Course- BBA Subject code- BBA 301 Subject- Environmental studies Faculty- Roma Khanna Syllabus of unit 1 Introduction

to Environmental Studies: Introduction: Meaning, Definition and Scope of Ecology. Eco System Interaction between living and non living components, Structure and Function. Energy flow through ecosystem (Food Chain, Food Webs).

Unit1 Chapter4 Ecosystem

ThetermecosystemwasproposedbyA.G.Tansleyintheyear1935. AnEcosystemincludesagroupofbioticcommunitiesofaspeciesinteractingwithone anotherinanarea,andtheirsurroundingsandallthewaysinwhichtheyinteractwitheach otherandexchangingenergyandmatter. Anecosystemwasdefinedasadynamicentitycomposedofabiologicalcommunityandits associatedabioticenvironment. Thereexistnutritionalrelationshipamongthelivingorganism.Keepingthisinviewearth canbeconsideredasagiantecosystemwhereabioticandbioticcomponentsareconstantly actingandreactinguponeachotherbringingstructuredandfunctionalchangesinit. Plants soil Herbivores carnivores omnivores sun

Excretionanddecayproducts
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Kindsofecosystem
Anecosystemcanbenaturalorartificial,temporaryorpermanentandlargeortiny.Thus, variousconstituentsofecosystemfallintothefollowingcategories. 1NaturalEcosystem:Theseoperatebythemselvesundernaturalconditionswithoutant majorinterferencebyman.Basedupontheparticularkindofhabitatthesearefurther dividedasterrestrialandaquaticecosystem. i)TerrestrialSuchasDesert,Forest,Grasslandetc. ii)Aquaticecosystemwhichcanfurtherbeclassifiedas a)FreshwaterecosystemThesemaybelotic(runningwaterasspring,streams,rivers)or lentic(standingwateraslake,pond,pool,ditchetc). b)MarineecosystemTheseincludesaltwaterbodieswhichmaybedeepbodiesasocean, seaetc. 2ArtificialEcosystem:Thesearealsoknownasmanmadeormanengineeredecosystem. HumanshavemodifiedsomeecosystemsfortheirownbenefitsandtheseareArtificial Ecosystemi.etheyaremaintainedartificiallybyman.Theycanbeterrestrial(cropfield, gardenetc.)oraquatic(aquarium,dam,manmadepondetc.).

Structureandfunctionofecosystem Thetwomajoraspectsofanecosystemarestructureandfunction.Bystructurewe mean i) The composition of biological community imcluding species, number, life historyanddistributioninspaceetc.ii)Thequantityanddistributionofthenonliving materialssuchasnutrients,wateretc.iii)Therangeofconditionsofexistencesuchas temperature,lightetc. By function we mean i) The rate of biological energy flow ii) Biological regulation includingbothregulationoforganismbyenvironmentandregulationofenvironment byorganism. Structureofecosystem
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Therearetwocomponentsofanecosystem;Livingcomponentsandnonlivingcomponents. 1NonLivingComponents:NonlivingcomponentsarealsocalledAbioticcomponents.They directlyorindirectlyaffectthelivingcomponentsandinclude i) Physical factors and climatic conditions e.g. soil, temperature, light, moisture, wind , wateravailability Soil Soil contains a mixture of weathered rock fragments, soil mineral particle, organic matterandlivingorganism.Soilprovidenutrients,waterforphotosynthesis. Solarradiationsareusedtoheattheatmosphereandtoevaporateandtranspirewaterinto theatmosphere.Itisalsonecessaryforplantgrowth. Water availability Living tissue is composed of a very high percentage of water, upto and evenexceeding90%.Theprotoplasmcannotsurvivebelowthispercentage.Throughwater, mineralsaretranslocatedinplants.Itisalsonecessaryforphotosynthesis. ii) Inorganic substances such as water, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur imvolved in the cyclingofmaterialsintheecosystem.Theamountofinorganicsubstancesatanygiventime inanecosystemisdesignatedasstandingstate. 2LivingComponents:Theyarealsocalledbioticcomponents.Ecosytemsarecomposedofa variety of living organism. The plants, animals, microorganisms present in the ecosystem form the biotic component. These organism have different nutritional behavior in the ecosystem and are known as producers or consumers based on how they get their food. Producerscanproduceorganiccomponentse.g.plantscanproducestarch,carbohydrates, cellulose from a process called photosynthesis. Consumers are the components that are dependentonproducersfortheirfoode.g.humanbeingsandanimals. i)ProducersorAutotrophiccomponentAutomeansselfandtrophicmeansnourishingso thesearetheorganismwhichpreparetheirfoodthemselves.Theyconvertsolarenergyinto chemicalenergywiththehelpofsimpleinorganicsubstancessuchasH2o,co2andorganic substancessuchasenzymes.Therearebasicallytwokindsofautotrophs,chemoautotrophs andphotoautogrophs. a)Chemautotrophsarebacteriathatobtainenergybyoxidizinginorganiccompoundssuch asammonia,nitrites,andsulfides,andtheyusethisenergytosynthesizecarbohydrates.

