Specific heat capacity of some common solids can be found in the table below:

Specific Heat - cp Product (Btu/lbmoF) (kcal/kgoC) Agate Aluminum bronze Aluminum, 0oC Antimony Apatite Arsenic Artificial wool Asbestos cement board Asbestos mill board Ashes Asphalt Augite Bakelite. wood filler Bakelite. asbestos filler Barite Barium Basalt rock 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.22 0.19 0.33 0.38 0.11 0.07 0.2 0.21 0.05 0.2 (kJ/kg K)

0.80 0.436 0.87 0.21 0.84 0.348 1.357 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.92 0.8 1.38 1.59 0.46 0.29 0.84

Specific Heat - cp Product (Btu/lbmoF) (kcal/kgoC) Beeswax Beryl Beryllium Bismuth Boile scale Bone Borax Boron Brass Brick, common Brick, hard Bronze, phosphor Cadmium Calcite 32 - 100F Calcite 32 - 212F Calcium Calcium carbonat Calcium sulfate 0.11 0.24 0.31 0.09 0.22 0.24 0.09 0.06 0.19 0.2 0.15 0.18 0.27 0.25 0.8 0.84 0.63 0.03 0.82 0.2 (kJ/kg K)

3.4 0.84 1.02 0.13 0.80 0.44 1 1.3 0.38 0.9 1

Specific Heat - cp Product (Btu/lbmoF) (kcal/kgoC) Carbon, Diamond Carbon, Graphite Carborundum Cassiterite Cement dry Cement powder Cellulose Celluloid Charcoal Chalk Chalcopyrite Charcoal, wood Chromium Clay Coal, anthracite Coal, bituminous Cobalt Coke 0.12 0.17 0.16 0.09 0.37 0.2 0.37 0.36 0.24 0.22 0.13 0.24 0.12 0.22 0.3 0.33 0.11 0.2 1 0.9 0.54 1 0.5 0.92 1.26 1.38 0.46 0.85 (kJ/kg K)

0.52 0.71 0.67 0.38 1.55 0.84

Specific Heat - cp Product (Btu/lbmoF) (kcal/kgoC) Concrete, stone Concrete, light Constantan Copper Cork, Corkboard Corundum Cotton Diamond Dolomite rock Duralium Earth, dry Electron Emery Fats Fiberboard, light Fiber hardboard Fire brick Fluorite 0.46 0.6 0.5 0.25 0.22 2.5 2.1 1.05 0.92 0.3 0.09 0.45 0.1 0.32 0.15 0.22 0.63 0.92 0.92 1.26 1.00 0.96 0.18 0.23 (kJ/kg K)

0.75 0.96 0.41 0.39 1.9 0.42

Specific Heat - cp Product (Btu/lbmoF) (kcal/kgoC) Fluorspar Galena Garnet Glass Glass, crystal Glass, plate Glass, Pyrex Glass, window Glass-wool Gold Granite Graphite Gypsum Hairfelt Hermatite Hornblende Hypersthene Ice -112oF 0.21 0.05 0.18 0.2 0.12 0.12 0.18 0.2 0.16 0.03 0.19 0.17 0.26 0.5 0.16 0.2 0.19 0.35 (kJ/kg K)

0.88 0.21 0.75 0.84 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.84 0.67 0.13 0.79 0.71 1.09 2.1 0.67 0.84 0.8 1.47

Specific Heat - cp Product (Btu/lbmoF) (kcal/kgoC) Ice -40oF Ice -4oF Ice 32oF (0oC) India rubber min India rubber max Ingot iron Iodine Iridium Iron, 20oC Labradorite Lava Limestone Litharge Lead Leather, dry Lithium Magnetite Malachite 0.03 0.11 0.19 0.2 0.217 0.21 0.03 0.36 0.86 0.16 0.18 0.13 1.5 3.58 0.67 0.75 0.43 0.47 0.49 0.27 0.98 (kJ/kg K)

