-
situational W., connected
wllh a concrete external situation
from personal W., which is a
property in a given individual' they
are also to develop
f?r analyslilg W. as the resull of indi-
Vidual-environment interactions.
W
urzburg School. a group of re-
seachers led b G .
yerman psychologist
.HI
-
Oswald KUlpe. In the early 20th
cenlUry, they studied al Wilrzburg
University (Bavaria) higher melltal
(Ihinkint< and the IIIil/)
through laboratory com-
bined with a modified method of
introspection ("experimental self-
observation", In which the subject
carefully watched the states he
experienced in performing each respec-
tive instruction stage). The W.S.
included German psychologiMs Karl
Marbe, Narzis Ach, and Karl Buhler,
Brilish psychologisl Henry Wall, Bel-
gian psychologist Albert Micholle,
and others. The W.S. introduced into
experimental psychology intellectual
tasks (the study of logical argumenta-
tion and replies 10 questions requiring
menial effort, etc.) as new objects for
analysis. The W.S. maintained Ihat
think.ing represented a mental process
whose regularities are reduced neither
to the laws of logic, nor to those "
governing the forming of associations.
The W.S. explained the uniqueness
of Ihink.ing by the fact thai associa-
tions are selected in accord with
tendencies created by the task accepted
by the subject. The attitude that
precedes the search, which some W.S.
representatives considered a "mental
set", and others an unconscious act
(since it is hidden from introspection)
. '
was recogmsed to play an organising
role. Counter !O views commonly
accepled at the lime, Ihe W.S. arrived
at the conclusion that consciousness
contai ns non-sensory components
(mental actions and meanings inde-
pendent sensory images). Hence,
the speCific of the W.S. theory is
I
3Jl
usually -.een in that it has introduced
into psychology the notion of image-
less Ihough!. The W.S. interpreled
the procf'!';s of thinking as a change-
of operations. occasionally as-
suming an affective lension (feelings
of cenainty. doubt. etc.). The works
of W.S. posed a number
of imporlanl problems concerning
qualitative distinctions between Ihink-
ing and other cognilive processes,
and revealed the reslrieted nature of
the associalive concepl and ils inability
to explain the seleclive character and
intentionality of mental acts. Yet,
they unJusliflably contraposed imageless
Ihought ("pure" thinking) to its other
forms. while ignoring Ihat thought
is dependent on verbal and praclical
The W.S.'s idealistic method-
ology. which reneCled the inlluence
of German philo)'ophers Franz Bren-
lano and Edmund Husserl. prevellled
its from revealing the
actual causes of mental processes.
Dala oblained by the W.S. evoked
critkism from representatives of other
of experimental psychology
who also introspection (Wilhelm
Wundt. Edward Tilchener. and Georg
MilIler), and this led 10 a general crisis
of the introspeclionism.
of motivation.
Yerkes-Dodson Laws.,
"llTe -e.sfabliShmerl1 of
dependency of Ihe
quality (productiv_
ity) of the per-
fomed actil'i/y on
the inttn"ity (level)
The tirfW. V-D.L. stipu-
lates that as Ihe i!!lensity of moti_
valion grows. the qllalityof the actlv_
Uymc"reasescorrespolldingly along a
'-oell-like curve: initially rising. Ihen
,
having passed a peak indicating Ihe
successfulness of Ihe activity, it
gradually declines. The level of motiva_
tion when the activity is most success_
ful is called the optimum of motiva_
tion. Acc'1rding to the second Y.-D.L.,
the more difticult the performed activ_
ity for the subject, the lower the
optimal level of motivation. These
laws were discovered by the US psychol_
ogists Robert Yerkes and John Dodson
in 1908 in the course of their research
into the dependence of learning on the
magnirude of reinforcement (electric
shock) among mice. Subsequently,
these laws have been conflrmed by
data concerning other kinds of animal
and human activities and motiva-
tions.
Yoga, the ancient Indian religious
and philosophical system of self-per-
fection connected with Ihe system of
psychophysical training aimed at
altering psyche by extremely high
degrees of attention concentration.
The anCient lndfan forms of Y. were
elaborated within the framework of
the Veda religion, the rites of which
required from priests an intensive
concentration of attention on certain
images. The development of corres-
ponding methods had led 10 the erealion
of the classical system -the "eight-step
V"'. The disciple goes through eight
stages: (I) behaviour control (non-
violence. truthfulness, avoidance of
thieving. modesty, avoidance of money-
f
I
-
. . (2) self_restraint , (chastilY,
grabbing). tic Iraimng, oral
contentment. worship of God);
'tal of saere, f Ih
recl . te position 0 e
(3) an appropna f 84 "asans", or
b d (the system 0 I
o Y . (4) breathing contro
- a combination of
to gradually. slow down th.e
breathing rhythm which: as the
believe. is connected menta
cesses above all tll/ nk, ng, (5) res-
of' emotions--:-bringing. a halt to
external feelings with the alln of .ut-
most concentration; (6) concentratlOn
of allention on one (small) external
object; (7) medialion.- the utmost
concentration of attention, the state
of "dissolution" inlhe object; (8)
mediation (samadh i)-concentratlOn
of allention leading to the loss of self-
awareness. Two types of trances are
distinguished: (l) the feeling as su.ch
of the object is not losl: (2) .the a.cllv-
ity of the subject shrlllks Into.
and any realisation of the subject IS
_,_,3
----
. d method of
h sical tramlllg was la .
Y I Y) Along with Ihl ....
Raja Y. (roya. ... e or less
there are of
- pl,'fled versIons.
slm - h the teacher
an emotional contact WIt. y. ritual
(or the deity)-Bhakl1 . _ _ "
Y etc. Y. trammg ts
acts- Karma., d h ge,
. tended to evoke profoun c an .
's psyche This also concerns
In man . . late
the abilities of the Yogis 10 regu
the functioning of their internal organs,
to easily endure extreme degree of
heat or cold, to do with.out food and
air. etc. At the same time, Y.
incorporate a number ?f notIOns
impeding [he comprehenSion of. the
system as a whole.
moment of Y. consists in IdenllfYlllg
and applying the ex-
perience of the t raining of
tions which however. IS combmed
with 'mystical' and irral ional ideas abou t
the nature of psyche.
A
Ach, Narzis Kasper
German 29. 331
Ad)er. Alfred (\870-1937)-US psy-
44, 72, 140 142
Adorno, Theodor (1903-1969) -Ger-
man philosopher and sociologist.-
214
Alcmaeon (about 500 8. C.)-Greek
physician and natural philosopher.-
296
Alexander, franz (1859-1938)-US
physician and 13
Alipon. Gordon W. (1897-1967)-US
psychologist. - 78, 130, 183, 247, 325
Ananyev. Boris 0907-1972)- Soviet
psychologist. 56, 123, 127, 275
(aboul 585-525 B. c.)-
Greek philosopher.- 174. 296
Andreyeva, Galina (1924) -Soviet psy_
chologist. - 32. 266, 291
Angell, James Rowland (1869-1949) -
US p ...ychologisl.- 105
Anokhin, (l898-1974)-Soviet
phYSIOloglst.- 6, II, 14,55 106 113
146. 157, 191 '"
.. Lyudmila (1924) -Soviet
- 124
Aquinas <Thomas of Aquino)
ltalian theologian and
phLlosopher. - 2Q6
B. Co) -Greek phi.
losopher and scholar. 26 27 114
124.274 ' ,
Arkin. Yehm (1874.1948)
pedagogue. _. 225
Soviet
AS("h, Solomon E. (IQ07)- US psycho.
IOgis1. 4.1, 59, 60
Name Index
Asmolov. A.lexander (1949) -Sovie
psychologL!it. - 218 t
Atkinson, John W. (923) -US phi-
losopher. - 7, 48, 181
Atkinson, Richard C. (I929} -US phi-
losopher. - 101
Augustine (354430) - theologian._
174. 327
B
Sain, Alexander (18181903) - 8ri_
tish philosopher. - 251
Bakhtin, Mikhail (18951975) -So-
viet literary critic,- 68, 75
Baldwin, James Mark (1861-1934-
US psycho!ogist. - 38, 126, 207
Sales, Robert Freed (1916) -US psy-
chologist.- 162
Bandura, Albert (1925) - US psycho-
logist. - 35, 165
Bartlett, Frederick Charles (1886-
1969}-British psychologist. - 172
Ba!isov, Mikhail (l892-1931) - Soviet
psychologist. - 126, 202 275
Baudoin de Courtenay, ivan (1845-
1929) - R ussian linguist. - 199
Bekhterev, Vladimir (1857-1927) -
R.ussian psychiatrist and psychol o-
&"1.- 36. 125. 127. 238. 266. 275
Benedict, Ruth Fulton (1887-19 ... 8)-
sociologist and anthropolo-
gLSt.- 13
Berelson, Bernard (1912) US psycho-
logist. 247
Bergson, Henri (1859-1941) _ French
philosopher.- 156, 179
Berkeley. George (1685-1753) _ Irish
philosopher._ 27. 89, 174, UU
I
,
I
Berkowitz, Leonard (1926) -US psy-
chologist.- 35
Bernard, Claude (1813-1878) -
French physiologist.- 175
Bernstein, Nikolai (1896-196) -So-
viet physiologist and psy!.:hologist,-
11,107,113,127,134,145,191,224,
323
Binet, Alfred (1857-191 I) - French
psychologist. - 76, 126, 147. 149.