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B)Photoautotrophsarephotosynthesizerssuchasalgaeandgreenplantsthatproduce mostoftheorganicnutrientsforthebiosphere. ii)ConsumersorHeterotrophHeteromeansotherandtrophicmeansnourishing.Theyare unabletoproduce,areconstantlylookingforsourceoforganicnutrientsfromelsewherei.e dependonothersfortheirfood. Theconsumersareofthefollowingtwomaintypes a)MacroconsumersThesearecalledphagotrophsandincludeorganismwhichimgestother organism.Dependingupontheirfoodhabitconsumersmaybeeitherherbivores,arnivores andomnivores. Herbivoreslivesonplantsandareknownasprimaryconsumers.Herbivoreslikegiraffeare animalsthatgrazedirectlyonplantsoralgae. CarnivoresAlsoknownassecondaryconsumersandtheyfeedonherbivores.Carnivores aswolffeedonotheranimals;birdsthatfeedoninsectsarecarnivores,andsoarehawks thatfeedonbirds. Omnivoresareanimalsthatfeedbothonplantsandanimals,ashuman. E.g.Bearseatfish,insects,deeraswellashoneyandgrass, Squirreleatinsects,birdseggaswellasfruits. b)Microconsumers Detritivoresareorganismsthatrelyondetritus,thedecomposingparticlesoforganic matter,forfood.Earthwormsandsomebeetles,termites,andmaggotsareallterrestrial detritivores. Nonphotosyntheticbacteriaandfungi,includingmushrooms,aredecomposersthatcarry outdecomposition,thebreakdownofdeadorganicmatter,includinganimalwaste. Decomposersperformaveryvaluableservicebyreleasinginorganicsubstancesthatare takenupbyplantsoncemore.

Relationships within ecosystem

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Functions of Ecosystem
Thestudyofecosystemcannotbecompletedwithoutthouroughlyunderstandinghowan ecosystemfunctionsandwhatkeepitinbalance.Fromtheoperationalviewpoint,theliving andnonlivingcomponentofanecosystemaresointerwoventhattheirseparationfrom eachotherispracticallyimpossible. Theproducersfixradiantenergyandwiththehelpofmineralstakenfromthesoil,buitup complexorganicmatter.Thetwoecologicalprocessofenergyflowandmineralcycling, whichinvolveinteractionbetweenthephysiochemicalenvironmentandthebiotic communities,maybethoughtofastheheartofecosystemdynamics.Severaltypesof biogeochemicalprocessestakesplaceinanecosystem.Thefunctionsofecosystemcanbe studiedinthefollowingforms EnergyflowFoodchian,Foodweb,Ecologicalpyramid Biogeochemicalcycles Energyflowinanecosystem Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external sources.Atthefirsttrophiclevel,primaryproducers(plants,algae,andsomebacteria)use solar energy to produce organic plant material through photosynthesis. Herbivores animals that feed solely on plantsmake up the second trophic level. Predators that eat herbivorescomprisethethirdtrophiclevel;iflargerpredatorsarepresent,theyrepresent still higher trophic levels. Decomposers, which include bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and insects,breakdownwastesanddeadorganismsandreturnnutrientstothesoil. Onaverageabout10percentofnetenergyproductionatonetrophiclevelispassedonto thenextlevel.Processesthatreducetheenergytransferredbetweentrophiclevelsinclude respiration,growthandreproduction,defecation,andnonpredatorydeath(organismsthat
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die but are not eaten by consumers). The nutritional quality of material that is consumed alsoinfluenceshowefficientlyenergyistransferred,becauseconsumerscanconverthigh qualityfoodsourcesintonewlivingtissuemoreefficiently.Thelowrateofenergytransfer between trophic levels make decomposers generally more important that producers in terms of energy flow. Decomposers process large amounts of organic material and return nutrients to the ecosystem in inorganic forms, which are then taken up again by primary producers. Energy is not recycled during decomposition, but rather is released, mostly as heat (this is what makes compost piles and fresh garden mulch warm). Figure shows the flowofenergy(darkarrows)andnutrients(lightarrows)throughecosystems.

