Description of Components 1.

8051 Microcontroller :

The Intel 8051 is a single chip microcontroller (C) . Intel's original 8051 family was developed using NMOS technology, but later versions, identified by a letter "C" in their name, e.g. 80C51, used CMOS technology and were less power-hungry than their NMOS predecessors - this made them eminently more suitable for battery-powered devices. A particularly useful feature of the 8051 core is the inclusion of a Boolean processing engine which allows bit-level Boolean logic operations to be carried out directly and efficiently on internal registers and RAM. This feature helped to cement the 8051's popularity in industrial control applications. Another valued feature is that it has four separate register sets, which can be used to greatly reduce interrupt latency compared to the more common method of storing interrupt context on a stack. 8051 based microcontrollers typically include one or two UARTs, two or three timers, 128 or 256 bytes of internal data RAM (16 bytes of which are bit-addressable), up to 128 bytes of I/O, 512 bytes to 64 kB of internal program memory, and sometimes a quantity of extended data RAM (ERAM) located in the external data space.

Important features of 8051

1. It provides many functions (CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O, interrupt logic, timer, etc.) in a single package

2. 8-bit data bus - It can access 8 bits of data in one operation (hence it is an 8-bit microcontroller)

3. 16-bit address bus - It can access 216 memory locations - 64 kB each of RAM and ROM

4. On-chip RAM - 128 bytes ("Data Memory")

5. On-chip ROM - 4 kB ("Program Memory")

6. Four byte bi-directional input/output port

7. UART (serial port)

8. Two 16-bit Counter/timers

8. Two-level interrupt priority

10. Power saving mode

. LCD (16X2 Lines)

The 2 line x 16 character LCD modules are available from a wide range of manufacturers. LCDs have become very popular over recent years for information display in many smart appliances. They are usually controlled by microcontrollers. They make complicated equipment easier to operate.

LCDs come in many shapes and sizes but the most common is the 16 character x 2 line display with no back light. It requires only 11 connections eight bits for data (which can be reduced to four if necessary) and three control lines (we have only used two here). It runs off a 5V DC supply and only needs about 1mA of current. The display contrast can be varied by changing the voltage into pin 3 of the display, usually with a trimpot.

4. IR Transmitter & Receiver:

Several motherboards have the necessary hardware for the installation of an infrared transmitter/receiver, requiring only the installation of a module containing the infrared sensor. The great problem, however, is that this module is not easily found in the market and, when it is, its price is high. IR LED is being driven by a 38 KHz oscillator. The oscillator is using a IC 555 timer to generate the square waveform. IC555 is very robust and easily available IC. The Frequency generated by 555 is adjustable and can be fine tuned to match with receiver.

2. Voltage Regulator (7805) Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or Voltage regulator Photograph

variable output voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current they can pass. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection'). Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs have 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. They include a hole for attaching a heatsink if necessary.

Features :

1. 2. 3. 4.

Internal thermal overload protection No external components required Output transistor safe area protection Internal short circuit current limit

Voltage :

1. 7805..5V 2. 7812.12V 3. 7815.15V

3. D.C. motor :An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Principle: It is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming's Left-hand rule and whose magnitude is given by Force, F = B I l newton Where B is the magnetic field in weber/m2. I is the current in amperes and l is the length of the coil in meter. The force, current and the magnetic field are all in different directions. If an Electric current flows through two copper wires that are between the poles of a magnet, an upward force will move one wire up and a downward force will move the other wire down.

Figure 1: Force in DC Motor

Figure 2 : Magnetic Field in DC Motor

Figure 3 : Torque in DC Motor

Figure 4 : Current Flow in DC Motor

The loop can be made to spin by fixing a half circle of copper which is known as commutator, to each end of the loop. Current is passed into and out of the loop by brushes that press onto the strips. The brushes do not go round so the wire do not get twisted. This arrangement also makes sure that the current always passes down on the right and back on the left so that the rotation continues. This is how a simple Electric motor is made.

The Stepper Motor

The stepper motor operation is directly related to the following points:

The motors rotation has several direct relationships to the applied pulses.

The sequence of applied pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shaft rotation.

The speed of the motor shaft rotation is directly related to the frequency of the input pulses.

The length of rotation is directly related to the number of input pulses applied.

The motor operates whenever command is given from the computer. It is a four-phase DC motor. When the command for rotating right or left is given, the micro controller supplies power to each of the four winding sequentially in steps. Thus, the motor rotates accordingly. However, the output of the micro controller is only +5 Volts. Which is not sufficient to drive the motor. This needs to be amplified to make it useful for the motor. That is why, the signal is first passed through a driver circuit (NPN General Purpose Amplifier 845c). The voltage gain of this driver circuit is unity, but the current gain is times for each transistor. Now, this current amplified signal is made to pass through a

power circuit (407), where it is voltage amplified and made influential enough to operate the stepper motor. since, the stepper motor has four windings, and each winding needs to be controlled individually, the controller sends signal for each winding through a separate pin and therefore, each signal is provided with a separate pair of driver and power circuit.