160. 235
Binswanger, Ludwig (1881-1966) -
Swiss psychiatrist.- 72, 94
Blonsky, Pavel (1884.1941) -Soviet
psychologist. - 126, 180,275
Boda1ev, Alexei (1923) -Soviet psy-
chologist.- 214,216, 290
Boring, E. Y. (1886-1968) -US psy-
chologist.- 124
Bouguer, Pierre (1678-1758)-French
physicist and mathematician.- 38,
328
Bower, Gordon H. (1934)-US psy-
chologist.- 49
Bratus, Boris (1945) -Soviet psycholo-
gist. - 71
Brentano, Frallz (1838-1917)-Ger-
man philosopher.- 156, 175. 33,2
Broadbent, Donald Eric (1926) -Bn-
tish psychologist.- 48
Brown Thomas (1778-1820) _ Ger-
man' physician and philosopher.- 27
Bruner, Jerome Seymour (l915) - US
psychologisl.- 49,135.180,183. 2?0
Brushlinsky, Andrei (1933) _SOvLet
psychologist,- 233 _
Budilova, Yelena (1909) __ SovLet psy-
chologist .- .
Buffon, George LOUiS Lecler,;; de
(1707-1788). French naturaiist,-
,.20 K I (1879_1 963)-German
Buhler, af
335
psychologist. - 38. 183,223,225.331
c
Caban is, Pierre Jean Georges 0757-
1808)-French physician and
philosopher.- 174
Campbell, Donald Thomas (1916)-
US psychologist.- 35
Cannon, Walter B. (I871-IQ54)-
US physio\ogisl.- 128, 158
Carnap. Rudolf (1891-1970)-Ger-
man-born US philosopher and logi-
cian.- 286
Carpenter, William Benjamin 0813-
1885)-English physiologist.- \34
Carr, Harvey (l873-1944)-US psy-
chologist.- 105
Cartwright. Dorwin Phillip (1915)-
US psychologist,- 115
Cattell, James McKeen (1860
1944) -US psychologist,- 76, 96,
97, 126, 220. 235, 275
Chelpanov. Georgi (1862-1936)-
Russian psychologist.- 275
Chomsky. Noam (1928)-US psycho-
linquist.- 237
Claparede. Edouard (1873-1940)-
Swiss psychologist.- 105, 310
Comte, Auguste (1789-1857) -
French philosopher.- 17
Condillac, Etienne Bonnot de (1715:
1780)-French philosopher. - 14:>.
283
Cooley, Charles Horton (1864-
1929)-US sociologist.- 266
o
Darwin. Charles (1809-1882)-
English naturalist. - 20, 27, 3 .... 73.
105,145,175.183.252

336
----------------------------_____ --____________________________
Oavydov, Vassili (I931) - Soviel psy- Empedodes of Agrigenlum (
ch%gisl.- 58. 109 490 - 430 S.c.) - Greek h
Democriws (the late SIh century and phiJosopher. _ 296 P YSlclar:
philosopher. - 174, Engels, 0820-1895) _ re
IheoretlCla1l and revolutio g a!
Descarles, Rene (1596-1650) - f dr' nary, co-
F h Oun er 0 Marxism 49 61
. rene philosopher and physi%g_ 119, 161. 171 , 174 'j95 i91 '30
83
,
ISI.-125. 155, 174, 252, 265, 296 329 '" 4,
Deu.tsch. Felix (I920) - US psychola- Erikson. Eri ck H. (l900) - US '
glsr.- 59 logis(. _ 84 Ps)cho.
Dewey, John 0859-1952) - US phi- E k H
.'osopher.- 105, 126 ysenc. ,ans Jurgen (I916) - US
Denis (1713- I 784) - French psychologlsl. _ 49, 97, 220
phllosopher._ 125 174
Dilthey, Wilhelm d833-1911)-Ger_
man. phiJosopher._ 126, 183, 325
Nikolai (1890-1981) _ So_
viet psychologis1._ 29, 127
Dollard. John (l900)-U5 psycholo_
gist. - 13, 35
Dolio, Louis 0857-1931) B I .
I
. - eglan
pa eonlologls1._ 93
Donders, Franciscus Cornelis (1818-
1889)-Dutch naturalist _ 74 126
175 . , ,
FYodor 0821-1881) _
R.usslan novelist._71
Duncker, Karl (1903-1940) _ Ger_
man psychologis1._144
Durkhelm, (1858.1917)_
SOClologist._ 50, 51, 183,
E
Ebb
Glnghaus, Hermann 0850-1944) _
17
e
9,m
2

3
n psychologisL_ 27 101 126
, 5, 285 l25 '"
Eh ,
renfels, Christian
19]2) --Austria h'l VOn (1859_
Elk . n p losOpher "04
on In, Daniil 0904_19 .- ".
P\ychologist.. 58, 225 84} - Sovlel
F
Fabri. Kurdt (1923) - Soyiet psycholo_
gist. - 21
Fechner, Gustav Theodor (1801-
1887) - German psychologist. _ 39,
125, 138. 253, 262, 303, 306. 328
losif (1924) - Soviet psy-
chologlst. _ 227
Feldstein. David (1929) - Soviet psy-
chOlogist. _ 15
Fest.inger. Leon (l919) - U5 psycholo-
gist. - 35, 47. 115
Fisher, Sir Ronald Aylmer (1890.
statistician and gene-
tICISI. _ 95
Foucault, Marcel (1926) - French phi-
losopher and psychologist. - 143,
151. 285
Paul (1911 ) - French psycho-
loglsl. _ 127, 267
GOIl/ob (J 848-1925) -German
logic ian and mathema-
tlclan. _ 286
French, Thomas Morton (1913) - US
PSychologis1. _ 13
Anna (1895) - US psycholo-
gISt. - 84
FreUd. Sigmund (l856-1936) - Auslri-
an psychiatris1. - 17, 20,35, 44, 84,
102, 103,1 26,133. 145, 156. 204,214,
235, 268, 285, 293. 306, 320,
323
Fritsch, Gustav Theodor (1838-
1927) - German anatomist and an-
thropologist. - 223
Fromm. Erich 0900- 1980) - U5 psy_
chologist. - I03, 127, 197, 293
G
Galen (A.D. 131?-200?) - Greek phy-
sician. - 45, 168
Galilei, Galileo (1564-1642) - lIalian
scientist. - 75
Gall, Franz. J oseph ( 1758- 1828) - Au-
strian physician. - 169, 223
Galperin, Pyotr (1902) -Soviet psy-
chologist. - 29. 206. 211 , 301
Gaiton, Francis 0822- 1911)-English
psychologist.- 4, 76, 96, 126, 235,
236. 266
Gannushkin. P. B. ( 1875-1933) - Sovi-
et psychiatrist.- 250
Gastev, Alexei ( 1882- 1941)-50viet
poet and scholar.- 245
Gernet, Mikhail (1874-1953) - Soviet
criminologist. - 160
Gershuni, Grigori ( 1905)-50viet phy-
siologist.- 306
Goldstein Kurt (1878- 1965) - German
, .
neurOlogist and psycho(ogLst. -
I 12
Groos, Karl Theodor ( 186 1- 1946)-
German p!>ychoJogisf. - 225 .
Gross, Hans (I847_ 1915) _ Ausman
jurist. - 160
Guilford, Joy Paul (1897) - US psy-
chologisl. - 76, 9? 220
Gurevich, Konstantm (1906) Soviet
psychologist.- 67
12_09\ 5
H"
Haeckel, Ernst (1834-1919) -- German
biologist.- 38, 183
Halbwachs, Maurice (1877-1945)-
French sociologist. - 179
Hall, Stanley 0846-1924)-US psy-
chologisl.- 38. 183, 207. 275
Hartley, David (1705-1757) - English
physician and philosopher.- 27. 125,
134, 174, 251, 252, 283
Hartmann, Eduard von (1842-1906)-
German philosopher.- 84, 327
Hebb, Donald Olding (1904)-Cana-
dian psychologisr. - 127
Heckhausen. Heinz (1926) - German
psychologist. - 7
Hegel. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
(I770-1831)-German philosopher.
