Introduction

Logic gates process signals which represent true or false. Normally the positive supply voltage +Vs represents true and 0V represents false. Other terms which are used for the true and false states are shown in the table on the right. It is best to be familiar with them all. Gates are identified by their function: NOT, AND, NAND, OR, NOR, EX-ORand EX-NOR. Capital letters are normally used to make it clear that the term refers to a logic gate. Note that logic gates are not always required because simple logic functions can be performed with switches or diodes:
Logic state s True False 1 High +Vs On 0 Low 0V Off

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COMPONENTS
IC 7805 {Voltage Regulator}
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the line

CAPICITOR

A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a nonconductor. A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction. Page | 2

In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance

Type Invented

Passive : Ewald Georg von Kleist (October 1745)

Electronic Symbol

RESISTORS

A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. This constant of proportionality is called conductance, G. The reciprocal of the conductance is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law: Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Page | 3

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

A light-emitting diode is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962,early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth, switching speed, and extreme reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.

Type

Passive, optoelectronic : Electroluminescence

Working principle Invented :

Nick Holonyak Jr. (1962)

Electronic symbol

IC holders (DIL sockets)

ICs (chips) are easily damaged by heat when soldering and their short pins cannot be protected with a heat sink. Instead we use an IC holder, strictly called a DIL socket (DIL = Dual In-Line), which can be safely soldered onto the circuit board. The IC is pushed into the holder when all soldering is complete. IC holders are only needed when soldering so they are not used on breadboards.

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Diode

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric transfer characteristic, with low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p-n junction connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode. Now rarely used except in some high-power technologies and by enthusiasts, is a vacuum tube with two electrodes, a plate (anode) and cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receiversthese diodes are forms of rectifiers.

Transformer
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called inductive coupling.

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TYPES OF GATES
There are three types of basic logic gates which follows Boolean expression. i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) OR gate AND gate NOT gate NAND gate NOR gate X-NORgate X-ORgate

THE OR GATE

The OR gate is a two inputs and one output logic gate. It combing the input A and B with the output Y following the Boolean expression.

Y=A+B

The Boolean algebra, the addition symbol (+) is called OR (i.e. OR operation OR operator).

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The various possible combinations of the input and output of the OR gate can be easily understand with the help of the electrical circuit. In this electric circuit, a parallel combination of two switches A and B is connected to a battery and a lump L.

The following interference can be easily drawn from the working of electrical circuit is :

a)

If switch A & B are open lamp do not glow (A=0, B=0)

b)

If Switch A open B closed then (A=0, B=1) Lamp glow.

c)

If switch A closed B open then (A=1, B=0) Lamp glow.

d)

If switch A & B are closed then (A=1, B=1) Lamp glow.

As we see truth table we found same as it is observation.

THE AND GATE

The AND gate is also a two inputs and one output logic gate. It combines the input A and B with the output Y following the Boolean expression.

Y=A.B

The Boolean algebra, the multiplication symbol (. dot or x Gross) is taken to mean AND.

Y = A . B have Y is equal to A AND B.

The various possible combination of the input and outputs of the AND gate can be easily found with the help of the electrical circuit. Here a series combination of the switch A and B is connected to a battery and a lump L.

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The following conclusions can be easily drawn from the working of electrical circuit :

a)

If both switches A&B are open (A=0, B=0) then lamp will not glow. (y=0)

b)

If Switch A closed & B open (A=1, B=0) then Lamp will not glow. (y=0)

c)

If switch A open & B closed (A=0, B=1) then Lamp will not glow. (y=0)

d)

If switch A & B both closed (A=1, B=1) then Lamp will glow. (y=1)

As we see truth table we found same as it is observed experimentally.

THE NOT GATE

The NOT gate is a one inputs and one output logic gate. It combines the input A with the output following the Boolean expression.

Y = A

i.e. Y not equal A. The way, the NOT gate gives the output it is also called inverter. It is represented by the symbol.

The Boolean algebra, the negative sign (-) is called NOT. The equation Y= A called Boolean expression.

The possible input and output combination of a NOT gate can be easily discussed with the help of electrical circuit. Here, the switch is connected in parallel to the lump of the battery. The following conclusion can be easily drawn from the working of the electrical circuit.

a)

If switch A is open (i.e. A=0), the lump will glow (i.e. Y=1)

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b)

If Switch A is closed (i.e. A=1), the lump will not glow (Y=0).

It follows that in the given electrical circuit, the lump glows (or output is obtained), when the switch A is not closed. Far this reason, the electrical circuit is called not gate. The two possible input-output combinations can be written in the form of the table. It is called truth table of NOT gate.

THE NAND GATE

The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. It acts in the manner of the logical operation "and" followed by negation. The output is "false" if both inputs are "true." Otherwise, the output is "true."

Input 1 Input 2 Output 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

NAND gate

THE NOR GATE

The NOR gate is a combination of OR gate followed by an inverter. Its output is "true" if both inputs are "false." Otherwise, the output is "false."

Input Input Output 1 2 NOR gate 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

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THE X-NOR GATE

The XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gate is a combination XOR gate followed by an inverter. Its output is "true" if the inputs are the same, and"false" if the inputs are different.