A major question arising is why the use of stepper motor and not the servo motor, since, the servomotor has the distinct advantage of operating both in AC and DC. Well, following are the advantages of the stepper motor:

The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.

The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized).

Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motors have an accuracy of 3 - 5% of a step and this error is non cumulative from one step to the next.

Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.

Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life of the motor is simply dependant on the life of the bearing.

The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the motor simpler and less costly to control.

It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly coupled to the shaft.

A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized, as the speed is proportional to the frequency of the input pulses.

Less cost.

Degree of rotation is a function of their construction and therefore consistent.

No feedback is necessary for positional or speed control.

Any errors present are non-cumulative.

Still however, the choice between the two depends on the application for which they are being used. But the economical operation of the stepper motor makes it a synthesisers first choice.

Four phase stepper motor operating circuit

Stepper Motor Controlling Circuit

An operational amplifier, which is often called an op-amp, is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs and, usually, a single output.[1] Typically the output of the op-amp is controlled either by negative feedback, which largely determines the magnitude of its output voltage gain, or by positive feedback, which facilitates regenerative gain and oscillation. High input impedance at the input terminals (ideally infinite) and low output impedance (ideally zero) are important typical characteristics. Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small quantities. Modern designs are electronically more rugged than earlier implementations and some can sustain direct short circuits on their outputs without damage. The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with 2 outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from 3 op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but which works fine with common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from 1 or more op-amps and a resistive feedback network). [edit] Applications

DIP pinout for 741-type operational amplifier

Main article: Operational amplifier applications

[edit] Use in electronics system design

The use of op-amps as circuit blocks is much easier and clearer than specifying all their individual circuit elements (transistors, resistors, etc.), whether the amplifiers used are integrated or discrete. In the first approximation op-amps can be used as if they were ideal differential gain blocks; at a later stage limits can be placed on the acceptable range of parameters for each op-amp. Circuit design follows the same lines for all electronic circuits. A specification is drawn up governing what the circuit is required to do, with allowable limits. For example, the gain may be required to be 100 times, with a tolerance of 5% but drift of less than 1% in a specified temperature range; the input impedance not less than 1 megohm; etc. A basic circuit is designed, often with the help of circuit modeling (on a computer). Specific commercially available op-amps and other components are then chosen that meet the design criteria within the specified tolerances at acceptable cost. If not all criteria can be met, the specification may need to be modified. A prototype is then built and tested; changes to meet or improve the specification, alter functionality, or reduce the cost, may be made.

[edit] Positive feedback configurations

Another typical configuration of op-amps is the positive feedback, which takes a fraction of the output signal back to the non-inverting input. An important application of it is the comparator with hysteresis (i.e., the Schmitt trigger).

[edit] Basic single stage amplifiers

[edit] Non-inverting amplifier

An op-amp connected in the non-inverting amplifier configuration The general op-amp has two inputs and one output. The output voltage is a multiple of the difference between the two inputs (some are made with floating, differential outputs):

G is the open-loop gain of the op-amp. The inputs are assumed to have very high impedance; negligible current will flow into or out of the inputs. Op-amp outputs have very low source impedance. If the output is connected to the inverting input, after being scaled by a voltage divider:

then:

, where G > Solving for Vout /

Vin, we see that the result is a linear amplifier with gain:

If G is very large,

comes close to

[edit] Inverting amplifier

Because it does not require a differential input, this negative feedback connection was the most typical use of an op-amp in the days of analog computers.[citation needed] It remains very popular,[citation needed] but many different configurations are possible, making it one of the most versatile of all electronic building blocks.

An op-amp connected in the inverting amplifier configuration By applying KCL at the inverting input,

However, because the input current into any operational amplifier is assumed to be zero,

and so

By applying KVL at the output,

However, because the operational amplifier is in a negative-feedback configuration, the inverting input v can be assumed to match the non-inverting input v + . In particular,

and so v is a virtual ground. Therefore,

Hence, closed loop gain

[6]

Some Variations: o A resistor is often inserted between the non-inverting input and ground (so both inputs "see" similar resistances), reducing the input offset voltage due to different voltage drops due to bias current, and may reduce distortion in some op-amps. o A DC-blocking capacitor may be inserted in series with the input resistor when a frequency response down to DC is not needed and any DC voltage on the input is unwanted. That is, the capacitive component of the input impedance inserts a DC zero and a low-frequency pole that gives the circuit a bandpass or high-pass characteristic.