-61
Heider, Fritz (1896) - US psycholo-
gisl.-32. 46, 112
Helmholtz., Hermann (1821-1894)-
German physiologist and psycholo-
gist.- 27, 74, 125, 135, 175, 253
Helvetius. Claude Adrien (1715-
177Il-French philosopher.- 174
Heraclilus (61h century B.C. ) - Greek
philosopher.- 174. 296
Herban, Johann Friedrich (1774-
1841) -German philosopher and
psychologist. - 28, 174
Hippocrates (460?-377? B.C) - Greek
physician.- 168, 274
Hirzig. Eduard (1838-1907) - German
psychialrist.- 223
Hobbes, Thomas ( 1588- 1679) - Eng-
lish philosopher. - 125. 174. 252
Horney. Karen (1886-1952) - US psy-
chologist.- 127, 197
Huarte de San Juan, Juan (1520-
1592- Spanish physician.- 125
HS
Hull. Clark Ll'OlIard (18S4-1Q52) US
-- 154. I Q7
Humc-, Da\id (1711-lntl)
phil('lsophl"r.. 27. SQ. 174. 28J
Hunter. Waller Samuel (1880- I 954)
US pS),,/tol('lgisl.- , J6
Edmund <1859-1938) Ger-
man pllil<lSupher._ J32
1
Ibn EI Hairham AI-Ha.ssan (965-
/O,W) -Arab .srholar._ 124
Ibn Roshd (Averroe.s) (1126-1198)_
Arab philosopher.-I25
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (about (980-
10.17) -Arab physician and philo-
(Central Asia).-4S. 125
J
Jaen::och, Erich R. (1883-1940)_Ger_
man psychologisf._8S
James, William Cl842-191O)_US phi-
lOSOpher and psychologist._6I, lOS.
126, 158. 247. 252, 327
Janel, Pierre (1859-1 947)-French
psychrnogisl and psychialrisl._145,
152, 179
Johannsen. Wilhelm Ludwig (1857-
1927) --Danish bi%glsL_lll
Jung. Carl Gustav 0875-1961)_
S..-is,s psychoiogisl and psychiatrist._
20. 26, 44. 72. 97, 160, 167 J 83
293, 309 ' ,
K
Kandinsky. Viktor 0849-1889)_Rus.
sian psychialrisl._L16
Kant. Immanuel (1724-IS04) -Ger-
man philosopher_28. 61, 195
k.('lIy, (;l"llrll' (I Nh{) 41 II .... )
dlo/081\1. 42, 4t)
}\htHll.'okaya, Yl'Il'IHl
p.\yo.: hnlogl\l . 29
(19!9)
Klase.\, Lutl"ig (I870- ICj.56)
p\\-'o.:IwlogL\I. 44
I\.k'i.-.I, "-art (1879 19(0)
J).\yo.:hilltrc.t. 169
SO\'i!:1
German
German
11..111110\, Yl"\,Sl'ui (IQ31)Sovicr psy.
141
K{lCht'/lm, Mikhail
160
(1935)
Soviet
Kotila, Kurt (l886-1941)-German
psychologi!>t. . 112
Kohler, Wolfgang (1887-1967)_Ger_
Illall p.sychoJogi.sI._43, 112, 144,
147,318
Kon, Igor (1928) -Soviet philosopher
and sociologi.st._92
Kornilov. Konstanlin (1879-1957)_
Soviet psychologisl._126. 275
Korsakov, Sergei 08541900) _ Russi-
an psychiatris'._IS
Kraft-Ebing, Richard
1902l-Austrian
203
von (1840-
psychiatrisl.-
Kravkov. Sergei (1893-1951) -Soviel
psychophysiologisl._127, 150, 275
Kretschmer, Ern::;t (1888-1964) -Ger-
man psychialrisl._44, 314
Krueger, Felix (IS71-1 948) -German
psychologist and philosopher.-165,
325
Krupskaya. Nadezhda (1869-1939)-
Soviel slalcswoman and pedago-
gue. 49
Krulet.sky, Vadim (1917)-Soviet
4
Krylov, Albert (1935) -Soviel psycho-
logisl._91
Kuhn, Thom8!i (1922) _ US hiswri-
rian.-208
-
Yuri (IVltl) Jl!Io)'lho-
lugi\!.
k.(lIlle. (hwali! vennan
p.\ydmlngl\1. I.S(), 275, .HI
KUl.lIli/l, V ...cvolod (1112(') phl-
.11 I
KUZIllIll, Yevgeny (1IJlO) -Sovier Jl,\y-
cholugj,!. 44
L
Ladygina-Kor!>, Natalia 0889.19(3)-
Soviel psychologi.-.t. -21, 31S
Lamarck, Jean Baptisle (1744.1829) _
French naturalist. - 20, 145
La Mende, Julien Offroy de
1751) - French physician and philo-
sopher. - 174, 3 19
Lange, Carl Georg (1834-1900)-Oa-
nish physiologist.-158 ,
Lange, Nikolai 0858-1921) - RUSSJan
psychologist.-28, 105, 125, 213
Lashley, Karl S. (l89O-195S)-US
psychoph ysiologist. - 36
Lalane. Bibb (1937)-US psycholo-
gisl.-50
Lazarsfeld, Paul F. (l901-1976)-US
sociologisl. - 247
Lazarus, M orilz (182-1-1903) -Ger-
man philosopher.-92, 173, 291
Lazursky, Alexande.r (187 .. -1917)-
Russian psychologlst.- 76. 126
Le Bon, Gustave (l841.1931)-French
sociologisl.-173, 291
Leibniz GOllfried Wilhdm von (1646-
17 16; -German ph ilosopher and
psychologist. 23, 28, 251. 252
Leites, Natan (1918)-Sovlt'l psycho-
logist. - 4
Lenin, V. I. Mar-
xist rhinker and Iheorellclan, orga-
niser and leader of Ihe CPSU and Ihe
-- - -
illiernltli()nal nluvcment,
founder of the Soviel 4Q.
61,89,119,127.265, 2M, 2"'Q.
Lt-unardC) da Vin" (1452-15191- Flo-
renljne artl\t and engineCf.- 125
LltOnhard, Karl (IV04, German P'>Y'
chiatri .. 1 and psychologi\t. --tl
Leontyev, Alexei A. (11)361 .Soviet
P'->ychologt.t.- -2:n
A/extj N, (11)(B-Jl.l79).
psychologi\t. -7, 8, 68, 74,
127. 135, 175. 1(,)4,202,205.212,217,
275
Levy-Bruhl, Lucitn 0857-1(,)39)
French philosopher. 2(')3
Lewin, Kurt (ISt)()-1947)-German
psycholo!isL-58, 112, 118, 128.
194, 267,305,315,319_321
Lichko, Andrei (1926) -Soviel p1J)'chi.
atri.st.-6
Liplcina, Anna (1917) --Soviel
logisl.-157
Lippmann, Waller 08S9)-US psyo.:ho-
logisl.-J02
Lipps. Theodor 1l851-1(14)-Gtrman
psychologisr.-SS. 156 .
Lloyd-Morgan. C. (1852-.19J6)-Bn-
lish zoologisr and geologl .. r.-96, 145
Locke, John (16.'\2-170:) - -
phil05opher.-26. 8Q. 12.), 155. 265.
283 b 1
Loeb,Jacques 0859-1924)-US 100-
gisl.-145,321 .
Lomonosov, Mikhail. (,1711-1765)
Russian nalural sCIC'tlllst.-125, I SO
Lomo\', Boris (l927)-Soviet psycho-
logisl.-91,311 .
Lorenz. Konrad (!90J)-Aw.lnan zo-
010gisl.-35, 145 , .
Lossky, N.O. (1870-1965) - emlgre
Russian philosopher.-156 .
Lozanov. G. (1926)-Bulganan
.140
chologist and pedagogue. -.- 307
Lubo\'sky, Vladimir (1923) Soviet
Q8, 21 Q.
Me\hdlcr)'akm, Ale\QrhJcr (I 'n].
psychologisl.- 298 .
Luria, Alexander
psychologist.-8, I I, 39. 58. 63. 68.
123,127,160,180,184.199,224,275
-1976) -Sovil,t r\ychologi\t. 2QfI,
]21.