1.8 1.97 2.09 1.13 4.1 0.49 0.218 0.13 0.46 0.8 0.84 0.908

Specific Heat - cp Product (Btu/lbmoF) (kcal/kgoC) Manganese Magnesia (85%) Magnesium Marble, mica Mercury Mica Mineral wool blanket Molybdenum Nickel Oliglocose Orthoclose Osmium Oxide of chrome Paper Paraffin wax Peat Phosphorbronze Phosphorus 0.33 0.7 0.45 0.21 0.19 0.21 0.03 0.12 0.2 0.11 0.2 (kJ/kg K)

0.46 0.84 1.05 0.88 0.14 0.5 0.84 0.272 0.461 0.88 0.8 0.130 0.75 1.336 2.9 1.88 0.36 0.80

Specific Heat - cp Product (Btu/lbmoF) (kcal/kgoC) Pig iron, white Pinchbeck Pit coal Plaster, light Plaster, sand Plastics, foam Plastics, solid Platinum, 0oC Porcelain Potassium Pyrex glass Pyrolusite Pyroxylin plastics Quartz mineral 55 - 212oF Quartz mineral 32oF (0oC) Red lead Red metal Rhenium 0.24 0.22 0.3 0.4 0.032 0.26 0.13 0.2 0.16 0.36 0.19 0.17 (kJ/kg K)

0.54 0.38 1.02 1 0.9 1.3 1.67 0.13 1.07 0.54 0.84 0.67 1.51 0.8 0.71 0.092 0.381 0.14

Specific Heat - cp Product (Btu/lbmoF) (kcal/kgoC) Rhodium Rock salt Rosin Rubber Rubidium Salt Sand, dry Sandstone Sawdust Selenium Serpentine Silica aerogel Silicon Silicon, carbide Silk Silver, 20oC Slate Sodium 0.3 0.33 0.056 0.26 0.2 0.21 0.19 0.22 0.21 0.48 0.22 (kJ/kg K)

0.24 0.92 1.30 2.01 0.33 0.88 0.80 0.92 0.9 0.33 1.09 0.84 0.75 0.67 1.38 0.23 0.76 1.26

Specific Heat - cp Product (Btu/lbmoF) (kcal/kgoC) Soil, dry Soil, wet Steatite Steel Stone Stoneware Sulphur, sulfur Tantalium Tar Tellurium Thorium Tile hollow Timber, see wood Tin Titanium Topaz Tungsten Uranium 0.21 0.04 0.24 0.47 0.88 0.17 0.117 0.15 0.35 0.05 0.2 0.19 0.17 0.19 0.35 (kJ/kg K)

0.80 1.48 0.83 0.49 0.84 0.8 0.71 0.138 1.47 0.21 0.14 0.63

Specific Heat - cp Product (Btu/lbmoF) (kcal/kgoC) Vanadium Vermiculite Vulcanite Wax Welding iron White metal Wood, balsa Wood, oak Wood, white pine Wool, loose Wool, felt Zinc 0.7 0.48 0.6 0.3 0.33 0.12 0.2 0.33 (kJ/kg K)

0.5 0.84 1.38 3.43 0.515 0.147 2.9 2 2.5 1.26 1.38 0.38

1 Btu/lbmoF = 4186.8 J/kg K = 1 kcal/kgoC T (oC) = 5/9[T (oF) - 32] T (oF) = [T (oC)](9/5) + 32

Steam Boiler
All of About Steam Boiler, Heat Exchanger, Energy and Power Generation

Coal Gasification
Gasification is a process of reacting solid fuel with air, oxygen, steam, carbon dioxide or mixtures of these gases which produce gases products that fit to its use both as source of energy and as raw materials of chemical industry. The gasification gas is known as Gas Producer.