[edit] Circuit notation

Circuit diagram symbol for an op-amp The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown to the right, where:

V + : non-inverting input V : inverting input Vout: output VS + : positive power supply VS : negative power supply

The power supply pins (VS + and VS ) can be labeled in different ways (See IC power supply pins). Despite different labeling, the function remains the same to provide additional power for amplification of signal. Often these pins are left out of the diagram for clarity, and the power configuration is described or assumed from the circuit. [edit] Operation The amplifier's differential inputs consist of V + input and a V input, and generally the op-amp amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two. This is called the differential input voltage. Operational amplifiers are usually used with feedback loops where the output of the amplifier would influence one of its inputs. The output voltage and the input voltage it influences settles down to a stable voltage after being connected for some time, when they satisfy the internal circuit of the op amp. In its most common use, the op-amp's output voltage is controlled by feeding a fraction of the output signal back to the inverting input. This is known as negative feedback. If that fraction is zero (i.e., there is no negative feedback) the amplifier is said to be running open loop and its output is the differential input voltage multiplied by the total gain of the amplifier, as shown by the following equation:

where V + is the voltage at the non-inverting terminal, V is the voltage at the inverting terminal and G is the total open-loop gain of the amplifier.

Since the magnitude of the open-loop gain is typically very large, open-loop operation results in op-amp saturation (see below in Nonlinear imperfections) unless the differential input voltage is extremely small. Finley's law states that "When the inverting and noninverting inputs of an op-amp are not equal, its output is in saturation." Additionally, the precise magnitude of this gain is not well controlled by the manufacturing process, and so it is impractical to use an operational amplifier as a stand-alone differential amplifier. Instead, op-amps are usually used in negative-feedback configurations. Most single, dual and quad op-amps available have a standardized pin-out which permits one type to be substituted for another without wiring changes. A specific op-amp may be chosen for its open loop gain, bandwidth, noise performance, input impedance, power consumption, or a compromise between any of these factors.

[edit] Ideal op-amp

Equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier. Shown on the right is an example of an ideal operational amplifier. The main part in an amplifier is the dependent voltage source that increases in relation to the voltage drop across Rin, thus amplifying the voltage difference between V + and V . Many uses have been found for operational amplifiers and an ideal op-amp seeks to characterize the physical phenomena that make op-amps useful. Supply voltages Vcc + and Vcc are used internally to implement the dependent voltage sources. The positive source Vs + acts as an upper bound on the output, and the negative source Vs acts as a lower bound on the output. The internal Vs + and Vs connections are not shown here and will vary by implementation of the operational amplifier. For any input voltages, an ideal op-amp has the following properties:

Infinite open-loop gain (i.e., when doing theoretical analysis, limit should be taken as open loop gain Gopenloop goes to infinity) Infinite bandwidth (i.e., the frequency magnitude response is flat everywhere with zero phase shift). Infinite input impedance (i.e., , and so zero current flows from V + to V) Zero input current (i.e., there is no leakage or bias current into the device) Zero input offset voltage (i.e., when the input terminals are shorted so that V + = V , the output is a virtual ground). Infinite slew rate (i.e., the rate of change of the output voltage is unbounded) and power bandwidth (full output voltage and current available at all frequencies). Zero output impedance (i.e., Rout = 0, and so output voltage does not vary with output current) Zero noise Infinite Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) Infinite Power supply rejection ratio for both power supply rails.

Because of these properties, an op-amp can be modeled as a nullor. The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer and multivibrator applications. The IC was designed and invented by Hans R. Camenzind. It was designed in 1970 and introduced in 1971 by Signetics (later acquired by Philips). The original name was the SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine".[1] The 555 gets its name from the three 5-kohm resistors used in typical early implementations. [2] It is still in wide use, thanks to its ease of use, low price and good stability. As of 2003[update], 1 billion units are manufactured every year.[citation needed] Depending on the manufacturer, it includes over 20 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8).[3] The 556 is a 14-pin DIP that combines two 555s on a single chip. The 558 is a 16-pin DIP that combines four slightly modified 555s on a single chip (DIS & THR are connected internally, TR is falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive). Also available are ultra-low power versions of the 555 such as the 7555 and TLC555.[4] The 7555 requires slightly different wiring using fewer external components and less power. The 555 has three operating modes:

Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot". Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc

Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation, etc. Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bouncefree latched switches, etc.