Mc\mer, Franz (17.14-IR I5) .Austrian
physicist. iJO
M
Makarenko, Anton (l888-1939)_So_
viet pedagogue._49, 219, 295
Malebranche, Nicolas de (1638-
1715)-Frcnch philosopher. - 75,
251
Marbe, Karl (I 869- 1953)-German
psychologist._ 160, 331
Marcuse. Herber! ( 898)-US philo-
sopher and sociologist._103
Marx, Karl (I8 18- 1883)_great pro-
lelarian theoretician and revolu_
tionary. founder of dialectical and
historical materialism and scientific
com
mu
nism._49, 61, 83, 103, 119,
132, 136, 161, 171, 174, 196, 202,
291, 304.
Maslow, Abraham {l908- 1968)_US
PSychologist._130
MatYUShkin. Alexei (l927)-Soyiet
psychologist._ 229
McClelland, David C. (19 17) _ US
psychologisl._7
Mcdougall, William 0871-1938)_US
psychologist._ 72, 128, 129, 145,
291.
Mead, George Her bert (1 863-193 1)
-US philosopher and psychologist.
- 126, ISO, 183, 272.
Mead, Margaret (901)_US ant hro_
pologist and psychologisl._13.
Melnikov, Vladimir (1 935)-Soyiet
psychologist. _ 249.
Merlin, Vol( (] 898- 1982) -Soviet psy_
Meumann, Ernst (IS62- 191.'i) Ger_
man rSYl"hologist and redagogue._
-207
Michon, J eall - Hippolyte 0803-
188 1) French nbbc._ 114
MichollC, Alben 0 881- 1967)_ Bel.
gian psychologist._331
Mill. J ames (I 773-1836)-Scollish
philosopher._27, 283
Mill, John Stuart (l806-1873)_Eng_
lish philosopher._27, 283
Miller, Neal E. (909)-US psycholo_
gisl.- 13, 35
Moede, Waller (1888-1958)-Ger man
PSychologist._290
Moreno, J acob (l892-1974)_US psy.
chiat rist and psychologisl.-236, 256,
29.
Morris, Charles William (l 90 1)-US
philosopher._286
Muller, Fri tz ( 1821-1897) -German
zoologisl._38.
M liller, Georg Elias (1850- 1934)_
Germa n PSychologist._27, 29, 332
Maller, J ohannes (J 80 1.1858) -Ger_
man physiologisl._253, 298
M' ii nsterberg, Hugo ( 1863- 1916) _
Ger man PSychologist._ 160, 245, 255,
275, 327
Myasishchey, Vl adimir ( 1893. 1973)-
Soviet psychologist._2J6, 306
N
Nadirashvil i, Shola
PSychologist._2IS,
( 1926) -Soviet
285
I
I
Nebyllhin. Vladimir (1IH()-IIJ72) So-
yiel p\YLhologi\t. 77, .III, I}I 2111,
30J .. 114
Ulric (192.'1) tiS
gist. --48, 30(,
Newcomb, Theodore M. (ltJUJ) US
psychologist.. 46, 116, 266
Newell. All en (1927) US I"'>ychoiogisl
and malhematician. 19 1
Nietzsche, Friedrich (1844-1900)
German phi losopher. 44
Norakidze, Vladimir ( 1904)SoYiet
psychologist.-285
Nuttin. Joseph Remi ( 1933) Belgian
psychologisl.-267
o
Orbeli, Leon (l882-1958)-Soviel phy_
siologisl.- 127, 287
Osgood, Charles Egerton (1916)-US
psychologist.- 46, 237
p
Palei, losif (l 926)-Soviel psycholo-
gisl.-98 .
Pa reto. Vilf redo (1848- 1923)- llallan
sociologist.- 173 .
Parygin, Boris (1 930) -Sovret psycho-
logisl. - 162, 246, 307 .
Pavlov Iyan (l 894-1936)-SOYlet phy-
siologist.-19, 27, 34. 36. 45, 57, 58,
77 81 88 91 125, 127,131,134. 14 1,
143 145, i 5 1: 157, 178, 190, 205.206.
207222,23 I. 239, 253, 273, 279, 287,
303: 314, 318, 32 1, 322 .
Pelrovsky. Artu r ( 1924) -Sovlet PSY-
chologist.- 116. 124. 219, 329 .....Y_
Pet rovsky. Vadim ( 1950)-SOYlel ,.....
- hol oSisT.-9.216
- 96 1980) -Swiss PSY- Piaget. Jean (18 -
341
chologi". 12. 4.1. 49. 68, 69, 109.
110.127,128. 135. 147. 152,ISO, liB,
29/1,311
Pierce. Charles (J 839-1914) . US ph i.
losophu and naturalist. 286
Plaia (427?347 B.C.) Greek philo_
sopher.-75, 174, 274
Plalonov, KonSTantin I. 0877-1969)
Soviet
Platonoy, Konstantin K. (906) -Sovi-
eT psychologist._49, J31. 190, 245
Plekhanoy, Georgi (1856-19 19) . Rus-
sian phiJOSOpher.-225
PIOIinus (about 204-269)-Roman
NeoplaTonic philosopher._ 174
PoliTzer, Georges (1903 _ 1942)_
French sociologisT and psycholo-
gisT.-128
Pongratz, Ludwig (1915) .German
psychologisT.-124 .
Porshenev, Boris (l905-1972)-Sovlet
sociologist. - 294
POIebn)'a, Alexander (1835-1891)-
Russian phiiologisT.-244 .
Prangish\'ili. Alexander (1909)-SOV1_
et psychologist.-218,. 285
Prever, Wilhelm Thlerr), (1841-
1897J-German psychologist.-207
Pribram. Karl (1919) - US psycholo
gisl.-127 ..
Priestley, Joseph (]7331804)-BntlSh
philosopher.- 174
Prochaska Georg (1749-1820) -Cu-
physiologisl.-265 .
Puni. A vksenti (1898- 1985) -SovIet
psychologisl.- 249
Pythagoras (6Th century B. C.)-Greek
philosopher.-45. 274
R
Ratinov, Alexander (1920) -SovieT
psychologisl.-160
J42
Ro\'ich-Shcherbo. Jnna (I Q27)
psycho!ogisr.-237
Reich. Wilhelm (1897-1957) - US phy-
sician and psychologis/._ J 03
Ribot, TheQ(fu/e 0839-19Ui)-rrench
psychologisl.-28.105, 126, 247
Rickert. Heinrich 0863-1936) -Ger-
man philosopher._126
Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai (1844-
1908) - Russian composer._310
Rogers. Carl R. (l902)-US psych%_
gi51.-130, 256
Rorschach, Hermann 0884-1922) _
Swedish psychiatrisl. _231
ROller, Julian Bernard (1916)_US
psychologist.-169
Rubin, Edward 0886-1951)-Dani5h
psychologisl._l 0 I
R ubinslein, Sergei (1889-1960) -Sovi-
et PSychologisl._7, 74, 127, 233, 275
Rudik, PYOff (/893-1983) Soviet psy_
chologisl._249
Rulier. Karl 0814-1858)-Russian no-
luralis!._20
Rybnikov, Nikolai 0880-1961)_Sovi_
PSychologist._275
s
Sapir, Edward 0884-1939) _ US lingu_
ist and ethnologisl._68, 168
de 0857-1913) _
Swiss Iinguist._68, 286
Schachter, Stanley (J922)-US psy_
chologisl._49
Schopenhauer, Arthur (1788-1860) _
German philosopher._327
Sch ult2., Johann Heinrich (1884_
1970) -German psychiatrist. _ 33,
178
---
IViHI (IS2Q-IQO.'i)
pl1y.\iologisl. 27, .lb, 74, 107 I"
' ,
142.175. IQ5. 224. 232, 245.1:5.l. 266
Sebeok ThomBs Albert (1920) _ Us
aud alllhropologist._2J7
Hans (1907) Ca nadian physi.
ologist 12, 30J
Seye. Lucien (l926)-French philo_
sopher and PSychologisl._127, 220
Shadrikoy, Vladimir (1939) -SoYiet
psychiarrist. _ 91
Shcherba. Ley (1880.1944)_Soviet
linquiSI. _ 199
Sheldon. William Herbert (I898) -US
physician and Psychologisl. _314
Shepard, Roger Newland (I919)-US
PSychologist._49, 253
Sherir, Muzafer (906)-VS psycho_
log15t. -35
Sherrington, Charles S. OS59-1952)_
English physiologisl._141. 145. 158,
224. 280
Sherkovin. Yuri (I 91:4)-Soviet psy_
chologist. - 24fl. .107
Shevaryov, Pyotr (lS92.1970)_Soviet
philosopher._275
Shorokhova, Yekateriria (1922) -
Soviet psychologiSI. _ 49
Simon, Herbert A. (J916)-US psy-
chologisl._19 I
Simon, Theodore (1873 _ 19(1) -
French psychialrist. _ 147
Simonov, Pavel ( 1926) -Soviet phy.
siologisl._S8, 146, 30S
Skinner, Burrhus F. (J904) -VS psy-
chologisl._37, 205. 211 .
