Wireless Types and Topologies

Learning Objectives

After completing this topic, you should be able to

distinguish between WPAN, WLAN, WMAN, and WWAN network types recognize the characteristics of ad hoc networks

1. Wireless networks and topologies

Wireless communication as a means to transmit information using radio waves is not really a new technology. The first wireless transmission happened in 1870. During the 20th century, many technologies were deployed to transmit "over the air." During the 1970s and 1980s, with the development of binary coding, the information that was being sent shifted from analog voice to binary data using zeros and ones. However, these networks were not wireless in the same way that is meant when someone refers to Wi-Fi today. Most "networks" were proprietary solutions that consisted of point-to-point communication done in the 900-MHz band. Some networks were access point (AP)based, covering large areas, but the technologies were proprietary and the speed was slow by today's standards.

Graphic
The graphic depicts the evolution of wireless transmission technology. During 1970s and 1980s, the speed was limited to 860 Kbps, the network type was proprietary, and the radio frequency was 900 MHz. In 1990s, the speed increased to 1 and 2 Mbps and the radio frequency also increased to 2.4 GHz. Also, from 1992 to 1997, IEEE 802.11 drafting began and was ratified after 1997. From mid 1990s, the network type also changed to standards-based. From 1999, the speed increased to 11 Mbps, which further increased to 54 Mbps after 2003 and the radio frequency increased to 5 GHz. During this period, 802.11a,b was ratified. In 2003, 802.11g was ratified and in 2007, 802.11n Draft 2.0 was ratified. Speed was one concern but regulations were another. Because wireless communications had long been used for emergency services and the army, the private sector did not have the right to use any frequency freely to send personal or corporate information. But with all the possible applications of "wireless" and the need to use radio frequency (RF) for nonmilitary-related applications such as microwave ovens, which use an RF signal to cook, regulations were created that forbid most use of the RF spectrum for private use while reserving some frequency bands for industrial use.

In the 1980s and 1990s, the agreement to allow frequencies for the use of RF electromagnetic fields for industrial, scientific, and medical purposes other than communications became international, creating the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) bands. It was only in 1997 that the IEEE, an organization responsible for developing protocols, defined the first IEEE 802.11 standard describing how a signal would be sent over the ISM band to carry digital information from one electronic device to another. Most of the protocols that are being used today in wireless networks were defined between 1997 and 2003 after the original 802.11 standard was developed in 1997. Some emerging possibilities still do not have a definitive protocol to support them. Today wireless networks are deployed in multiple environments such as outdoor links, mesh networks, office buildings, healthcare, warehouse, and home. Wireless communications is the means by which information is exchanged using radio signals. There is, of course, a big difference between a citizens' band (CB) relay and a TV relay, even if both fit the definition of wireless communications. To organize the different technologies in groups, different classifications of radio communications are used depending on the distance that the communications must travel. This system creates logical ensembles. The usage depends on distance; a 5-foot range is probably used for person-to-person communications, whereas a 150-mile range is more likely to be used for network-to-network exchanges.

Graphic
Description of graph Wireless Usage and Topologies: The graph depicts various uses and topologies of wireless transmission as function of data rates and coverage area. Narrowband wireless LAN has local coverage area and low data rate, approximately 9.6 Kbps. Infrared wireless LANs and spread spectrum wireless LANs have local coverage area but high data rates upto 10 Mbps and 50 Mbps, respectively. Microwave LR Optical has a moderate coverage area and a high data rate of upto 50 Mbps. 3G service and Broadband PCs have data rates in the range of 56 Kbps and 1 Mbps and a moderate coverage area. Circuit and packet data cellular, CCDPD, Mobitex, Data Tac, and Narrowband