NE555 from Signetics in dual-in-line package

Internal schematics

[edit] Usage

Schematic symbol

The connection of the pins is as follows: Nr Name . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 GND TR Q R CV THR DIS Ground, low level (0V) A short pulse high low on the trigger starts the timer During a timing interval, the output stays at +VCC A timing interval can be interrupted by applying a reset pulse to low (0V) Control voltage allows access to the internal voltage divider (2/3 VCC) The threshold at which the interval ends (it ends if U.thr 2/3 VCC) Connected to a capacitor whose discharge time will influence the timing interval

Purpose

V+, VCC The positive supply voltage which must be between 3 and 15 V

Schematic of a 555 in monostable mode [edit] Monostable mode In the monostable mode, the 555 timer acts as a one-shot pulse generator. The pulse begins when the 555 timer receives a trigger signal. The width of the pulse is determined by the time constant of an RC network, which consists of a capacitor (C) and a resistor (R). The pulse ends when the charge on the C equals 2/3 of the supply voltage. The pulse

width can be lengthened or shortened to the need of the specific application by adjusting the values of R and C.[5] The pulse width of time t is given by

which is the time it takes to charge C to 2/3 of the supply voltage. See RC circuit for an explanation of this effect. The relationships of the trigger signal, the voltage on the C and the pulse width are shown below:

Diagram of waveforms of 555 in monostable mode [edit] Astable mode

Standard 555 Astable Circuit In astable mode, the '555 timer' outputs a continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a specified frequency. A resistor (call it R1) is connected between Vcc and the discharge pin (pin 7) and another (R2) is connected between the discharge pin (pin 7) and the trigger (pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common node. Hence the capacitor

is charged through R1 and R2, and discharged only through R2, since pin 7 has low impedance to ground during output low intervals of the cycle, therefore discharging the capacitor. The use of R2 is mandatory, since without it the high current spikes from the capacitor may damage the internal discharge transistor. In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the values of R1, R2 and C:
[6]

The high time from each pulse is given by

and the low time from each pulse is given by

where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor in farads. [edit] Specifications These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555 timers can have better specifications depending on the grade (military, medical, etc). Supply voltage (VCC) Supply current (VCC = +5 V) Supply current (VCC = +15 V) Output current (maximum) Power dissipation Operating temperature 4.5 to 15 V 3 to 6 mA 10 to 15 mA 200 mA 600 mW 0 to 70 C

ADC0801/ADC0802/ADC0803/ADC0804/ADC0805

8-Bit P Compatible A/D Converters

ADC0804

General Description

The ADC0801, ADC0802, ADC0803, ADC0804 and ADC0805 are CMOS 8-bit successive approximation A/D converters that use a differential potentiometric ladder similar to the 256R products. These converters are designed to allow operation with the NSC800 and INS8080Aderivative control bus with TRI-STATE output latches directly driving the data bus. These A/Ds appear like memory locationsor I/O ports to the microprocessor and no interfacing logic is needed. Differential analog voltage inputs allow increasing the common-mode rejection and offsetting the analog zero input voltage value. In addition, the voltage reference input can be adjusted to allow encoding any smaller analog voltage span to the full 8 bits of resolution.

Features

Compatible with 8080 P derivativesno interfacing logic needed - access time 135 ns

Easy interface to all microprocessors, or operates stand alone Differential analog voltage inputs Logic inputs and outputs meet both MOS and TTL voltage level specifications Works with 2.5V (LM336) voltage reference On-chip clock generator 0V to 5V analog input voltage range with single 5V supply No zero adjust required

0.3" standard width 20-pin DIP package 20-pin moulded chip carrier or small outline package Operates ratio metrically or with 5 VDC, 2.5 VDC, or analog span adjusted voltage reference

Key Specifications

Resolution 8 bits Total error 1/4 LSB, 1/2 LSB and 1 LSB Conversion time 100 s

Connection Diagram

4. Max 232:-

Now that we have the 8 bit value in the 8051, we want to send that value to the PC. The 8051 has a built in serial port that makes it very easy to communicate with the PC's serial port but the 8051 outputs are 0 and 5 volts and we need +10 and -10 volts to meet the RS232 serial port standard. The easiest way to get these values is to use the MAX232. The MAX232 acts as a buffer driver for the processor. It accepts the standard digital logic values of 0 and 5 volts and converts them to the RS232 standard of +10 and -10 volts. It

also helps protect the processor from possible damage from static that may come from people handling the serial port connectors.

The MAX232 requires 5 external 1uF capacitors. These are used by the internal charge pump to create +10 volts and -10 volts. For the first capacitor, the negative leg goes to ground and the positive leg goes to pin 16. For the second capacitor, the negative leg goes to 5 volts and the positive leg goes to pin 2. For the third capacitor, the negative leg goes to pin 3 and the positive leg goes to pin 1. For the fourth capacitor, the negative leg goes to pin 5 and the positive leg goes to pin 4. For the fifth capacitor, the negative leg goes to pin 6 and the positive leg goes to ground. The MAX232 includes 2 receivers and 2 transmiters so two serial ports can be used with a single chip. We will only use one transmiter for this project. The only connection that must be made to the 2051 is one jumper from pin 3 of the 2051 to pin 11 of the MAX232. To power the MAX232 : Connect pin 16 to 5 volts. Connect pin 15 to ground. The only thing left is that we need some sort of connector to connect to the serial port. The sample code below is written for Comm1 and most computers use a 9 pin DB9 male connector for Comm1 so a 9 pin female connector is included for this project. You may also want to buy a DB9 extension cable (Shown on order form as DB9 to DB9 cable) to make the connection easier. There should be 3 wires soldered to the DB9 connector pins 2, 3 and 5. Connect the wire from pin 5 of the connector to ground on the breadboard. Connect the wire from pin 2 of the connector to pin 14 of the MAX232. (The other wire is for receiveing and is not used in this project.)