Skorokhodova, Olga (J914) -Sovlet
PSychologist and
Smirnov, Analoli (IS94-1980) -Sov.el
Robert R. (l908)-US PSycho-
logisl._13
PSychologisl._127, 178, 179 .
.5ocrales (470-399 B.C.) - Alheman
philOSopher. -274
,
I
I
Sokolov, Alcx<lnder (191 I)
Soviet
psydlolngi\!. ,mO ..
Sokolov, Ycvgeni (InO) SOViet P'iy-
chophysiol(lgisl. 19K
Sokolyan .... ky, Ivan (1889-196()
e. pedagogue. -298, ]21
Spearman, Charle.\ Edward
1945) - psych%gl\!.
98
Spencer. Herber! (1820-1903)
Iish philosopher. 27, 105.
Savio

76,
Eng_
145
US
Sperry, Roger Wolcoll (]913)
psydlOphysiologisl.-180.
Spinoza. Baruch (Benedict) (1632-
1677) - Du!ch philosopher. - 125.
174, 252
Spranger, Eduard (1882-1963) - Ger-
man psychologist pedagogue. -
183, 325 . 863
Stanislavsky. KomtanlJn ! I _
1938) Soviet prodUcer, dlreclor,
and pedagogue.-65. 3{)7
Steinlhal Heymann (1871-1938)-
Gcrma'n psychologist.-92, 173,291
S.ern, William
psychologist.-38, 76, 78, . .
160, 183. 255 S ho-
Sternberg. Saul (l933)-U ps)'c
logisl. - 48 9B)
Sleven$, S.anley Smith (1906-1 .-
US chologist -328
psy Carl (l848-193b)-German
Stumpf,. 156
psychologJSI.-105., 918 1970) -
SukhomJiusky. ;19 .l95
Sovi!;:. ped/l&oJue. - 892'-1 941J) . _ US
Sullivan, Harry (1197 198, 287
psychologlSl.-, ,
T
. Nina (19B) Sovicl psycho-
Tlllpllla .
10gisl.- 211
... ,
- -
Tannenbaum. Percy Hyman (I CJ27)
US psyc.:hologi.\1. 411
Tarde, Gabriel 0843-1 CJ(}4) Frenc.:h
\OI:iologl\l. . 173 ,
Teplov Boris (1869-1965) Soviet
p!i)'chologG . -4. 77. CJI. 124. 127, I.W
219, 232, 275, 303. 314
Teuber, Hans- Lukas 11916-1977) .US
.. 180
Theophrastus f372287 B.C.), GrI:ek
philosopher and natural sCien.
tist.-1 14
Thomas, William Isaac (1863-1947)
US sociologisl.-29
Thorndike, Edward Lee (1874-1949)
US psychologist.-36, 96, 163
Thurstone. Louis Leon (1887-1955)
US psychologLst.- 76
Titchener. Edward (l867-1927)-:;US
psychologisl.-88. lOS, III, 156.
304, 332 9 US
Tolman, Edward (18!6-195 )-
psychologi5t.-1.>4. 19, .
TUlUnjan. Ovsep (I918)-Sonet psy-
chologist.-124 ,
Tolstoy, Leo
no\eJisL- 71
TruDelskoy. Nikolai (1890-1939)
Russian linguisl.-I99
u
Ukhlomsky, Alexei (IS75-1924) -f;.;
\iet physiologi5I.-79. 107, 117 .
Umansky, Lev (l921-1983)-SO\'lel
psychologisl.-49 .
Uznadze. Dmitri
psychologisl.-30. 135.21 , _. .
285. 307
V
Velichkovsky. Boris (I947)-$oviel
psychologisr.-189 .
Venda, Valeri (1937)-Sovlel psycho.
logist. -91 .
Vinogrado\'3, Olga (1929) -SovIet psy_
chologist.-184
Vives, Juan Luis (l492-1540)-Sp8_
nish schoJar.-125
Vlassova, Tatyana (190S)-Sovie\ psy_
chologist.-298 .
Voitonis. Nikolai (1887-1946) -SovIet
psychologist.-21
V\'cdensky. Nikolai (1852-1922)-
Russian psychologisl.-161
VygolSky. Lev 0896-(934)-Soviet
psychologisl._II, 15,68,73,75,122,
127,159,175.199.201.217,218,225,
238, 244, 275, 298, 299, 311
w
Wagner, Vladimir (l849-1934)-50vi_
el biologist and PSychologisl.-20,
145
Wallace, Henry (1823-1913)-English
naturalist.-65
Wallon, Henri 0879-1962)-French
psychologist._127, 152,220
Watson, John Broadus (1878-1958)_
US psychologisL_36, 126, 163
Wan, Henry J. (J879-1925)-British
psychologisl._331
Weber Edouard Frederic (1806-
1871 ) -German physiologist._142
Weber, Ernst Heinrich 0795-1878) _
German anatomist and physiolo_
gist.-36
Wiess, Alben P. 0879-1931)_US
phychologist._36
Wells. Herbert (1866-1 (46) EnglG.h
1)8
Wertheim!;"r, Max (1880-1943) _ Ger_
ilion psychologbL- -4],1 12, 143,147
Whorf. Benjamin Lee (181)7-1941)_
LIS linguist and cI11I1ogra l>her._68,
168
Willis, ThOmas (162 1-1675) - Engl iSh
neurologist. 265
Wilsoll. Woodrow (1856-1924) - Presi_
dent of the US 1913-21.-235
Wolff, ChriSTian (1679-1754) - Ger-
man phiJosopher,-89
Woodwonh, Roben S. (1869-1946)_
US psychoJogist,-80. 105
WundT, Wilhelm (1832-1920)-Ger_
man psychologist._23, 28, 74, 92, 96,
105, III, 125, 126, 138, 155, 166, 173,
175, 183. 247, 251. 274, 275, 291, 304,
312,327.332
X
Xenophon (about 430-355 B.C.)-
Greek essayist and hislorian.- 75
y
Yadov, Vladimir (1929)-Soviel phi-
losopher. -78 .
Yaroshevsky, Mikhail (1915) -SovIet
philosopher._41, 124, 206, 230, 308
Yerkes Robert Mearns (1876-1956) - ,
US psychologisf.-332 . .
Yudin, Erik (1930- 1961) -;-Sovlet phI-
losopher and psychologlsf. -311
z
Zabrodin, Yuri (1940) -Soviet psycho-
logist. -328
Zander, Alvin Frederick (1913) -US
psychologist.- 115
Alexei
SovieT
212,215
(1905-1981)
127, I.H, 194,
Zeigarnik. Uluma (1900) -Soviet psy_
chologist.-7I,321
Zhinkin, N.!. (l893-1979)Soviel
210915
.145
-.- ---
PSychologist.. --300
Zinchenko, Pyotr (/90.1-1969) -Sovi_
et Jl!iychologisl._9J, 178, 179
Zinchenko, Vladimir (19.11) Soviet
PSychologist.- 189, 213
Znaniecki, Florian W. (1882-1958)
US sociologist._29
-
General Methodological Problems
of Psychology
Catcgorial Allalysis-41
Categorial System of Psychology-41
Determinism-73
The Ideal- 132
Materialism and Idealism In Psycho-
logy-173
Methodology-I 85
Paradigm-208
Psychology-HI
Psychophysical Interaction-2S1
Psychophysical Parallelism-lSI
Psychophysical Problem-2S2
Reductionism-263

Structure-304
Systems Principle-311
Systems-Structural Analysis-312
World Outlook-330
Branches of Psychology
Animal Psychology-20
Aviation Psychology-34
Comparative Psychology-54
Corrective Psychology-64
Developmental Psychology-74
Differential Psychophysiology- 77
Differential Psychology-76
Economic Psychology-81
Engineering Psychology-89
Ergonomics-91
Ethnopsychology-92
Ethology-92
Experimental Psychology-95
- Ceneral Psychology-lOB
Historical Psychology-124
Subject Index
Historiography of l"ychology- -124
History of P,ychology 124
Juridi cal Psychology 160
M..:."{!ical Psvchology- 177
Military Psychology- 189
Neurolinguislic,- I QI)
199
Parapsychology-209
Pathopsychology-210
Pt'dagogical Pllychology-210
Per.;onalit y (in psychology)-218
Political Pllychology-226
Psychodiagnosis- 235
Psychogenet ks- 236
Psychohygicne and Pllychoprophylax-
is-237
Pllycholinguisl ics- 237
Psychological Anthropology-238
Psychological Service-HO
Psychology of Art-244
Psychology of Creative Act;v;ty-245 I
Psychology of Labour -245
Pllychology of Management -246
Psychology of Propaganda-246 - I
Psychology of Religion-247
Psychology of Science-248
Psychology of Sex DilTcrences-249
Psychology of Sport -249
Psychopharmacology- 251
Psychophysics-2S3
Psych oph ysiology --25 3
Psychotechn ics-254
Psychotherapy-lS5
PsychOtoxkology- -256
Social Psychology - -29 1 )
Sociogenesill-293
Space Psychology. 297
Special Psychology 297
.147
-------- -
Developmental Psychology 74
Acceleration 5
Age- 15
Biogenetic Law -38
Cent ration . -43
Crises, Age - 66
Decent ration-69
Developmental Sensitiveness-74
Education-82
Egocentrism- 83
Gerontological Psychology- III
Imitation- 137
Infantilism, Persotlal - 141
Mental Development - 182
Next Development Zone-200
Ontogenesis-204
Play (Game,-225
Recapitul8lion-26I
Socialisation -292
Syncrelism-310
Diffcrential Psychology-76
Abilitie.s-4
Abilities. Speciflc-4
Character-43
Cognitive Style- 49 .