Energyflowmodels Theflowofenergythroughvarioustrophiclevelsinanecosystemcanbeexplainedwiththe helpofvariousenergyflowmodels. UniversalenergyflowmodelenergyflowthroughanecosystemwasexplainedbyE.P odum.Astheenergyflowtakesplacethereisagraduallossofenergyateverylevel,thereby resultinginlessenergyavailableatnexttrophiclevel. Singlechannelenergyflowmodeltheflowofenergytakesplaceinasinglechannelplants orproducerstoherbivoresandcarnivores. Double `channel or y shaped energy flow model in nature, both grazing food chain and detritus food chain operate in the same ecosystem. However sometimes it is the grazing foodchianwhichpredominates.Ithappensinmarineecosystemwhereprimaryproduction intheopenseaislimitedandamajorportionofitiseatenbyherbivorusmarineanimals. Ontheotherhand,inaforestecosystemthehugequantityofbiomassproducedcannotbe

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allconsumedbyherbivores.Rather,alargeportionofthelivebiomassentersintodetritus compartmentintheformoflitter.Hencethedetritusfoodchainismoreimportantthere. Thetwochannelsoryshapedmodelofenergyshowsthepassageofenergythroughboth foodchaini.egrazinganddetritusfoodchain,whichseparatedintimeandspace.

Theflowofenergycanbebestunderstoodbyfoodchain,foodwebandthroughEcological pyramids. Foodchains CharlesEltonisapioneerofthestudyofanimalsandplantformsinnaturalenvironments, andoftheanimalbehavioraspartofcomplexpatternoflife.Hedefinesdtheconceptof foodchainandoriginatedtheconceptofecologicalpyramids. Foodiscontinuallybeingpassedthroughanecosystem.Withinanecosystem,nutrientsare recycled as living things go about their daily business of eating food and excreting waste products. All living things exist as part of a nutrient recycling chain an enormous chain definedbywhateatswhat.Thisiscalledthefoodchain. Thetransferoffoodenergyfromtheproducerthroughaseriesoforganism(herbivoresto carnivore to decomposers) with repeated eating and being eaten is known as food chain. Foodchainsarethepathwaysalongwhichnutrientspassthroughanecosystem. Producers utilize radiant energy of sun which is transformed to chemical form during photosynthesis. Thus, green plants occupy first trophic level or nutritional level and are calledtheprimaryproducers.Theenergystoredintheplantsinthenutilizedbytheplants eaters which constitute the secondary trophic level primary consumers (

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herbivores).Herbivoresaretheneatenbycarnivoreswhichconstitutethirdtrophicleveland secondaryconsumerswhicharetheneatenbytertiaryconsumers.