Coal gasification means that reacting coal with one or mixture of air, oxygen, steam, and carbon dioxide to produce synthesis gas product. Synthesis gas is a gas that consisting of mixture of hydrogen gas (H2) and carbon monoxide gas (C0). Coal gasification is specific reaction; it means that this reaction can take place only on the condition of limited oxygen stoichiometry (60-70% stoichiometry). If this requirement is not met then the coal gasification will not occur. The reaction is shown in equations below: Decomposition: coal C + gas + tar Reduction : C + CO2 2CO2 C + H20 CO + H2 Shift reaction : CO + H20 CO2 + H2 Oxidation : C + O2 CO2 + CO C + O2 CO2 Metanasion : 2C + 2H2O CO2 + CH4 2CO + 2H2 CH4 + CO2 Before gasification reactions perform the equations above, coal will experience the process of drying and pyrolysis respectively. In addition, if the gasification process is done auto thermal, some coals should be burned to generate heat that is required by reduction reaction, pyrolysis, and drying. Gasifying agent type will determine the composition of gas producer. When air is used as gasifying agent, gas producer will contain lots of N2. Gas producer of this process is categorized as gas with low energy content (low Btu gas). Gasification with pure oxygen produces gas producer with medium hot combustion (medium Btu gas). Steam is often added to the coal gasification to increase H2content in the gas producer. Estimated reactions that may occur depending on the temperature and pressure in the gasifier and can be calculated from thermodynamic modeling which basically consists of mass balance, energy balance and thermodynamic relations. Thermodynamic modeling is used to estimate the composition of gas producer and fuel needs as well as gasifier per Nm3 of gas producers.

Figure 1:Diagram of Coal Gasification

Coal Gasification

Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle, or IGCC, is a technology that turns coal into gas - synthesis gas (syngas). It then removes impurities from the coal gas before it is combusted. This results in lower emissions of sulfur dioxide, particulates and mercury. It also results in improved efficiency compared to conventional pulverized coal

Below is a schematic flow diagram of an IGCC plant:

Block diagram of IGCC power plant, which utilizes the Heat Recovery Steam Generator The gasification process can produce syngas from high-sulfur coal, heavy petroleum residues and biomass. IGCC Sulfur Recovery Depending on the amount of sulfur in the coal, MECS Spent Acid Recovery or Wet Gas Sulphuric Acidprocesses can be used to produce sulfuric acid for sale. IGCC Emissions Reductions: MECS DynaWave is selected for IGCC Emissions Reduction applications due to the flexibility of its wet gas scrubbing technology. DynaWave can be designed to handle start-up, shutdown, and normal inlet gas variations such as flow rate and sulfur content. Advantages of the DynaWave in IGCC SO2 removal applications are:

excellent turndown, ability to handle very high SO2 inlet loading, high on-line availability small footprint

IGCC Energy Recovery IGCC affords many opportunities for energy savings. MECS Thermo-Z gas to gas heat exchangersused as combustion air preheaters provide an excellent means of recovering heat that would otherwise be lost to ambient surroundings.

IGCC Power Generation

Integrated coal Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) power plant is the most environmentally friendly coal-fired power generation technology. Most importantly, coal gasification offers the immediate opportunity to generate power with near zero greenhouse gas emissions and the pathway to a future hydrogen economy.

Description Coal gasification is the process of converting coal to a gaseous fuel through partial oxidation. The coal is fed into a high-temperature pressurized container along with steam and a limited amount of oxygen to produce a gas. The gas is known as synthesis gas or syngas and mainly consists of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is cooled and undesirable components, such as carbon dioxide and sulphur are removed. The gas can be used as a fuel or further processed and concentrated into a chemical or liquid fuel. Integrated gasification combined-cycle (IGCC) systems combine a coal gasification unit with a gas fired combined cycle power generation unit. The first stage is the coal gasification process as mentioned above. The second stage takes the cleaned gas and burns it in a conventional gas turbine to produce electrical energy, and the hot exhaust gas is recovered and used to boil water, creating steam for a steam turbine which also produces electrical energy. In typical plants, about 65% of the electrical energy is produced by the gas turbine and 35% by the steam turbine. In general the advantages of IGCC are:

It can achieve up to 50% thermal efficiency. This is a higher efficiency compared to

conventional coal power plants meaning there is less coal consumed to produce the same amount of energy, resulting in lower rates of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions

It produces about half the volume of solid wastes as a conventional coal power plant. It uses 20-50% less water compared to a conventional coal power station. It can utilise a variety of fuels, like heavy oils, petroleum cokes, and coals. Up to 100% of the carbon dioxide can be captured from IGCC, making the technology suitable carbon capture is easier and costs less than capture from a pulverised coal plant A minimum of 95% of the sulphur is removed and this exceeds the performance of most Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions are below 50ppm. This is lower than many of todays most The syngas produce from a gasifier unit can be burned in a gas turbine for electricity

for carbon dioxide storage.

advanced coal-fired generating units currently installed. advanced coal-fired generating units. generation, or used as a fuel in other applications, such as hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicles

Coal Gasification There are three basic gasifier designs used for coal gasification in IGCC plants.