PCs have a moderate coverage area but low data rates upto 19.6 Kbps. Satellite has a wide coverage area but low data rates. Description ends. These are various types of wireless networks: wireless personal area network (WPAN) wireless local area network (WLAN) wireless metro area network (WMAN) wireless wide area network (WWAN) A PAN is a network that exists within a relatively small area, connecting electronic devices such as desktop computers, printers, scanners, fax machines, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and notebook computers. To connect these devices in the past required extensive cabling, connectors, and adapters. WPAN links are usually peer-topeer or small networks, and the personal area connectivity is less than 5-10 meters. In March 1998, the WPAN Study Group was formed with the goal of investigating the need for a wireless network standard for devices within a personal operating area. Just two months later, in May 1998, the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) was formed and ten months later the WPAN Study Group became IEEE 802.15, the WPAN Working Group. The Bluetooth SIG, now led by nine promoting companies, continues to define the Bluetooth standard and promote the technology. These are some features of a WPAN: it meets the need for ease of use, low cost, and portability WPANs meet the need for ease of use, low cost, and portability. The WPAN wireless communications standard focuses on the key issues of low power consumption to lengthen the battery life of portable products, small size to make the products easy to carry about or even wear, and low cost so that the products can become as universal as possible. it supports applications ranging from simple to complex It supports applications ranging from simple such as remote control to complex such as voice. Obvious applications for WPANs are in the office, where electronic devices in a workspace are wirelessly networked together. These devices could include a desktop PC or notebook computer, a printer, a PDA, a cellular phone, a pager, or even a portable stereo. its typical example is Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a typical example of WPANs running in 2.4GHz. Because of the requirements to limit power and size, Bluetooth is not designed to extend farther than about 20 feet. Within this range, the use of the RF is completely controlled by the user, with no fee to pay and no external device to rely on. Therefore, interference is not a major issue, because within 20 feet, there will not be hundreds of users competing for RF access. it is unlicensed WPANs are unlicensed, which means that users do not have to pay to use devices in the allowed frequency range, a fact that encourages the development of devices for this type of use. In contrast to WPANs, WLANs provide more robust wireless network connectivity over a local area of approximately 100 meters between an AP and associated clients. The range is larger than a WPAN with spectrum 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz. The aim is not to connect one device to another but to connect many devices to a network without the need for cables. WLANs today are based on the 802.11 standard and are referred to as Wi-Fi networks. The first commercially successful WLAN technology was the IEEE 802.11b. It operates in the 2.4-GHz frequency band at 11 Mbps. By implementing a different data transmission method, data rates were increased to 54 Mbps in 2003 with IEEE 802.11g in the 2.4-GHz band and IEEE 802.11a in the 5-GHz band. Today, "dual-band" Wi-Fi access points and client network adapters that support various combinations of 802.11a, b, and g are common. Highly integrated, single-chip solutions that are smaller than in the past and require less power, but still more than WPANs such as Bluetooth, have enabled new designs and applications. WLANs are designed to be flexible. Once installed the applications usually do not require any fee unless they are hotspots. The cost involved is not related to the use of the wireless spectrum itself but more to the fact that it is someone else's network. As WLANs are now everywhere, a wireless network administrator needs to understand how they work, how to configure them, and how to troubleshoot them. WLANs are more complex than WPANs because several users are typically expected to connect at the same time. Having simultaneous multiple users may create interference issues or competition for the spectrum. Because users are mobile, the administrator cannot control how many of them are accessing the same WLAN at the same time. Planning is a key requirement to being able to offer the best possible service for the optimal number of users at any given time. Automated technologies, such as controller-based WLANs, help in this task. WLANs are unlicensed, which means that users do not have to pay to use devices in the allowed frequency range, a fact that encourages the development of devices for this type of use.

A WMAN is a wireless communications network that covers a large geographic area such as a city or suburb. The range of a WMAN is greater than 100 meters. In this type of network, the wireless signal often provides a backbone, point to point or point to multipoint. Traditionally, long-distance wireless technologies providing T1 or T3 data rates have been proprietary owned and operated by major telephone companies, incumbent local exchange carriers (ILECs), and other providers. These long-distance wireless technologies are often used to link remote sites or large campuses. Today wireless can be used to install links at a low cost organizations just need two end devices pointing at each other instead of a complex and costly wired infrastructure. In a WMAN, the speed is closer to that of broadband than to Ethernet and decreases as distance increases. The speed may be an important limitation, which is why the IEEE has standardized a new set of WMAN technologies that operate in licensed and licenseexempt frequency bands. The best known of these technologies is IEEE 802.16d or WiMax. When a WMAN is installed by a service provider, users often have to pay a fee to access it. Here again, fees can be charged for anything from the right to use someone else's network to the right to use a specific frequency. Many of these links operate in the "unlicensed band" and are free to use. Organizations may still need a professional to install and maintain them and would pay a fee for this service. The downside of this freedom is that if anyone else wants to use the same frequency in the same area, both networks would compete for access to the RF medium without it being possible to give priority to one or the other. For this reason, some MAN administrators prefer to use a "licensed" frequency. These frequencies require users to pay a fee for the exclusive right of using the frequency in a given area because there are only a few frequencies available. But the throughput is, of course, higher because of the lack of competition for access. These are some features of a WWAN: provides connectivity over a wide geographical area WWANs provide connectivity over a wide geographical area. Usually, WWANs are digital cellular networks used for mobile phone and data service and are operated by carriers. has low data rates compared to other wireless technologies In the case of WWANs until recently, data rates have been relatively low 115 Kbps compared to other more localized wireless technologies. Two WWAN technologies Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) dominate WWAN deployments worldwide. has issues related to bandwidth and number of users