5 . Proximity Sensor :-

Proximity sensors are sensors able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic or electrostatic field, or a beam of electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return signal. The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. Different proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive or photoelectric sensor might be suitable for a plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor requires a metal target.The maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined "nominal range". Some sensors have adjustments of the nominal range or means to report a graduated detection distance.

Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between sensor and the sensed object. A proximity sensor adjusted to a very short range is often used as a touch switch.

6. RELAY :-

A relay is really a remotely controlled switch. In the diagram above, a power circuit contains a switch which is opened and closed by operation of a relay. The relay is activated by a magnetic core which is energised when a controlling switch is closed. As the core is energised, it lifts and closes a pair of contacts in a second circuit - usually a power circuit. The current required for the relay is usually much lower than that used for the power circuit so it can be provided by a battery.

7. TRANSISTORS:In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals. A transistor is made of a solid piece of a semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or

current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much larger than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is used in radio, telephone, computer and other electronic systems. Some transistors are packaged individually but most are found in integrated circuits.

Usage The bipolar junction transistor, or BJT, was the first transistor invented, and through the 1970s, was the most commonly used transistor. Even after MOSFETs became available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for many analog circuits such as simple amplifiers because of their greater linearity and ease of manufacture. Desirable properties of MOSFETs, such as their utility in low-power devices, usually in the CMOS configuration, allowed them to capture nearly all market share for digital circuits; more recently MOSFETs have captured most analog and power applications as well, including modern clocked analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters, motor drivers, etc. BJT used as an electronic switch, In grounded-emitter configuration. Simplified operation The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input signal, that is, can act as an amplifier. Or, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit like an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements.The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labelled base, collector and emitter. A small current at base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between collector and emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labelled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain. The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Since

internally the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The size of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE. Simple circuit using a transistor Operation graph of a transistor

Transistor as an amplifier

Amplifier circuit, standard common-emitter configuration.

The above common emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage in (Vin) changes the small current through the base of the transistor and the transistor's current amplification combined with the properties of the circuit mean that small swings in Vin produce large changes in Vout. It is important that the operating parameters of the transistor are chosen and the circuit designed such that as far as possible the transistor operates within a linear portion of the graph, such as that shown between A and B, otherwise the output signal will suffer distortion. Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both. From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing. The first discrete transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved. Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively inexpensive. Some musical instrument amplifier manufacturers mix transistors and vacuum tubes in the same circuit, as some believe tubes have a distinctive sound.

8. RADIO FREQUANCY TRANSMITTER:RECEIVER RF modem can be used for the application that need two way wireless data transmission. It features high data rates (9600 bps fixed) and longer transmission distance (100mts). The communication protocol is self controlled and completely transparent to user interface. The module can be embedded to your current design so that wireless communication can be set easily.

Operation : Module works in the half-duplex mode. Means it can both transmit and receive but not both at the same time. Module has packet buffer of 128 bytes. When receiving 128 bytes from serial port, it will send data out at once. If the data package received is below 128 bytes, the module will wait for about 30ms and then send it. In order to send data immediately, 128 bytes data per transmission is necessary. After each transmission, module will be switched to receiver mode automatically. The switch time is about 5ms. The LED for TX and RX indicates whether module is currently receiving or transmitting data. The data send is checked for CRC error if any, the transmitter sends out data up to 15 times till data is correctly received.

9. DB9 Connector

In the photograph below, the connector on the left is a 9-pin (DE-9) connector plug. The hexagonal pillars at either end of each connector have a threaded stud (not visible) that passes through flanges on the connector, fastening it to the metal panel. They also have a threaded hole that receives the jackscrews on the cable shell, to hold the plug and socket together. Possibly because the original PC used DB25 connectors for the serial and parallel ports, many people,[who?] not knowing the significance of the letter "B" as the shell size, began to call all D-sub connectors "DB" connectors instead of specifying "DA," "DC" or "DE." When the PC serial port began to use 9-pin connectors, they were often called "DB9" instead of DE9. It is now common to see DE9 connectors sold as "DB9" connectors. DB9 is nearly always intended to be a 9 pin connector with an E size shell.