Entrained flow gasifiers, Fixed bed (sometimes referred to as moving bed) gasifiers and Fluidised bed gasifiers.

Entrained flow gasifier Entrained flow is the most aggressive form of gasification, with the pulverised coal and oxidising gas flowing cocurrently. High reaction intensity is provided by a high pressure (20-30 atm), high temperature (>1400C) environment. Extremely turbulent flow sees the coal particles experience significant backmixing, and residence times are measured in seconds. Entrained Flow Gasification (EFG) is specifically designed for low reactivity coals and high coal throughput. Single pass carbon conversions are in the range of 95-99%. To experience smooth operation, the gasifier temperature must lie above the coal AFT or fluxes, which lower the melting temperature of the coal mineral matter, must be used. A number of system constraints impose an economic limit on gasification temperature at 14001500C.

Extremely high temperatures shorten refractory life.

Entrained flow gasifier

There is a limit to the heat that can be recovered from the raw fuel gas, without water quench A cost is incurred in providing oxygen and coal to sustain the gasifier

becoming necessary. temperature. Consequently, it may be necessary to add fluxes or blend high AFT coals to achieve good slagging characteristics at economic gasifier temperatures. Fixed Bed Gasifiers Fixed bed gasifier operate at 26 bar and closely resemble a blast furnace. Coal and fluxes are placed on the top of a descending bed in a refractory lined vessel. On moving downwards, the coal is gradually heated and contacted with an oxygen enriched gas flowing upwards counter currently. Pyrolysis, char gasification, combustion and ash melting occur sequentially. The temperature at the top of the bed is typically 450C, and at the bottom approximately 2000C. All coal mineral matter melts and is tapped as an inert slag. characteristics. Fixed bed gasifier offgas contains tars which must be condensed and recycled. The production of tars makes downstream gas cleaning more complicated than with other IGCC processes. The residence time of fixed bed gasifiers is between 30 minutes and one hour, which places stringent restrictions on the coals physical and chemical properties. Coal size distribution must be controlled to ensure good bed permeability. Excess fines can be injected with oxygen at the tuyeres or briquetted to maintain stable operation. BGL Fixed Bed Gasifier

Ash melt characteristics influence bed permeability, and fluxes may need to be added to modify slag flow

Long residence times mean that fixed bed gasifiers have a low throughput and hence have limited application in large scale IGCC plants. To ensure stable fluid bed operation, gasification temperatures are kept below the AFT of the coal. Above this temperature, particles become sticky and excessive levels of agglomeration will occur, resulting in bed defluidisation. Fluidised bed gasifier A fluidised bed reactor is a vessel in which fine solids are kept in suspension by a gas such that the whole bed exhibits a fluid like behaviour. This type of reacting system is characterised by high heat and mass transfer rates (increased reaction rates) between the solid and gas. In fluid bed gasification, rising oxygen enriched gas reacts with suspended coal at a temperature of 9501100C and pressure of 20-30 bar. High levels of back mixing result in fluid bed gasifiers having a uniform temperature distribution. The unusual characteristic of fluid bed gasifiers is that the majority of the bed material is not coal but accumulated mineral matter and sorbent (for in-situ

Fluidised Bed Gasifier

desulphurisation). Operating with a high inventory of inert bed material has a number of advantages:

The coal experiences high heat transfer rates on entry. The gasifier can operate at variable load (high turndown flexibility).

The low temperature operation limits the use of fluidised bed gasifiers to reactive and predominantly low rank coals. Most fluid bed gasifiers have a high level of entrained fines recycle to achieve 9598% carbon conversion. To reduce the size of the fines recycle stream, it has been proposed that the gasifier is linked with a fluid bed combustor (Air Blown Gasification Cycle). In this process, the coal is first gasified to 70-80% carbon conversion. The unreacted char is then fed to the combustor where generated heat is used for steam production. The gasifier-combustor combination enables the use of low reactivity, high Ash Fusion Temperature (AFT) coals in an IGCC system.