A WWAN has issues related to bandwidth and number of users. The covered areas are wide, so the cost of deployment is high and the risk of having end users competing for the same frequency is likely. Because of the high cost and risk, users pay a fee to the network owner to use the frequencies. The fee is usually based on usage duration or the duration of the "frequency occupation" or the amount of data sent or received, which is, in principle, the same.

Question
Match each wireless network type to its description. Options:
A. B. C. D. WLAN WMAN WWAN WPAN

Targets:
1. Exists within a relatively small area

2. Provides robust wireless network connectivity over a local area of approximately 100 meters between an AP and associated clients 3. Covers a large geographic area such as a city or suburb 4. Provides connectivity over a wide geographical area, such as a digital cellular network

Answer
A WPAN is a network that exists within a relatively small area, connecting electronic devices such as desktop computers, printers, scanners, fax machines, PDAs, and notebook computers. The WPAN wireless communications standard focuses on the key issues of low power consumption, small size, and low cost. WLANs provide robust wireless network connectivity over a local area of approximately 100 meters between an AP and associated clients. The aim is not to connect one device to another but to connect many devices to a network without the need for cables. A WMAN is a wireless communications network that covers a large geographic area such as a city or suburb. In this type of area, the wireless signal often provides a backbone, point to point or point to multipoint.

WWANs provide connectivity over a wide geographical area. Usually, WWANs are digital cellular networks used for mobile phone and data service and are operated by carriers. The covered areas are wide, so the cost of deployment is high and the risk of having end users competing for the same frequency is likely. Correct answer(s): Target 1 = Option A Target 2 = Option B Target 3 = Option C Target 4 = Option D

2. Ad hoc networks
To create a wireless network, users need to have wireless-capable devices. As soon as two wireless-capable devices are in range of each other, they just need to share a common set of basic parameters, such as frequency to be able to communicate. Surprisingly, that is all it takes to create a wireless network. The first station defines the radio parameters and a group name and the other stations just need to detect the group name. They will then adjust their own parameters to the parameters defined by the first station and a group is formed. This is called an ad hoc network. Most operating systems are designed to make this type of network very easy to set up. When each computer provides access to the other, the official name of this behavior is called "Basic Service Set (BSS)." A BSS can be defined as the area within which a computer is reachable through its wireless connection. As both computers are communicating without any other device such as AP and switch, this BSS is called an Independent BSS (IBSS). "Ad hoc network" and "IBSS" are the most commonly used terms to describe a computer-to-computer wireless communication. They are also referred to as peer-to-peer or wireless networks. Ad hoc networks are limited in number of devices due to collision and organization issues. One technical limitation of an ad hoc network is that all the stations must be in range of each other to be able to communicate. How is the conversation organized? Which of the computers should decide which computer speaks first? Only one computer can speak at a given time; otherwise, the radio waves the computers send would collide and both messages would be lost. This problem creates what is called a "half-duplex communication." Each computer uses one single radio to receive and transmit. The way a radio is built

means it cannot send and receive at the same time. This has an impact on the throughput of wireless networks.

Note
Half-duplex communication principle applies to all radio communications and is something that can be seen in everyday life. For example, if two radio stations were emitting on the same frequency, you could not understand either of them when setting your receiver to their common frequency. Another issue is the organization of groups. If two ad hoc networks were to be created in the same area, how to differentiate which computers belong to which? They would have to use a system of "workgroup names," but which computer would define the names? Can a computer share its access with the cable? Not really, because the stability of participation in the network is not granted. IBSS is limited by technical problems linked to the organization of groups.