10. Rectifiers

It is used to convert alternating current into direct current. Alternating current being bidirectional flows in one direction during positive half cycle and in other direction during negative half cycle. There can be half wave rectifier circuit or a full wave bridge rectifier circuit. There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave varying DC. A full-wave rectifier can also be made from just two diodes if a centre-tap transformer is used, but this method is rarely used now that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only uses the positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce halfwave varying DC.

Fig:Basic Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

Fig :Full Wave Rectifier using a Center-tapped Transformer.

Fig : full wave Rectified Output is filtered by C1

Fig :This Circuit Performs Identically tothat Shown in Figure 3

In mains-supplied electronic systems the AC input voltage must be converted into a DC voltage with the right value and degree of stabilization. Figures 1 and 2 show the simplest rectifier circuits. In these basic configurations the peak voltage across the load is equal to the peak value of the AC voltage supplied by the transformers secondary winding. For most applications the output ripple produced by these circuits is too high. However, for some applications - driving small motors or lamps, for example - they are satisfactory. If a filter capacitor is added after the rectifier diodes the output voltage waveform is improved considerably. Figures 3 and 4 show two classic circuits commonly used to obtain continuous voltages starting from an alternating voltage. The Figure 3 circuit uses a center-tapped transformer with two rectifier diodes while the Figure 4 circuit uses a simple transformer and four rectifier diodes.

11. Diodes:

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal device (except that thermionic diodes may also have one or two ancillary terminals for a heater). Diodes have two active electrodes between which the signal of interest may flow, and most are used for their unidirectional current property. The varicap diode is used as an electrically adjustable capacitor. Currentvoltage characteristic A semiconductor diode's currentvoltage characteristic, or IV curve, is related to the transport of carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p-n junction between differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first created, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (places for electrons in which no electron is present) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor on the N-side and negatively charged acceptor on the P-side. The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator. However, the depletion width cannot grow without limit. For each electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively-charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a "built-in" potential across the depletion zone.

If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow. This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the

external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n junction. For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be "turned on" as it has a forward bias. A diodes IV characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation .

IV characteristics of a P-N junction diode (not to scale). Fig: 2.8

12. Capacitors:

A capacitor is an electrical/electronic device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of conductors (called "plates"). The process of storing energy in the capacitor is known as "charging", and involves electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, building up on each plate Electric circuits

Fig: 2.9

The electrons within dielectric molecules are influenced by the electric field, causing the molecules to rotate slightly from their equilibrium positions. The air gap is shown for clarity; in a real capacitor, the dielectric is in direct contact with the plates. Capacitors also allow AC current to flow and block DC current. DC sources The dielectric between the plates is an insulator and blocks the flow of electrons. A steady current through a capacitor deposits electrons on one plate and removes the same quantity of electrons from the other plate. This process is commonly called 'charging' the capacitor. The current through the capacitor results in the separation of electric charge within the capacitor, which develops an electric field between the plates of the capacitor, equivalently, developing a voltage difference between the plates. This voltage V is directly proportional to the amount of charge separated Q. Since the current I through the capacitor is the rate at which charge Q is forced through the capacitor (dQ/dt), this can be expressed mathematically as: where I is the current flowing in the conventional direction measured in amperes, dV/dt is the time derivative of voltage measured in volts per second, and C is the capacitance in farads.For circuits with a constant (DC) voltage source and consisting of only resistors and capacitors, the voltage across the capacitor cannot exceed the voltage of the source. Thus, an equilibrium is reached where the voltage across the capacitor is constant and the current through the capacitor is zero. For this reason, it is commonly said that capacitors block DC. AC sources The current through a capacitor due to an AC source reverses direction periodically. That is, the alternating current alternately charges the plates: first in one direction and then the other. With the exception of the instant that the current changes direction, the capacitor current is non-zero at all times during a cycle. For this reason, it is commonly said that capacitors "pass" AC. However, at no time do electrons actually cross between the plates,

unless the dielectric breaks down. Such a situation would involve physical damage to the capacitor and likely to the circuit involved as well. Since the voltage across a capacitor is proportional to the integral of the current, as shown above, with sine waves in AC or signal circuits this results in a phase difference of 90 degrees, the current leading the voltage phase angle. It can be shown that the AC voltage across the capacitor is in quadrature with the alternating current through the capacitor. That is, the voltage and current are 'out-of-phase' by a quarter cycle. The amplitude of the voltage depends on the amplitude of the current divided by the product of the frequency the current with the capacitance, C. Types of capacitors used: 1. Electrolytic capacitors:

An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor typically with a larger capacitance per unit volume than other types, making them valuable in relatively high-current and lowfrequency electrical circuits. This is especially the case in power-supply filters, where they store charge needed to moderate output voltage and current fluctuations, in rectifier output, and especially in the absence of rechargeable batteries that can provide similar low-frequency current capacity. They are also widely used as coupling capacitors in circuits where AC should be conducted but DC should not; the large value of the capacitance allows them to pass very low frequencies.