Therearetwotypesofchain 1Grazingfoodchain 2Detritusfoodchain GrazingFoodchainThisfoodchainisalsoknownaspreyPredatorFoodChain.Thistypeof food chain is generally seen in ecosystem such as grassland, pond or lakes where a substantialpartofthenetprimaryproductionisgrazedonbyherbivores.Examples: i)Foodchaininaforestcommunity: Radiantenergyofthesun>Greenplants>Ungulates>Tigers(Autotrophs) ii)Foodchainingrasslandecosystem: Radiantenergyofthesun>Grasses>Grasshopper>Frog>Snake>Hawk

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ii)DetritusfoodchainAlsoknownassaprophyticfoodchain.Thistypeoffoodchaingoes fromdeadorganicmatterintomicroorganismsandthentoorganismsfeedingondetritus andtheirpredators.Suchecosystemsarethuslessdependentondirectsolarenergy.These dependchieflyontheinfluxoforganicmatterproducedinanothersystem.

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DifferencebetweenGrazinganddetritusfoodchain Thedetritusfoodchaindiffersfromthegrazingfoodchaininseveralways:
o

The organisms making it up are generally smaller (like algae, bacteria, fungi, insects,&centipedes) The functional roles of the different organisms do not fall as neatly into categorieslikethegrazingfoodchain'strophiclevels. Detrivoresliveinenvironments(likethesoil)richinscatteredfoodparticles.As aresult,decomposersarelessmotilethanherbivoresorcarnivores. Decomposersprocesslargeamountsoforganicmatter,convertingitbackinto itsinorganicnutrientform.

SignificanceofFoodChain: 1) Food chains are important for maintaining & regulating population size of different animals&thusareinstrumentalinmaintainingecologicalbalance. 2) Food chain show a unique property of accumulation of certain chemicals. There are severalpesticides,heavymetals&otherchemicalswhicharenonbiodegradableinnature &arenotdecomposedbymicroorganisms.Theykeeponpassingfromonetrophiclevelto
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another& each successive trophic level, their concentration keeps on increasing their phenomenonisknownasbiomagnifications. Food Web: Food chains are interconnected with each other forming some sort of interlockingpattern,whichisreferredtoasfoodweb.Infoodwebthereareanumberof optionsofeating&beingeatenateachtrophiclevel. InFoodweb,therearenumberofoptionsofeatingandbeingeatenateachtrophiclevel. Thus, Food web is a set of interconnected food chains by which energy and materials circulate within an ecosystem. The food web is divided into two broad categories the Grazing fod web, which typically begins with green plants, algae or photosynthesizing planktonandthedetritalwebwhichbeginswithorganicdebris.Thesewebsaremadeupof individualfoodchains.

EcologicalPyramids:Graphicrepresentationoftrophicstructureatsuccessivetrophiclevels formingtheapexisknownasecologicalpyramids.Inecologicalpyramids,producerslevel constitutethebaseofpyramid. TypesofEcologicalPyramids: 1) PyramidofNumberShowingnumberofindividualorganismateachlevel. 2) PyramidofBiomassShowingthedryweight. 3) PyramidofEnergyShowingtherateofenergyflowsateachsuccessivelevel.

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Thepyramidofnumberandbiomassmaybeuprightorinvertedbutpyramidofenergy arealwaysupright. PyramidsofNumber They show the relationship between producers, herbivores and carnivores at successive trophiclevelsintermsoftheirnumber.Heretherewillbeagradualdecreaseinthenumber ofindividualsfromthelowertothehighertrophiclevels.Thismaybestudiedbytakingthe exampleoftrophiclevelsingrassland. The grasses occupy the lowest trophic level and they are abundantly present in the grassland ecosystem. The deers occupy the second level; their number is less than comparedtothegrasses. The wolves, which feed upon the deers, are far less in number when compared to the numberofdeers.Thelions,whichoccupythenexttrophiclevel,feeduponwolves,andthe numberofindividualsinthelasttrophiclevelisgreatlyreduced. Intheparasiticfoodchain,thepyramidofnumbersisfoundstobeinverted.Here,asingle plant or tree might support varieties of herbivore. These herbivores like birds in turn, supportvarietiesofparasiteslikelice,bugsthatoutnumbertheherbivores. Subsequently each parasite might support a number of hyperparasites like bacteria and fungi,whichwilloutnumbertheparasites.Thusfromtheproducerlevelonwards,towards the consumers, in the parasitic food chain there is a gradual increase in the number of organisms,insteadoftheusualdecrease.