Question
What are the characteristics of an ad hoc wireless network? Options:
1. 2. 3. 4. It has reduced throughput due to half-duplex communication All stations must be in range of an AP It does not require a common set of basic parameters It is limited by technical problems linked to the organization of groups

Answer
Option 1: Correct. Only one computer can speak at a given time; otherwise, the radio waves the computers send would collide and both messages would be lost. This problem creates what is called a "half-duplex communication." Each computer uses a single radio to receive and transmit. The way a radio is built means it cannot send and receive at the same time. This has an impact on the throughput of wireless networks. Option 2: Incorrect. An ad hoc wireless network is peer-to-peer and does not use intermediary devices, such as APs. Option 3: Incorrect. An ad hoc wireless network does require a common set of basic parameters, such as frequency. Both computers must agree on these parameters in order to communicate.

Option 4: Correct. The first station in an ad hoc network defines the radio parameters and a group name and the other stations only need to detect the group name, then adjust their own parameters to those defined by the first station, and a group is formed. The issue arises when two or more ad hoc networks are within range and there are multiple workgroup names. Which computer chooses the name? Which computers belong to each group? Correct answer(s): 1. It has reduced throughput due to half-duplex communication 4. It is limited by technical problems linked to the organization of groups

Summary
Wireless communications is the means by which information is exchanged using radio signals. WPANs are usually peer-to-peer or small networks. WLANs provide more robust wireless network connectivity over a local area of approximately 100 meters. WMANs cover a large geographic area such as a city or suburb. WWANs provide connectivity over a wide geographical area. In ad hoc networks, two wireless-capable devices share a common set of basic parameters to be able to communicate. The first station defines the radio parameters and a group name and the other stations just need to detect the group name and then adjust their own parameters.

Wireless Network Basics

Learning Objectives

After completing this topic, you should be able to

recognize the characteristics of access point (APs), service set identifier (SSIDs), and workgroup

bridge (WGB) topologies

recognize the characteristics of repeaters, outdoor wireless bridges, and outdoor mesh network

topologies 1. Infrastructure mode

One way to create a wireless network is to install a device dedicated to centralizing the communication between machines. This central device would define the frequency and wireless workgroup values, and the machines would have to join the device to communicate through it, with the other machines of the group. This central device is called an access point (AP). It is very close in concept to an Ethernet hub with regard to relaying communication but, as in an ad hoc network, all devices share the same frequency. Only one device would be able to speak at a given time, sending its frame to the AP, which would then relay it to its final destination.

Graphic
The wireless network consists of an AP connected to three wireless clients. The AP is also connected to a wired section called distribution system (DS) that includes a server, router, and a switch linked to the Internet. The AP also has a basic service area (BSA). Although this system may be more complex than the simple peer-to-peer network, a benefit is that an AP is usually better equipped than a simple machine to handle congestion. It can also and this is critical connect a machine to another one in the same wireless space or to the wired network. The comparison to a hub is made because of the half-duplex aspect of the communication. APs do have some cleverness that a wired hub simply does not possess.

For example, an AP has the ability to address and direct wireless traffic. Managed switches maintain dynamic Media Access Control (MAC) address tables that can direct packets to ports based on the destination MAC address of the packet. Similarly, an AP is a portal device that directs traffic either to the network backbone or back into the wireless medium based on MAC addresses. The AP functions as a translational bridge between 802.3 wired media and 802.11 wireless media. Wireless is a half-duplex environment. The 802.11 header of a wireless frame typically has three MAC addresses, but it can have as many as four in certain situations.