Axial (top) and radial (bottom) electrolytic capacitors

2. Ceramic Capacitors:

A Ceramic Capacitor is a capacitor constructed of alternating layers of metal and ceramic, with the ceramic material acting as the dielectric. Depending on the dielectric, whether Class 1 or Class 2, the degree of temperature/capacity dependence varies. A ceramic capacitor often has (especially the class 2) high dissipation factor, high frequency coefficient of dissipation. Ceramic capacitors 13. Resistances:

A resistor is a two-terminal electrical or electronic component that opposes an electric current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in accordance with Ohm's law: The electrical resistance is equal to the voltage drop across the resistor divided by the current through the resistor while the temperature remains the same. Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits.

Four-band and five-band axial resistors Four-band identification is the most commonly used color coding scheme on all resistors. It consists of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the resistor. The scheme is simple: The first two numbers are the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the third is a multiplier, and the fourth is the tolerance of the value (e.g. green-blue-yellow red : 56 x (10^4) ohms = 56 x 10000 ohms = 560 kohms 2%). Each color corresponds to a certain number, shown in the chart below. The tolerance for a 4band resistor will be 1%, 5%, or 10%

14. Crystal Oscillator:

A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them were called "crystal oscillators".

A miniature 4 MHz quartz crystal enclosed in a hermetically sealed HC-49/US package, used as the resonator in a crystal oscillator.

Operation: A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal. When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency. (See RLC circuit.) 15. Transformer:

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled electrical conductors. A changing current in the first circuit (the primary) creates a changing magnetic field; in turn, this magnetic field induces a changing voltage in the second circuit (the secondary). By adding a load to the secondary circuit, one can make current flow in the transformer, thus transferring energy from one circuit to the other. The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal transformer, is scaled from the primary VP by a factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their respective windings:

15.1 Basic principles The transformer is based on two principles: firstly that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). By changing the current in the primary coil, it changes the strength of its magnetic field; since the changing magnetic field extends into the secondary coil, a voltage is induced across the secondary. An ideal step-down transformer showing magnetic flux in the core Fig: 2.14 A simplified transformer design is shown to the left. A current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron; this ensures that most of the magnetic field lines produced by the primary current are within the iron and pass through the secondary coil as well as the primary coil. 15.2 Induction law The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which states that: where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil and equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic field strength B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer,[1] the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equation[5] for stepping up or stepping down the voltage

Losses :

1. Winding resistance Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses.

2. Hysteresis losses Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.[25] 3. Eddy currents Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a solid core made from such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness.[25]

4. Magnetostriction Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with transformers,[13] and in turn causes losses due to frictional heating in susceptible cores.

5. Mechanical losses In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of power.[26]

6. Stray losses Leakage inductance is by itself lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.[27]

16. Webcam : Webcams are video capturing devices connected to computers or computer networks, often using USB or, if they connect to networks, ethernet or Wi-Fi. They are well known for their low manufacturing costs and flexible applications.

Videoconferencing As webcam capabilities have been added to instant messaging text chat services such as AOL Instant Messenger, one-to-one live video communication over the internet has now reached millions of mainstream PC users worldwide. Increased video quality has helped webcams encroach on traditional video conferencing systems. New features such as lighting, real-time enhancements (retouching, wrinkle smoothing and vertical stretch) can make users more comfortable, further increasing popularity. Features and performance vary between programs. Videoconferencing support is included in programs as Yahoo Messenger, AOL Instant Messenger (AIM), Windows Live Messenger, Skype, iChat, Paltalk (now PaltalkScene), Ekiga , Stickam,Tokbox, Camfrog and meetcam.

Some online video broadcasting sites have taken advantage of this technology to create internet television programs centered around two (or more) people "diavlogging" with each other from two different places. Among others, BloggingHeads.tv uses this technology to set up conversations between prominent journalists, scientists, bloggers, and philosophers.

As a control input device Special software can use the video stream from a webcam to assist or enhance a user's control of applications and games. Video features, including faces, shapes, models and colors can be observed and tracked to produce a corresponding form of control. For example, the position of a single light source can be tracked and used to emulate a mouse pointer, a head mounted light would allow hands-free computing and would greatly improve computer accessibility. This can also be applied to games, providing additional control, improved interactivity and immersiveness. FreeTrack is a free webcam motion tracking application for Microsoft Windows that can track a special head mounted model in up to six degrees of freedom and output data to mouse, keyboard, joystick and FreeTrack supported games. The EyeToy for the PlayStation 2 (The updated PlayStation 3 equivalent is the PlayStation Eye) and similarly the Xbox Live Vision Camera for the Xbox 360 and Xbox Live are color digital cameras that have been used as control input devices by some games. Small webcam-based PC games are available as either standalone executables or inside web browser windows using Adobe Flash. Technology