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PyramidofBiomass: Theyarecomparativelymorefundamental,asthey,insteadofthegeometricfactor,shows thequantitativerelationshipsofthestandingcrops.Heretherewillbegradualdecreasein the biomass from the autotrophs to the higher trophic levels. This may be illustrated by studyingthetrophiclevelsinapond. The biomass in autotrophs like algae, green flagellates, green plants etc. is the maximum. Thebiomassisconsiderablylessinthenexttrophicleveloccupiedbysecondaryconsumers likesmallfishes.Theleastamountofbiomassispresentinthelasttrophiclevel. 1.Thispyramidshowsthetotalbiomassateachtrophiclevelinafoodchain. 2.Pyramidinerect. 3. It indicates a decrease in the biomass at each trophic level from the base to apex of pyramid. Example:Totalbiomassthanherbivores,whichisagainmorethancarnivorous.

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e.gForestecosystem carnivores Herbivores producers ThePyramidofEnergy

Theenergypyramidsgivethebestpictureoftheoverallnatureoftheecosystem. Heretherewillbegradualdecreaseintheavailabilityofenergyfromtheautotrophshigher trophic levels. In other words, there is decrease in energy flow from autotrophs on\ at successivetrophiclevels. Inthecourseofenergyflowfromoneorganismtotheother,isconsiderablelossofenergy intheformofheat.Moreenergyisavailableintheautotrophstintheprimaryconsumers. Theleastamountofavailableenergywillbeinthetertiaryconsumer.Therefore,shorterthe foodchain,greateristheamountofenergyavailableatthetop.

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1.Theenergypyramidalwaysuprightanderrect. 2.Itshowstherateofenergyflowsatdifferenttrophiclevels. 3.Itshowsthatenergyismaximumatproducerlevelandminimumatthecarnivores'level. 4.Ateverysuccessivetrophiclevelthereisalossofenergyintheformofheat,respiration etc.

Biogeochemicalcycles The cyclic flow of nutrients between nonliving environment (soil, rocks, air, water) and livingorganismsisknownasbiogeochemicalcycle.Themajornutrientelementi.e.carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, which form about 95% mass of the living organism, are circulatedagainandagainbetweenlivingandnonlivingcomponentsoftheecosystem. Organic materials synthesised by the producers are eaten and assimilated by the consumers. With the help of decomposers, all the organic materials in the bodies of the consumersareeventuallybrokendownintoinorganicmaterials.Thesearethenrebuiltinto organiccompoundsbythesyntheticactivitiesoftheconsumers.Thus,mattercirculatesin nature.Thoughitmayconstantlychangeit'sform,thereisnooveralllossorgain

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Nitrogen cycle -

Thenitrogencycleiscomplexasitdependsontheactivitiesofvariousbacteria.Nitratein thesoilisbuiltupbyplantsintoproteinwhichisthenpassedontoanimals,whicheatthe plants. The nitrogen from the protein is returned to the environment as ammonia (ammonification), either from excretory matter or through the action of decomposing bacteria on dead bodies. Various nitrifying bacteria convert the ammonia back to nitrate (nitrification).Thenitrifyingbacteriaplayanimportantroleinreplenishingtheenvironment with nitrate upon which plants are dependent for their protein. Another class of bacteria called denitrifying bacteria liberate free nitrogen from nitrate which leads to the pool of nitrogengasbeingbuiltupintheatmosphere.Someofthisnitrogenisconstantlyremoved bynitrogenfixingmicroorganisms,whichbuilditupintonitrateandultimatelyprotein.

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Carbon cycle TheatmospherecontainsapoolofCO2.CO2isremovedfromthepoolbythephotosynthetic activitiesofplants.Itisreleasedbackintotheenvironmentbyrespirationwhichiscarried out by all organisms including those microorganisms (decomposing bacteria) responsible for the decay of dead plants and animals. Not all dead material decays. Sometimes dead plants and animals form fossil fuels such as peat, coal, petroleum and petroleumbased gases. Man uses these materials as sources of energy and when they are burned CO2is returnedtotheCO2pool.