Ext roversion- Int roverSlon-9 7
Geniality-I 10
Giftedness- I 12
Inclinations- I]9
Individual- 1.19
Individual Style of Activity--140
Intellect - 147
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) - 148
Neuroli ci:;m -200
Personality Traits - 22l
PeTl>uasibility- 22 1
Talent -Jl2
Worry-331
Diffuenlial Psychophysiology .. 77
Choleric Per'>On 45
Dynamics of the -B I
Emotionality_ 86
Genotype.-- J II
I ndividuality- J 41
Induction of Nervous Procc\.'>CS- 141
Lability-161
Melancholic Person-178
MObilitY- l90
Phlegmatic Person-222
Properties of the Nervous Sys-
lem-231
Sanguine Person-273
Sensibilily-282
Strength or Ner-ious System- .103
Temperament-313
AnimaJ Psychology-20
Activeness. Orienting-9
Communication. Animal-54
Cues-68
Goal GradienT-I 14
Gradient-I 14
Group Behaviour of Animals 115
Imitation by Animals-13B
Impression-139
Imprinling-139
[nstlncl -1 45
InstinCTive Behaviour of Animals-146
Instrumental Actions of Animals-146
Intellect of Anima[s-1 48
Learning, Social-165
Learning by Animals-1M
Manipulation (by Animals)-171
Neurosis, Experimental-200
Orientating Reflex-207
Phylogenesis-223
Taxes-313
Taxon-313
348
Territorial Beha ... iour of Animals- -314
Tropisms - -321
Engineering Psychology- 89
Adaptation, Sen"Ory- 11
Afferent Synthesis- 14
Algorithm-16
Artificial Intel1ect- 24
Decision -M a king -69
Dialogue- 7 5
Homeostasis-I 27
Identification-132
Identification Features-134
Microstructural Approach-189
Modelling-191
Sensory Deprivation-282
Signal-287
SOlulion-295
Task-312
Medical Psychology_l77
Adaptation Syndrome-12
Analgesia_IS
AnxietY_22
Autohypnosis_33
CataJepsy_40
Depression_72
Distress-79
Frustration_ I 04
Iatrogenic Iliness-132
Mental Tension-184
Neuroses, Clinical-200
Pain-208
Placebo Effect-225
Psychedelic States_233
Psychedelics_233
Psychic State-234
Psychohygiene and Psychoprophyl_
aXls-237
Psychopha rmacolovv_ 251
Psydw\limulnnh 254
P\ydwtherap)' -255
P\)' chOloxicology- 256
Agents , 2.'i()
ScI( -Comfort , 276
- , 2Q6
Stress - -,10]
Stress Factor - -]04
Syndrome , J I I
-
Neuropsychology_ 199
Acalculia- S
Acti ... ation _ 8
Agnosia- 16
Agraphia-16
Alexia- 16
Amnesia-18
Aphasia - 23
Apraxia_ 24
Atrophy-28
Dementia_ 72
Echolalia- 81
Echopraxia_81
Euphoria-93
Hupermnesia_ 130
-
Localisation of Higher Mental Func-
tions-168
Paramnesia-209
Paraphasia_ 209
Perseverance_ 2lS
General PsychOlogy- I07
Abstraction_4
Acceptor of Action Result - 6
Action_7
Activeness_9
Activeness, Orienting-9
Activeness, Situationally Independ-
ent - 9
AClivity- 1O
I
I
I
I
-
Aclualisatioll II
Addilivcnc"-; ' 12
Affect 13
Afferent Synlhe-. i\ 14
After-Image 14
Ambivalence of Sentimenb- HI
Analogy- 18
Analyser - 19
Analysis- - 19
Anlhropogenesis - 21
Anthropomorph ism-- 22
Anticipating Renection- 22
Anticipalion- 22
Anxiely- 22
Apperception- 23
Association- 25
Attention-28
Attitude- 29
Automatism-33
Barriers, Psychological-34
Behaviour-34
Behaviour, Field-36
Brain-39
Brain_Storming-40
Categorisalion-41
Centration- 43
Cognitive Complexily-47
Cogni tive Map- 48 . "
"Collective Representations -51
Common Sense-52
Comparison- 55
Complex- 55
Comprehension-56
Concentration-57
Concept - 57
ConOict-58
Consciousness-
6
0
Constancy- 62
Conversion- 63
Creative Activity- 65
Cultural-Historical Theory-68
Decentration- 69
-
Deo.:i\ion-Making 69
Deduction -70
D:d 70
73
- -79
Drive-SO
Editism- S5
-
Emotional Experience - -85
Emotions- 86
Expressive Movements-96
Exteriorizat ion- 96
Fear- 99
Figure and Background-H)O
Field-99
Field Independence-99
Forgeuing-IOO
Generalisation- 108
Genotype-III
Gestalt-Ill
Goal-1I3
Goal Formation-I 13
Goal Gradient-I 14
Gradient-114
Hatred- 122
Higher MenIal Funclions-123
Hope-128
Hypermnesia-l30
Identification-132
Ideulification FealUres-134
Ideomotor Act-13..\
llIU5ions of Perceplion-134
Image-135
Imaginalion-136
Individual"":' 139
Induction-\"\l
Inference-I..\ I
Insight - 143
Inspiraton-144
Integrity of Perception- 147
Intellect-147
Intenlion- I..\9
Interest- ISO
350
Interference -151
Interference, 151
Imerference, Retroactive_ lSI
Interference, Select ive-152
Inleriorisation- 152
Intuition-IS'
Irritability-- 157
Irritant - 157
Theory of Emotions-
158
Joint Activities-159
Judgemem-160
Language_161
Lie Detector-161
Love-170
Meaning-175
Memorising_I 78
MemorY-179
Memory, Long-Term-180
Memory, Shorl-Term_181
Memory, Sensory_181
Menial Actions-182
Mental Dcvelopment_182
Microstructural Approach-189
Mind-190
Mimicry_190
M nemonics_190
MOod-I92
Motivation-J93
Motive-193
Motives. Justification of-194
Movements, Involuntary_194
Movements. Voluntary-19S
Need-l96
Ontogenesis_204
Operation-20S
Orientating ActivitY-206
Pantomimicry_208
Paramnesia_209
Passion-209
Perception-212
Perceptual Actions_214
-
Mt'lIning 217
PCnionality- 21 R
Penioniftcation --12 1
PhenOlYJ1C 222
Phylogeut!Si::. , -llJ
Pregnance--2l6
Probability Forccasting-l27
Problern-l27
Problem Situ8tion- -228
Projeclion-2.1 1
Psi -232
Psyche-232
Psychic 5181e- 234
- -
Psychological Institutions (in Ihe
USSR}-238
Psychological Inslrulllent_238
Psychological Journals (in the
USSR)-238
Psychological Research Equipmenl_
239
Psychological Service-2.JO
Psychological Time-240
Psychophysical Interaction_ 2S1
Psychophysical Parallelism_251
Psychophysical Problem- 252
Reaction Time-2S9
Reason and Intelligence-260
Recall-261
Recapitulation_261
Recognition_262
Recollection_262
Reflection_264
Reflexion_26S
Regression of Behaviour_266
Reminiscence_ 267
Repetition_268
Representations_268
Repression_268
Reproduction_269
Retention_270
Risk-270
Risky Shift-271
I
-
Self, Rl'!tulatlOn l7H
Sen\ation 1.79
Sell'c \If Humuur 1.HIJ
Scnw Oqpln\ 1.H I
Sl:I1\ibilit)' 2k1
Scntiment\" 28J
Sequence EfTt'(( 285
Set. ThcfJrY of - 185
Shame- -185
Sign 28{.