10

Ethernet uses "only" two MAC addresses, the source and the destination. But 802.11, understanding that a frame may be relayed by an AP between two end stations, also uses the concept of a transmitting station and next-hop MAC address. The group name on an AP is also a MAC address. The AP uses the complicated Layer 2 addressing scheme of the wireless frames to forward the upper-layer information either to the network backbone or back to the wireless space, towards another wireless machine. In a network, all wireless-capable devices are called stations. To differentiate one AP from the other, the end devices are often called client stations whereas the AP is often referred to as an infrastructure device. These are some sections of a wireless network that include an AP: basic service area (BSA) Like a PC in an ad hoc network, an AP offers a Basic Service Set (BSS), although not an Independent BSS (IBSS), because the AP is and does not rely on a dedicated device and the area covered by the radio of this AP is called basic service area (BSA) or "cell." Because the client stations connect to a central device, this type of network is said to use an infrastructure mode as opposed to an ad hoc mode. distribution system (DS) The wired section of the network that is reachable through the AP is called, from the perspective of the wireless side, the DS because it receives packets that are emitted by the wireless clients and distributes them wherever they have to be sent, even to another AP. When the distribution system links two APs or two cells, the group is called an Extended Service Set (ESS). This scenario is very common in most wireless networks because it not only allows wireless stations in two separate areas of the network to communicate together, but it also permits with a proper design roaming. In a wireless network, "roaming" occurs when a station moves, leaves the coverage area of the AP it was originally connected to and gets to the BSA of another AP. In a proper design scenario, a station, before losing the signal of the first AP, detects the signal of the second AP and jumps to it.

Graphic
In the ESS scenario, two wireless networks, Channel 1 and Channel 6, with different APs are connected to each other through the DS. For the user, the experience is a seamless movement from connection to connection. For the infrastructure, then, the designer must make sure that there is an overlapping area between the two cells to avoid loss of connection.

11

If an authentication mechanism exists to make sure that only the authorized stations can communicate with the network, credentials can be sent from one AP to another fast enough for the connection not to be cut. Modern networks often use controllers, central devices containing the parameters of all the APs and the credentials of connected users. Because there is an overlap between the cells, it is better to make sure that the APs do not work on the same frequency or channel; otherwise any client of any AP staying in the overlapping area would affect the communication of both the cells. This problem occurs because wireless is half-duplex. The problem is called Co-channel Interference, and must be avoided. It can be avoided by making sure that neighbor APs are set on frequencies that are far apart from each other.

2. SSID and WGB

For a client leaving a first cell to be able to access the network through a second AP, there must be a common pattern that signals this capability. The solution to this issue is the same one used in ad hoc networks a wireless workgroup name that is common to both or more APs and that the client therefore tries to join when moving from one cell to another. This workgroup name is called Service Set Identifier (SSID). It has up to 32 ASCII characters, and is configured on both the AP and the client stations. But it also requires some kind of authorization to determine which station has the right to connect. The term WLAN is often used to define both the SSID and the associated parameters security and others.

Graphic
In the ESS scenario, two wireless networks, Channel 1 and Channel 6, with different APs, are connected to each other through the DS. The ESS includes an SSID with a Multiple Basic Service Set Identifier (MBSSID). The message at the client station common to both APs is Do you do SSID "guest"? The message at the AP of channel 1: I do "guest", 00:05:9A:3C:78:04 I do "voice", 00:05:9A:3C:78:05, where voice is an SSID. The message at the AP of channel 6 is: I do "guest", 00:11:2F:06:EF:35 I do "voice", 00:11:2F:06:EF:36, where 00:11:2F:06:EF:36 is a BSSID.

12

When configured on a client station, the SSID is a name used to identify which WLAN the client station is associated with. The AP associates a MAC address to this SSID. This MAC address can be the MAC address of the radio interface itself, if the AP only supports one SSID, or derived from the MAC address of the radio interface, if the AP supports several SSIDs. Because each AP has a different radio MAC address, the derived MAC address will be different on each of the APs for the same SSID name. This configuration enables a station staying in the overlapping area to hear one single SSID name and still understand that it is offered by two different APs. The name of the MAC address associated to an SSID is Basic Service Set Identifier (BSSID). It identifies the BSS that is determined by the AP coverage area. Because this BSSID is a MAC address that is usually derived from the radio MAC address, it is very common for APs to be able to generate several values. This ability enables the AP to support several SSIDs in a single area. An administrator can then create several groups on the same AP for example, the guest SSID and the internal SSID. The criteria by which a station is allowed on one or the other SSID would be different, but the AP would be the same. This configuration is an example of Multiple Basic Service Set Identifiers (MBSSIDs). MBSSIDs are basically virtual APs. This means that all the SSIDs created still share the same physical device, which has a one half-duplex radio. As a result, if two users of two different SSIDs on the same AP try to send a frame at the same time, the frames will still collide. Even if the SSIDs are different, the wireless space is the same. Using MBSSIDs is just a way of differentiating the traffic reaching the AP, not a way to increase the capacity of the AP. Devices may be located in places where it is not feasible to put an Ethernet cable because the devices are supposed to be moveable or because of the environment, such as in a warehouse or in an old and protected building where drilling new holes is forbidden. Wireless is a natural way to provide access to the network, but these devices may not have a slot for a wireless card. They may only have an Ethernet connection. In such a case, a special device called a workgroup bridge (WGB) can be used to connect to an Ethernet port and provide access to the wireless network. A WGB provides a wireless connection from the Ethernet port. To use a WGB with multiple MAC addresses, the WGB must be connected to a hub or switch with an Ethernet patch cable. All users must connect to the hub or switch. If the WGB is connected directly to an Ethernet client node, an Ethernet crossover cable must be used. Several devices can benefit if the WGB is connected to a hub or a switch.