WaterCycle TheWaterCycle(alsoknownasthehydrologiccycle)isthejourneywatertakesasit circulatesfromthelandtotheskyandbackagain. TheSun'sheatprovidesenergytoevaporatewaterfromtheEarth'ssurface(oceans,lakes, etc.). Plants also lose water to the air (this is called transpiration). The water vapor
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eventuallycondenses,formingtinydropletsinclouds.Whenthecloudsmeetcoolairover land,precipitation(rain,sleet,orsnow)istriggered,andwaterreturnstotheland(orsea). Someoftheprecipitationsoaksintotheground.Someoftheundergroundwateristrapped betweenrockorclaylayers;thisiscalledgroundwater.Butmostofthewaterflowsdownhill asrunoff(abovegroundorunderground),eventuallyreturningtotheseasasslightlysalty water.

TypesofEcosystem Ecosystem can be broadly classified in to natural & artificial ecosystem. The natural ecosystemoperatesautomaticallyundertheactivitiesofnaturalconditions,buttheartificial ecosystemarecontrolled&manipulatedbyhumanbeings.Adetailedclassificationisshown below.
Natural Natural Artificial Ecosystem

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Marine Fresh Esturine Grassland Desert Forest Tundra Polar Aquatic Terrestrial

GrasslandEcosystem: Therabioticfactorsofthegrasslandbasicallyconsistsofthefollowing: Climate:

It is one of the most crucial aboitic factors that shape the ecosystem and includes rainfall, temperature, wind flow, ground moisture etc. Natural grasslands have a precipitaionof500900mmperyear,whereas,thedesertshavearainfallofabout 250mm/year.Thisrainfallmaintainsthemoistureandinteractswiththeabioticand bioticfactorsofthegrassland. The tropical rainforests, however, have rainfall of more than 2000mm per year. Grasslands can occur in high rainfall areas whereother growths are not that successfulduetoheavyrainfall. Theclimateofthegrasslandsrangefromcooltohotsummersandmayevenrangeto iceinwinterinhigherlatitudes.

Temperature has a wide spectrum of distribution throughout the world .the average temperatureofthegrasslandisform20Cto30C. BIOTICFACTORS

The biotic factors of the grassland ecosystem includes the autotrophs, and the heterotrophs, that is the producers, pirmary consumers, secondary consumers and thetertiaryconsumers. Primary producers:The primary producers include the autotrophs that can photosynthesize and includes the grasses, sedged, rushes, cyanobacteria. lichens, mosses,treesetc.

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Theprimaryandthesecondaryconsumersincludestherabbits,moles,hares,elks, small deers insome places along with the phytophagous insects , snakes, preying birds, insect feeders and in some grassland ecosystems like in Africa where there are carnivores like the panthers. lions, foxes, wild dogs, etc The bacteria , fungi and other microorganisms form the detritus food chain that is involvedinthenutrientcyclingofthegrassland.