Signal 287
Situation- 287
293
Solution-- -295
Soul-296
Speciflc Doctrine- 298
Speech- 29S
Speech, Egocentric- 299
Speech, lnner-2Q9
Speech. Oral-J(}()
Speech, Wrillen 300
Stimulus-JOJ
Subconsciousness-JOS
Subject-30S . "
Subjective Semantic Space 305
Perception-306
The
Symbol-309
Sympathy-31O
Synaesthesia-310
Synthesis-311
Tachyswscope-312
Task-312
Thinking-3lS
Thinking, Creative-J l 7
Thinking. Intuitive- -J17
Thinking. Prncl ical-.117
Thinking, Theoretica '-:-J IS, 18
TI
- k- g Verbal-Loglral-
Hn In , . 318
Thinking. S
Thinking. Vlsuallmage- JI
Time-JIS
.1,S I
-
ToterarlCe JIIJ
A.;lion Etr1 (lei.
liarnik Effect) 321
VcrbaJ- .l2S
Will- 3211
YerknOOlhon Laws- ]12
Pathops),cOOlogy- -210
Abulia- 5
Accentuation of Charaocr-5

Asthenia-28
Delirium- il
Demenlia- 72

DepressiOll-72
Distraction-79
Euphoria-93
Fanalicism-98
Graphomania-I"
Hallucinations-I2l
Lie Telling-167
1
- ,
Stales- j _
Neuroses. Clinical-lOO
Obsessions- 203
Obsesshe Slates-203
Pathological Doubts-210
Phobias-222
P,,-chogenies-237
, .
Psychopathy-_CI
Psychosis-2S.J
Raving-2S9
Reactive States-260
Rigidily-l70
Sensitiveness-27I S
Supervalenl Ideas-3D
SYlldrome-311
Worry-331
352
Pedagogic Ps),chologl - 21 0
Assi milati oJl -2S
Associal ion-2S
Barrier. Scmamic-34
Capability- 40
Comprehension _56
Conflict- 58
Didactogeny_ 76
Educat ion - 82
E.-: ercise- 94
Forgeuing- rOO
Game. Business_ I 07
Generalisation _ 108
Imitation_ 137
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) - 148
IllIerference_ ISI
Learning_ 163
Learning Ability- 1M
Memorising_ i J 7
Mentall Actions- 182
Mnemonics- 190
Moti\ation_193
Next DevelopmeOi Zone-2oo
Orientating Activity-206
Orientating Basis of Action-206
Play (Game) -225
Primacy Effect-227
Problem-227
Problem Situation_228
Problem Training_229
Recall-261
Recency Effet-26 1
Re<:ognition_ 262
Repetition_268
Reproduction_269
Relention_270
SelfConlrol_277
Self Education -277
Self Passession-278
Sequence Effect - 28S
Situation- 287
-
Skill -288
Stepwise Forming of Menial Actions,
COlt cepl of 30 I
Task - 312
Transfer __ .no
Vocational Guidancc_ J26
VOI..' ational Orientation . 326
Psychol ingu ist ics- 23 7
Conversi0I1 _ 63
Dialogue_ 75
Language_ 161
Linguistic Relativity, Hypothesis of_
168
Sign- 286
Speech-298
Speech. Wrillen_3oo
PsychOlogy of Personality
Achievement Moti vatioll _ 7
Activeness of Personality_9
Activeness Siluationally Independ_
ent - 9
Alienat ion- 16
Altruism_ J 7
Ambition_ 18
Authoritarianism_ 32
Authority_ 33
Barriers, Psychological- 34
Behaviour, Aggressive- 35
Behaviour, Field- 36
Bias- 38
Characler_ 43
Cognitive Style- 49
Common Emotional Experience- 51
ConformitY_ 59
Conscience_ 60
Conviction_ 64
Courage_ 65
Decentralion_ 69
,
3SJ
--------
Defence, 71
Depersonalisation 12
Diligence - 77
Disposition 78
83
Egoism- 83
Emotionality- 86
Empathy- SS
Expressive- 96 .
Ex I e rna 1 ity - I n ternall! Y :-97
Ex I roversion - I n I rQverslon - 97
Field Independence- 99
Halred- 122
H umaneness- 129
Humour - 130
Identification- I 32
Implicit Theory of Personality-138
Individual- 139 , .
Individual Style of Actrvlly- l 40
Individuality-141
Induclor- 14 1
Infanlilism, Personal - 141
Informant - 142
Intention- 149 .
Keenness of Observ8tlon- 161
Leader (Manager) - 162
Level of Aspirations- l66
Locus of Conlrol-169
Love- 17D
Man- 171
Mood-l92
Motivation- 193
Negativism-197
Neuroticism-200
Obstinacy- 204
Passion- 209
Persistence- 2lS
Personal Construct - 2lS
217
Personalised Meanmg-
Personality- 218 . 221
Personality Orientatlon-
Personality 221
Propensi ty - 231
Recipient-262
Reflexion_ 26S
Regression of Behaviour - 266
Resoluteness-269
Rigidit y-270
Risky Shift- 271
Self- 27S
Self Actualisation- 27S
SelfA ppraisa 1- 2 76
Self -A wareness- 276
Self-Comfon- 276
Self.Concept- 276
Self-Determination of Personality
217
Self Educat ion - 27 7
Self -Possession-278
Self -Regu lalion - 278
Self -Suggestion-279
Sense of Humour-280
Sensitiveness-282 295
Socio-Psychological Competence-
Style of Leadership (Style of Mana-
gemenl)-30S
Subject-30S

Temperament-313

Value Orienlations-324
Psychology of LabOur-24S


Capability- 40


Invested Effort - IS7
Mental Tension- 1M
Professi onal Firnes5-:--229 40
Psychological Selectlon- 2
Psvchotechnics- -154
Sk"iII--288
Tiredne'lS-3l9
Vo ..:alional Guidance-J26
Vocational Orientalioll-J26
Work Capacily-J29
Psychomerry-249
Achievement Tests-7
Auilude Scale-3l
Cluster Analysis-46
Conterl! Anatysis-62
Correlalion Analysis-65
Creativity Tests-66
Criterion-Oriellled Tests-67
Dispersion Analysis-78
Factor Anatysis-98
Intelligence Tests-149
Inten'ening Variables_I53
Measuremelll (in psychology) -176
Personality Im'entories-220
Personality Tests-221
Projective Tesls-231
Questionnaire_157
Rating Scale-2S8
Regression Analysis-266
Reliability of a Test-267
Scale-273
Social Desirability-289
Statistical Methods-300
Validity-324
PsychotherapY_2SS
Autogenic Training_33
Behaviour Therapy_37
Catharsis-42
Complex-55
Defence, Psychological_ 71
Ego-83
Hypnotisation - 131
-
Inferiority (\'lIlplex
It! 15S
t.ihid(l- 167
Meditlllion 177
Modiftcation of Behaviour. JlH
Complcx 104
Persuasibility -22 1
Piny (Gnrnt') 22S
Projeclion- 231
Psychoanalysi,_ 235
Psychodra ma_236
Psychotherapy, Group- 2S5
Rapport -258
Regression of Behaviour_266
Relaxation_267
Repression_268
Self -Regulation_278
Self -Suggestion_ 279
--
Socio_ Psychological Training_295
Sublimatioll_306
Suggeslion-306
Superego-30S
T-Group_315
Transference_320
Psychophysics_253
Adaptation, SensorY_II
Afler-lmage_14
Bouguer-Weber Law-38
Irritability_ I 57
Irritant -157
ModalitY-- 191
Reaction Time-259
Reception _262
Sen!>atioll -279
Sensation Threshold_2S0
Sensibilisation_281
SensibilitY-282
Signal-287
Stevens' Law-302
Synacslhesia_310
Tolerance_ 319
,
,
-
Weber"Fechner Law- .12H
Psychophysiology _ 2.'1]
Acceptor of Action Re,ults- ()
AClivntiOIl- -8
Adaptation Syndrome 12
Afferent Synthesi s 14
Analyser-19
Brain - -39
Brain Biorhythms-40
Concentrat ion-57
Conditi oned Renex- -58
Detector-73
Dominant -79
Dreams-79
Dynamic Stereotype- 81
Effectors-84
Excitation-93
Functional State of the Cel1lral Ner-
vous System-I06
Galvanic Skin Response (GSKJ-107
Generalisation of a Conditioned
Reflex- l09
HabilUation-122
Homeostasis-127
Hypnosis-130
Induction of Nervous Processes-141
Inhibixion- 142
Inhibition, Conditione?-143
Inhibition, Extramargmal-142
Inhibition, Retroactive- 143
Inhibition, Uncondilioned-144
interaction of AnaJpers-150
Irradiat ion- 157
Modal ity- 19 I
Muscle Sensation- J 95
Nervous System-198
Neuron- 199
Operant Conditioning-20S
Orientating Reflex-;207
Probability Forecastmg-
227
Rea(tion- 259
Rea((ion Time - 259
Receplor 262
Reflex-266
Rernforcement_ 267
Second Signalling System- 275
Sense Organs -281
Si8nal-287
Signalling System. 287
Sleep--289
Somnambulism_296
SpecialisaTion of Conditioned Re-
flex-298
Slres.s-303
Stress Factor-304
Temporal Conne'nion-314
Unconditioned Reflex-322
Wakefulness-328
Social Psychology-291
Adjustment, Social-1 J
A rfiliation -I "
Association (in social ps)'chology) -26
Allitude-29
Attitude, Social-31
Attraction-31
AftribUlion, Causal-32
A uth oritarian ism-32
Authority-3J
Behaviour-34
Behaviour,
Beha,iour Therapy-37
Belief-37
Bias-38
Boomerang Elfecl-J8
Brain-Storming-40
Causal Scheme-42
Centration-4J .