Graphic 13

A WGB is connected to a switch that is further connected to multiple devices. The WGB connects to an AP that is linked to a DS. Cisco provides two forms of workgroup bridges: autonomous WGB Support for the autonomous WGB began with the Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS) Software Release 12.4(3G)JA. The WGB will establish a single wireless connection for multiple Ethernet clients to an upstream AP to appear as a nonstandard client. The protocol used is proprietary, so an autonomous WGB could communicate only with Aironet APs. universal WGB Universal WGB was implemented later, starting with Cisco IOS Software Release 12.4(11)XJ, to support one Ethernet client connected through a WGB to an AP from another vendor to appear as a single normal client.

Question
Match the wireless component to its function. Options:
A. B. C. D. ESS SSID WGB AP

Targets:
1. It connects one machine to another one in the same wireless space or to the wired network 2. 3. 4. It groups two wireless cells It is used to identify which WLAN the client station is associated with It is used to provide a wireless connection to an Ethernet segment

Answer
An AP is the central device in an infrastructure mode wireless network. An AP offers a BSS and the area covered by the radio is called a BSA. An AP can connect wireless and wired clients. When a DS links two APs or two cells, the group is called an ESS. This scenario is very common in most wireless networks because it not only allows wireless

14

stations in two separate areas of the network to communicate together, but it also permits roaming. The workgroup name configured on an AP is the SSID. It has up to 32 ASCII characters and is configured on both the AP and the client stations. It also requires some kind of authorization to determine which station has the right to connect. A WGB can be used to connect to an Ethernet port and provide access to the wireless network. The WGB will establish a single wireless connection for multiple Ethernet clients to an upstream AP to appear as a nonstandard client. The protocol used is proprietary, so an autonomous WGB could communicate only with Aironet APs. Correct answer(s): Target 1 = Option A Target 2 = Option B Target 3 = Option C Target 4 = Option D

3. Repeaters and outdoor wireless bridges

ESSs can connect two APs, but in some large areas, such as warehouses, it may not be possible to pull a cable to the middle of an open space to install an AP or the maximum distance of 100 meters of cable length may be exceeded. The area may still have power. A WGB may not be the right solution because the devices are mobile, such as laptops and barcode scanners, and just need a wireless connection to the network. Therefore, a solution might be to install a repeater.

Graphic
In the network setup, Repeater 1 has 2.4 GHz client access and gives a 2.4-GHz backhaul to the root AP device. This root device is connected to a switch and gives a 5-GHz backhaul to Repeater 2, which is connected to Repeater 3. Repeater 2 has 2.4 GHz client access. Repeater 3 has 2.4 GHz client access. A wireless repeater is simply an AP that is not connected to the wired backbone. It extends the AP coverage. It uses its antenna to receive the signal from an AP that is connected to the network and repeats this signal for the clients that are close to it but too far away from the first AP to connect directly.