PondEcosystem: Pond Ecosystem An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and the nonliving environment, interacting as a functional unit. Remember that the organisms living in an ecosystem are broken down into categories: producers, consumers, and decomposers. A pond is a quiet body of water that is too small for wave actionandtooshallowformajortemperaturedifferencesfromtoptobottom.Itusuallyhas amuddyorsiltybottomwithaquaticplantsaroundtheedgesandthroughout.However,it isoftendifficulttoclassifythedifferencesbetweenapondandalake,sincethetwoterms are artificial and the ecosystems really exist on a continuum. Generally, in a pond, the temperaturechangeswiththeairtemperatureandisrelativelyuniform.Lakesaresimilarto ponds, but because they are larger, temperature layering or stratification takes place in summer and winter, and these layers turnover in spring and fall. Ponds get their energy fromthesun.Aswithotherecosystems,plantsaretheprimaryproducers.Thechlorophyll in aquatic plants captures energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water to organic compounds and oxygen through the process of photosynthesis. Nitrogen and phosphorus are important nutrients for plants. The addition of these substances may increaseprimaryproductivity.However,toomanynutrientscancausealgalblooms,leading toeutrophication(ReadPonds&Eutrophicationformoreinformation). Producers Phytoplankton,literallywanderingplants,aremicroscopicalgaethatfloatintheopen waterandgiveitagreenappearance.Theycarryoutphotosynthesisusingcarbondioxide thatisdissolvedinthewaterandreleaseoxygenthatisusedbythebacteriaandanimalsin thepond. Periphyticalgaearemicroscopicalgaethatattachthemselvestosubstratesand givetherocksandsticksagreenishbrownslimyappearance.Theyalsocarryout photosynthesisandproduceoxygen,oftennearthebottomofthepondwhereitcanbe usedbydecomposers. Submergedplantsgrowcompletelyunderwater Floatingplantsincludeplantsthatfloatonthesurfaceandplantsthatarerootedonthe bottomofthepondbuthaveleavesand/orstemsthatfloat.
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Emergentplantsarerootedinshallowwaterbuttheirstemsandleavesareabovewater mostofthetime. Shoreplantsgrowinwetsoilattheedgeofthepond. Consumers Zooplanktonaremicroscopicanimalsthateatphytoplanktonorsmallerzooplankton.Some aresinglecelledanimals,tinycrustaceans,ortinyimmaturestagesoflargeranimals. Zooplanktonsfloataboutintheopenwaterportionsofthepondandareimportantfoodfor someanimals. Invertebratesincludeallanimalswithoutbackbones.Macroinvertebratesarebigenoughto beseenwiththenakedeye.Someofthemareonlyfoundincleanwater. Vertebratesareanimalswithbackbones.Inapondthesemightincludefish,frogs, salamanders,andturtles. Decomposers Animalwasteanddeadanddecayingplantsandanimalsformdetritusonthebottomofthe pond.Decomposers,alsoknownasdetritovores,arebacteriaandotherorganismsthat breakdowndetritusintomaterialthatcanbeusedbyprimaryproducers, thusreturningthedetritustotheecosystem.Asthismaterialdecomposesitcanserveasa foodresourceformicrobesandinvertebrates.Duringdecaymicrobeslivingondetrituscan pullnutrientsfromtheoverlyingwaterthusactingtoimprovewaterquality.Intheprocess ofbreakingdowndetritus,decomposersproducewaterandcarbondioxide.

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ForestEcosystem: AbioticComponents:Itconsisttheorganic&inorganicsubstancespresentinthesoil&the atmosphere.Mineralsarefoundinforestsaredeadorganicmatter&lightconditionsare differentduetocomplexstratificationofplantcommunities. BioticComponents:Theorderoffoodchaininforestecosystemamonglivingorganismare givenbelow Producers:Theproducersaretreesofdifferentkindsdependinguponthekindsofforest formationdevelopinginthatclimate.Theshrubs&groundvegetationarealsopresentin thatarea. Consumers: PrimaryConsumers:Primaryconsumersareherbivoresthatincludetheanimalsfeedingon treeleaves,orfruitofproducerlikeant,bugsspider,deer,giraffes,elephantsetc.
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SecondaryConsumers:Thesearethecarnivoreslikesnake,birds,lizard,wolfandfoxetc. feedingonherbivores. TertiaryConsumers:Thesearetopcarnivoreslikelion,tigeretcwhichdependupon secondaryconsumers. Decomposers:Awidevarietyofdecomposerspresentinforestecosystemlikefungi, bacteriaetc.

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References www.ecostudies.org/chp/module1/1b3_pond_ecosystem_reading.pdf ptuas.loremate.com/evs/node/4 globecarboncycle.unh.edu/CarbonCycleBackground.pdf www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/.../earth/Watercycle.shtml Shrivastava,Smita,Environmentandecology,S.K.Katariaandsonspublisher,secondEdition, 2009. KaushikAnubhaandKaushikC.P.,Environmentalstudies,NewAgeInternationalpublishers, ThirdEdiion,2008. Benny Joseph , Environmental Studies, Tata McGraw Hill, Second Edition, 2005

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