ClimaTe. Socio-Psychologlca.I-45
Cognitive Balance, TheOries of-46
Cognitive Dissonance, Theory of-47
356
CollectiH'-- 49
Formation_50
Collectiye, -51
Collectil'ist SeJf-Dclermination -51
Common Emotional Experielln' -51
Communication (I )-52
Communication (2)-53
Comprehension_56
Conflict-58
Conformily-S9
Coruagion (in social psychology) -62
COni roJ, SociaJ-63
Corporation-64
Crowd-67
Decentralion-69
Economic Psychology-81
Efficiencr of a Group (CoileeliYe) -84
ExpeclatJOIIS_94
Fascination_98
Friendship_103
Group-1I4
Group COhesion-liS
Group Compatibility_I 16
Group Consensus_ll6
Group Diffuse_I 17
Group Formation_1 18
Group Integration_I 18
Group Large_I 19
Group Decision-Making_116
Group Normalisation_Jl9
Group Norms_ll9
Group, Official (Formal) -120
Group Orderliness_l2D
Group Polarisation_120
Group, Reference_121
Group, Small_121
Group, Unofficial (Informal) -121
Ha[o Effect-122
Harmony in Work-122
ColieCliYist_133
I mllallon_137
Ingroup Favouritism_142
Inhibition, So ..:illl 14-1
Intergroup I P
lruefjll;"r\llffaJ Chllil:l'\ Mo, .. -
153 ., lV8tlOn of
Illll'r('lt.'f\Olln I J IIleral.: t iOIl
Inlt'rpt.'r\onnl
Joillt Al.:livitie.o, 159'
Lender (Mnllager) 162
1()2
153
[53
LevI:'! of A.o,piraliolls, _ I 66
Lel-el of Group Dcv
e
l
o
pmellt_l66
Mass Communication_173
Mass 173
Mass Phenomena_173
ModifIcation of Behaviour_l92
Mood, PubJic-192
Negativism_ 197
Novelty Effect-201
Object of Reference Relationshin<_
201 ...
ing Relationships_20J
ObJe<:t-Value Unity of a Collective_
202
Opponent Set-206
Perception, Integroup_213
Perception, Interpersonal_214
Personality_ll8
Phatic Comunication_222
Political Psychology-226
Prejudice-226
Prestige-226
Primacy Effecr-227
of Propaganda-246
Publrc Opinion-2S7
RapPOrl-258
Recency Effecl_261
Referent iality_ 263
Reflexion_l65
Research Programme of a Scientific
CoJJective_269
Respondent_l69
RiSky Shift 27 1
I
1
I
RIM 271
Rumouf1- 171
SI:lI00[, 274
Self Perception 27/1
Sequence rJTect 2H5
"SignifIcant Other" 2li7
Social Facilitation 2KI)
Social Perception 290
Social Psychotherapy--292
Sociali,ation- -292
Socialisation, Political- -29]
Sociogram - 29.
Sociomerry-294
Socio- Psychological Training - 29S
Status-3D I
Stereotype. Social- -302
Stereotypes of Perception- 302

Style of Leadership (Style of Mana-
gement)-30S
Subject-30S
5uggC5tion-306
Sympathy-310
T-Group- 3IS
Value-324
Value-Orientational Unity-324
Work-Mediated Interpersonal Rela-
tionships, Theory of-329
Special Psychology-297
DefeclOlogy-71
01 igoph renopsychology - 204
Psychology of the Blind
Speech, DactyJoJogic- 299
Speech, Gesture- 299
5urdopsychology-308
Typhlopsychology- 32 1
Juridical psychology-IS9
Corrective Psychology-64
Criminal hi!
Ddiquent 71
Deviant Behaviour - 75
II" . ,
Foren\i!: P\ychological btpt"rt E1{II
mlnatron lUI
Foren\ic Psychology 101
IdentifICation 1.12
Methods of Psychology
Association 26
Contiguous-Motor Technique- -63
Experiment-95
Experiment, Forming- -96
Field Research-IOO
Galvanic Skin (GSR) - 107
Genealogical Methoo- 108
Genelic \iethod-IIO
Group Discussion, Method of- 117
Interview-154
Interview, CJinicaJ-154
Interview. Diagnostic-ISS
Introspection-ISS
Laboratory Experiment- 161
Longitudinal SlUdy-169
Method of Foster Children-184
Method of Semantic Differential 184
Method of Semantic Radical-IS4
Method of Twins-185
Methods of Animal PSychology-187
Methods of Personality Sludy-187
Methods of Ps)'chogenet1cS- 188
Modelling-191
Observation-202
Pictogram-2H
Pilot Study-224
Polar Proliles, Method of-226
population Method-226
Psychobiography-23S
Rating-258
Rating Scaling-2S9
Referentometric Method-264
-
.HS
Scaling 273
Sdf-Ob'l."nalion - 1711
Srlr-A.'counl 175
Sdf-Aprraisal- -lib
So..:iomrlry- m
Suney-- JOQ
Talk--312
TC'lling- 314
Trial and Error Mt"fhod-3Z0
Trends. Concept ions
and Schools in Psvchology
AnaJ)'ticaJ Psychology-20
Axsocialionism_ 27
Behaviouri.sm_36
eh arae IrroJogy _ 44
Chiromancy45
Cognili\'t" Balance. Theories of-46
Cognili\'c Dissonance. Theory of-47
Cognilin' P'ychologY_48
- Comple:< Approach 10 Man-56
CUlIural-HC:itorical TheorY_6S
Depth Psychology_71
Theory_ 78
Dynamic Psychology_80
Ego Psychology_8 ..
-
Emolioru.. (nformalion Theory of-87
Empirical
Epiphenomenalism_91
EXL"enlial AnaJysis_94
Existential Psycho[ogy_95
Freudiani.sm-_102
Freudo-Marxisrn_103
Funct ional Psychology_lOS
Functional Systems, Theory of . 106
Genelic Epblemology_I09
Geneva School of Genetic Psycholo_
gy-IIO
GcslaJ! PsychologY_III
Graphology __ 114
Group Dynamic,_118
- -- ----
Humanistic PsYCholog
y
_
Hllrmi( 128
Indil idtlilJ P,yrhoIO!t)" 140
I ntt'r8l'ti(ln ism 150
Inlro../'ll'([il'l' Psycholog
y
.. _ 155
Jtlr1h'sLange Theory of ErnOlions-_158
Leip1.ig SdlOol 165
LI'Tl'l of Movenu.'nt Construction, Can_
l't'pl of 167
Microotrul'tural Approach 189

Neo-Frcudianism_ 197
Paedology_207
Parapsychology_209
Personal Relat ionshi ps, Theory of_
216
Persollalism ,218
Phenomenalistic Psychology _ 222
Phrenology_22J
Ph )'Siogn om}' - 2:! 3
Physiology of Acliveness_224
Programme_Role Theory of a Scien.
tiflc ColJective_2JO
The Psychic as a Process-233
Psychoanalysis_23S
Reactology_260
Renexology __ 266
Sensualism_283
Set, Theory of _ 285
Sociometry __ 294
Spedflc Energies Doctrine-298
Stepwise For ming of Mental AClions,
Concept of- -]0 I
Strucl ural Psychology_ -304
TOPological Psychology -3 19
Psychologie_ -325
VOluntarism --327
Work-Mediated Inter personal Rela-
tion\hip\, Theory of- -J29
Wur1.hurg School - -33 1
Yoga .H2
-
I
,
J
j
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