15

For this setup to work, there must be a 50 percent overlap between the AP on the backbone and the wireless repeater. The time needed to receive and retransmit data will decrease because of data rates. The repeater must be on the same channel as the root the AP connected to Ethernet. Some APs that are in repeater mode may have two radios. The APs are able to send on one radio while they receive on the other. These APs are sometimes called "full-duplex repeaters," but keep in mind that each radio is half-duplex. The APs simply act on two radios at the same time. They are sometimes humorously called "dual half-duplex" because two halves do not make one full duplex. Throughput is impacted when a single frequency is used. This "repeater" feature is available with the Cisco Aironet standalone APs, but a Cisco AP must be used for the root AP because this technology is beyond the 802.11 protocol's scope. The wireless network can be extended beyond the LAN to link LANs together. This link is referred to as a "bridge." These LANs are typically located in buildings that lie within a few miles of each other. This linking is the most common use for a wireless bridge, but there are other uses as well. Some bridges, such as the Cisco Aironet 1300 Series Wireless Bridge can be used as a hybrid both to communicate with wireless clients and link two networks. This bridge operates in the 2.4-GHz frequency range and can be a bridge with or without end stations. Some other models are used for bridging purposes only and do not communicate with clients. Cisco Aironet bridges operate at the MAC address layer or data link layer, which means they have no routing capabilities. A router must be put in place if IP subnetting is needed within the network. An outdoor wireless bridge can be point-to-point A point-to-point bridge simply links two networks. point-to-multipoint or hub and spoke A point-to-multipoint bridge or a hub and spoke bridge connects several smaller LANs to a central one. In this topology, as per the role of each bridge, spokes cannot communicate with each other directly; they have to connect through the central point. Outdoor networks present some specific challenges, such as the impact of humidity or lightning strikes, and specialized help is usually needed for good deployment.

4. Outdoor mesh networks 16

Bridges, even when they are point-to-multipoint, are usually deployed in a rather static configuration where the central point is always the same and the path taken by the spokes to communicate with the other networks over the air is very predictable. The downside of this topology is, of course, that if the central point gets disconnected or its bridge is disabled for any reason, such as power or Ethernet connectivity issues and radio interference, the spokes will be isolated and will not be able to connect to the other networks anymore not to the central point, and not to each other, because the central point is required for this purpose. In a larger deployment, a network may be needed where the main purpose is connectivity of the spokes, not necessarily with a central point, but with each other. Using the ability that some antennas have to send and receive to and from any direction, such a topology is possible and is called a mesh network. Each AP in this topology is called a node.

Graphic
The mesh network connects devices through connections between nodes and mesh controllers. Mesh nodes act as repeaters to transmit data from nearby nodes to peers that are too far away for a manageable cabled connection. In a mesh network, many possible paths are determined from any given node to other nodes. Paths through the mesh network can change in response to traffic loads, radio conditions, or traffic prioritization. Devices are connected with a redundant connection between nodes with no single point of failure. If one node drops out of the network, because of hardware failure or any other reason, its neighbors simply find another route. Extra capacity can be achieved by adding more nodes. Some of the nodes have a connection to the wired network, and a special algorithm is used by the nonwired APs to determine the shortest path to the cable. This topology is available with the Cisco controller-based WLANs. The 802.11 standards committee is currently working on mesh networks under the number 802.11s.

Question
Which wireless network component is used to extend the range of an AP? Options:
1. Bridge

17

2. 3. 4.

Mesh WGB Repeater

Answer
Option 1: Incorrect. A wireless network can be extended beyond the LAN to link LANs together, by using a bridge. A bridge can be point-to-point, simply linking two networks, or point-to-multipoint, where several smaller LANs connect to a central one. Option 2: Incorrect. A mesh network consists of a number of APs deployed in a fully meshed configuration. It is typically used when peers are too far away for a manageable cabled connection. Option 3: Incorrect. A WGB provides a wireless connection to a wired Ethernet segment. Option 4: Correct. A wireless repeater is simply an AP that is not connected to the wired backbone. It uses its antenna to receive the signal from an AP that is connected to the network and repeats this signal for the clients that are close to it but too far away from the first AP to connect directly. Correct answer(s): 4. Repeater

Summary
An AP is a central device in a wireless network that centralizes the communication between machines. When configured on a client station, the SSID is a name used to identify which WLAN the client station is associated with. Devices lacking a wireless card can use a WGB. A repeater can extend the range of an AP. Bridges allow creation of point-to-point or point-to-multipoint links. In a mesh network, each AP is called a node. Mesh nodes act as repeaters to transmit data from nearby nodes to peers.

18

 2011 SkillSoft Ireland Limited.

19