Input 1 Input 2 Output 0 XNOR gate 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1

THE X-OR GATE

The XOR ( exclusive-OR ) gate acts in the same way as the logical "either/or." The output is "true" if either, but not both, of the inputs are "true." The output is "false" if both inputs are "false" or if both inputs are "true." Another way of looking at this circuit is to observe that the output is 1 if the inputs are different, but 0 if the inputs are the same.

Input 1 Input 2 Output 0 0 1 XOR gate 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0

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APPLICATION Logic gates can also be used to store data. A storage element can be constructed by connecting several gates in a "latch" circuit. More complicated designs that use clock signals and that change only on a rising or falling edge of the clock are called edge-triggered "flip-flops". The combination of multiple flip-flops in parallel, to store a multiple-bit value, is known as a register. When using any of these gate setups the overall system has memory; it is then called a sequential logic system since its output can be influenced by its previous state(s).

ADVANTAGE cmos logic circuit uses particularly pmos or nmos viz. passes strong 1 and strong zero respectively and also degraded zero's and one's in their respective cases of p and nmos so to remove deggraded Logic gates are basic components of microprocessors. Without them, electronics systems couldn't run

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TESTIG REPORT
Timing diagram: OR GATE:

AND GATE:

NOT GATE:

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NAND GATE:

NOR GATE:

X-OR GATE:

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TRUTH TABEL

X-OR GATE:
Input 1 Input 2 Output 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0

X-NOR GATE:
Input 1 Input 2 Output 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1

AND GATE:

OR GATE:

NOT GATE:

NAND GATE:
Input 1 Input 2 Output 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

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PCB Designing Printed circuit board

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly or PCB Assembly (PCBA). Printed circuit boards are used in virtually all but the simplest commercially produced electronic devices.

PCB Etching
The developed PCB is etched with a 220 g/l solution of ammonium peroxydisulfate (NH4)2S2O8 a.k.a. ammonium persulfate, 220 gram added to 1 liter of water and mix it until everything is dissolved. Theoretically it should be possible to etch slightly more than 60 grams of copper with 1 liter etching solution. Assume an 50% efficiency, about 30 grams of copper. With a thickness of 35 m copper on your PCB this covers a copper area of about 1000 cm2. Unfortunately the efficiency of the etching solution degrades, dissolved ammonium peroxydisulfate decomposes slowly. You better make just enough etching solution you need to etch. For an etching tray of about 20 x 25 cm a minimum practical amount is 200-250 ml solution. So you dissolve about 44 grams ammonium peroxydisulfate into 200 ml or 55 grams into 250 ml water. When the ammonium peroxydisulfate is dissolved it is a clear liquid. After an etching procedure it gradually becomes blue and more deeper blue - the chemical reaction creates dissolved copper sulfate CuSO4. Compared to other etching chemicals like hydrated iron (III) chloride FeCl3.6H2O a.k.a. ferric chloride or the combination of hydrochloric acid HCL and hydrogen peroxide H2O2, using ammonium peroxydisulfateis a clean and safe method. Did you ever spilled dissolved iron chloride on your clothes or your assumed stainless steel kitchen sink? Do you really want to keep concentrated hydrochloric acid and hydrogen peroxide at home? So, without doubt ammonium peroxydisulfate is the best choice for etching at home. However, copper sulfate is a poisonous substance and should be treated as chemical waste.

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Drilling
Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with small-diameter drill bits made of solid coated tungsten carbide. Coated tungsten carbide is recommended since many board materials are very abrasive and drilling must be high RPM and high feed to be cost effective. Drill bits must also remain sharp so as not to mar or tear the traces. Drilling with high-speed-steel is simply not feasible since the drill bits will dull quickly and thus tear the copper and ruin the boards. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file.

How to Soldering
First a few safety precautions:
Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron. They are very hot (about 400C) and will give you a nasty burn. Take great care to avoid touching the mains flex with the tip of the iron. The iron should have a heatproof flex for extra protection. An ordinary plastic flex will melt immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is a serious risk of burns and electric shock. Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use. Never put it down on your workbench, even for a moment! Work in a well-ventilated area. The smoke formed as you melt solder is mostly from the flux and quite irritating. Avoid breathing it by keeping you head to the side of, not above, your work. Wash your hands after using solder. Solder contains lead which is a poisonous metal.

Preparing the soldering iron:

Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in. The iron will take a few minutes to reach its operating temperature of about 400C. Dampen the sponge in the stand. The best way to do this is to lift it out the stand and hold it under a cold tap for a moment, then squeeze to remove excess water. It should be damp, not dripping wet. Wait a few minutes for the soldering iron to warm up. You can check if it is ready by trying to melt a little solder on the tip. Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge. This will clean the tip. Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron. This is called 'tinning' and it will help the heat to flow from the iron's tip to the joint. It only needs to be done when you plug in the iron, and occasionally while soldering if you need to wipe the tip cleaon the sponge.

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List of figure
Circuit Diagram:
Universality of NAND Gates:

Universality of NOR Gates:

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Pin Descriptiop of ICs :

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PCB Layout:

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Conclusion:
The complex gate design technique applies for any combination of operators AND and OR. The technique produces compact cells with higher performances in terms of spacing and speed than conventional logic circuits. Logic gates are primarily implemented using diodes or transistors acting as electronic switches, but can also be constructed using electromagnetic relays (relay logic), fluidic logic, pneumatic logic, optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements. With amplification, logic gates can be cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of the algorithms and mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic.

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