Webcams typically include a lens, an image sensor, and supporting circuitry. Webcams typically include a lens, an image sensor, and some support electronics. Various lenses are available, the most common being a plastic lens that can be screwed in and out to set the camera's focus. Fixed focus lenses, which have no provision for adjustment, are also available. As a camera system's depth of field is greater for small imager formats and is greater for lenses with a large f/number (small aperture), the systems used in webcams have sufficiently large depth of field that the use of a fixed focus lens does not impact image sharpness much. Image sensors can be CMOS or CCD, the former being dominant for low-cost cameras, but CCD cameras do not necessarily

outperform CMOS-based cameras in the low cost price range. Most consumer webcams are capable of providing VGA-resolution video at a frame rate of 30 frames per second. Many newer devices can produce video in multi-megapixel resolutions, and a few can run at high frame rates such as the PlayStation Eye, which can produce 320240 video at 120 frames per second. Support electronics are present to read the image from the sensor and transmit it to the host computer. The camera pictured to the right, for example, uses a Sonix SN9C101 to transmit its image over USB. Some cameras - such as mobile phone cameras - use a CMOS sensor with supporting electronics "on die", i.e. the sensor and the support electronics are built on a single silicon chip to save space and manufacturing costs. Most webcams feature built in microphones to make video conferencing more convenient.

POWER SUPPLY DESIGN BASICS:In mains-supplied electronic systems the AC input voltage must be converted into a DC voltage with the right value and degree of stabilization. The simplest rectifier circuits. In these basic configurations the peak voltage across the load is equal to the peak value of the AC voltage supplied by the transformers secondary winding.

Types of Power Supply

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. For example a 5V regulated supply: Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC. Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying. Smoothing - smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple. Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram and a graph of their output:

Transformer only Transformer + Rectifier Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

Dual Supplies

Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and negative outputs as well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply' because it is like two ordinary supplies connected together as shown in the diagram. Dual supplies have three outputs, for example a 9V supply has +9V, 0V and -9V outputs. Transformer only

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.

Transformer + Rectifier

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic circuits.

PC PORTS :MATLAB provides support to access serial port (also called as COM port) and parallel port (also called as printer port or LPT port) of a PC. Note: If you are using a desktop PC or an old laptop, you will most probably have both, parallel and serial ports. However in newer laptops parallel port may not be available.

Parallel Port :-

Parallel port has 25 pins as shown in figure below. Parallel port cables are locally available (commonly referred as printer port cables). These cables are handy to connect port pins with your circuit. Pins 2-9 are bi-directional data pins (pin 9 gives the most significant bit (MSB)), pins 10-13 and 15 are output pins (status pins), pins 1,14,16,17 are input pins (control pins), while pins 18-25 are Ground

pins.

Serial Port:-

If you have to transmit one byte of data, the serial port will transmit 8 bits as one bit at a time. The advantage is that a serial port needs only one wire to transmit the 8 bits (while a parallel port needs 8).

Pin 3 is the Transmit (TX) pin, pin 2 is the Receive (RX) pin and pin 5 is Ground pin. Other pins are used for controlling data communication in case of a modem. For the purpose of data transmission, only the pins 3 and 5 are required.

At the receiver side, you need a voltage level converter called as RS232 IC which is a standard for serial communication. And to interpret the serial data, a microcontroller with UART (Universal asynchronous receiver transmitter) is required aboard the robot. Most of the microcontrollers like AVR ATMEGA 8, Atmel/Philips 8051 or PIC microcontrollers have a UART. The UART needs to be initialized to receive the serial data from PC.

In this case, the microcontroller is connected to the motor driver ICs which control the right and left motors. After processing the image, and deciding the motion of the robot, transmit codeword for left, right, forward and backward to the microcontroller through the serial port (say 1-Left, 2-Right, 3Forward, 4-Backward

Connectors: An electrical connector is a conductive device for joining electrical circuits together. The connection may be temporary, as for portable equipment, or may require a tool for assembly and removal, or may be a permanent electrical joint between two wires or devices. There are hundreds of types of electrical connectors. In computing, an electrical connector can also be known as a physical interface. Connectors may join two lengths of flexible wire or cable, or may connect a wire or cable to an electrical terminal. Jumper Wires:

One thing we'll need to do constantly for any experiments on a breadboard socket is to construct and install jumper wires. We'll need a number of different lengths, of course, but two common lengths will be 0.3" and 0.5". These lengths match the spacing between the main component area in the middle and the bus strips along the top and bottom of the breadboard socket.The traditional way to create a jumper is to cut a piece of insulated wire from the roll or bundle, and then remove " of insulation from each end. This works fine for longer jumpers (2" or more), but is a problem when we try to remove insulation from the end of a 1" length of wire. We're almost guaranteed to pull off all of the

insulation.