Computer Fundamentals, MS Office, D.T.P., Internet & Soft Skills

R.S.K Technologies Content Computer Fundamentals 1. Computer Fundamentals 2. Computer Typing Practice 3. What is an Operating System of Computer ? 2.
1 DOS INTRODUCTION 2.2. Window Operating System MS Office 2003 4. MS Office 2003 Desk Top Publishing (D.T.P) 5. Data Entry Material 6. MS Excel 2003 7. MS PowerPoint 2003 8. Adobe Page Maker 9. Adobe Photoshop 10. COREL DRAW 11. Practice Forms Data Entry Internet Skills 12. What is a Computer Network? Local Area Network, Intra network 14. Internet 127 128 48 57 72 80 102 111 125 35 3 6 8 10 13
RSK Tech - Computer Fundamentals, MS Office, D.T.P., Internet & Soft skills
R.S.K Technologies Soft Skills 15. COMMUNICATION SKILLS 16. GROUP DISCUSSION 17. GRAMMAR 18. PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 19. INTERVIEW TIPS 20. DECISION MAKING SKILLS 21. PERSONAL GROOMING & HYGIENE 22. INDUCTION & SELF SUSTENANCE SKILLS 23. EMPLOYABILITY SKILLS 24. COMAPANY EXPECTATIONS 25. TRANSFORMAL SKILLS 26. TIME MANAGEMENT 27. KEYS TO BETTER CUSTOMER INTERACTION SKILLS 28. AWARENESS OF THE PROGRAM 133 138 143 160 171 175 179 183 187 191 192 194 199
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Computer Fundamentals
1.Computer Fundamentals
1.Hardware fundamental Input Devices (keyboard), Output Devices (monitor) and the CPU A model expression for computer operation is the following:
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INPUT - PROCESS OUTPUT This means that information is delivered (input) to the computer, the computer processes the information and then sends (outputs) processed information to the user. Thus, a computer is composed of hardware that performs these three functions, input, process, output. The most common input devices are the keyboard and the mouse although many other input devices exist. For example, a computer may monitor a hospital patient's heart beat via contacts placed on the patients chest. The contacts are an input device. The most common output devices are the monitor and printer. These enable the computer to present information in a format that humans can understand. The CPU (Central Processing Unit) has primary responsibility for processing data. All the complex processing that a computer performs, no matter how sophisticated, can be done with three simple functions (instructions). These are 1) add two numbers, 2) move a number from one location to another and 3) compare two numbers and act upon the result of the comparison. For example we might instruct the computer to do the following. IF X < Y THEN A = A + 1 ELSE B = B + 1 This instructs the computer to increase the number A by one if X is less than Y, otherwise increase the number B by one. Of course far more complex circuitry is normally built into most modern computers for speed and convenience reasons. However, the three simple instructions listed above are all a computer needs to function. 2.Primary Memory/RAM In order for a computer to store and move information it needs some place to put it. Information that is currently being accessed (used) by the CPU is stored in Primary Memory, also called Main Memory or RAM. For example, if we are using a word processing program to write a letter then the letter is stored in Primary Memory. In fact the word processing program itself is stored in Primary Memory as well. Primary Memory is necessary because the CPU can not access data directly from disk. The data must first be copied from disk to Primary Memory to make it accessible to the CPU. Primary Memory is volatile. This means that if power is cut-off to the computer the information in Primary Memory is lost. That is why it is important to save our work to disk frequently when using a computer application such as a word processor or a spreadsheet. 3.Disks and Disk Drives Since Primary Memory is volatile we need a device on which we can permanently store information. That device is called a Disk. A Disk is very similar in many respects to a CD except that whereas we cannot record onto an ordinary CD, information can be written to or read from
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disks. Like a CD a disk needs a device on which to "play" it. This device for computer disks is called a disk drive. Computer disks come in many sizes, speeds and price ranges and hold from one million to hundreds of billions of "bytes" of information. A byte is equivalent to one character where a character may be a digit, a letter or some other special character such as !, @ #, $, etc. a. Hard Drives "Hard" Disk Drives are mounted (semi-)permanently in the system box (the enclosure that holds the computer's internals). They consist of many "platters" and may hold from one billion to several hundred billion bytes of information. b. Diskettes Diskettes (sometimes called floppy disks) normally may hold only about 1.4 million bytes. Diskettes are removable so they may be transported from one computer to another. They are a very common means of moving data from one computer to another. Their low capacity, however, limits their usefulness for this purpose. c. Network Drives Computers may have access to disk drives that reside on other computers if the computers are connected via a network. A network is simply a "wired" connection between computers. The connection does not even have to be permanent. For example, people may use their phone line to temporarily connect to the grandest network of them all, the Internet. Also, with today's wireless technologies, "wired" can refer to a connection made via microwave or satellite. At Lynchburg College students have their own private directories on a special server computer whose name is erin. Since erin is always active and connected to the Internet students can access information they have placed on erin from almost anywhere in the world at any time of day or night. d. Other - CDs, ZIP, etc. As technology has advanced many other types of disk drives have and will continue to appear. The ZIP drive is similar to a diskette in appearance and functionality yet holds more than 100 times as much data. The newest CDs can be written to with a special CD drive and hold over 500 million bytes of data. It is likely these will become standard equipment because of the CD's universal acceptance as a media. 1.Other Secondary Storage Devices There is still a place in today's computing world for non-disk mass storage devices. The tape drive has been with us from almost the beginning of computing time and still retains a useful, if diminished, role in many computer operations. Tapes and similar devices will continue to have a role as long as there is a need for large amounts of inexpensive storage. 2.Interface Boards, Power Supplies, etc.
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It is beyond the scope of this course to delve into much detail on many of the other components that inhabit the system box of modern computers. However, we would be remiss if we did not mention the power supply. Internally, computers must use, relatively, low-voltage DC (Direct Current)power. Usually 5 - 12 volts DC is what is required. The electric receptacles that populate the walls of our offices and homes, however, dispense 115 volt AC (Alternating Current) power. A computer power supply accepts the 115 volt AC household current and converts it into 5 - 12 volt DC current for the computer's internal components. There are many devices that do not come as standard equipment on most equipment. One that may soon become standard is the network card. The network card consists of computer circuits placed onto a circuit board. The purpose of the network card is to enable a computer to communicate with other computers on a network. Circuit boards like this plug into special slots that are mounted on the computer's "mother board" or "system board". The system board is the basic platform upon which all the major internal electronic components are mounted. Special cards/boards like network cards are plugged into slots on the system board so that other components like the CPU or Primary Memory may have access to them.
2. COMPUTER TYPING PRACTICE

Alphanumeric keyboard Using a touch typing technique has many advantages. Your communication with your personal computer will be faster. You will also be able to concentrate on your work more, because your typing will be nearly automatic.
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Users without the knowledge of touch typing will constantly be checking key positions and making many mistakes. Looking at the keyboard all the time is also disturbing, because the eyes have to focus on different objects very often. The touch typing method is better for your health, because there is minimum movement of the hands, head and body during typing. Without using this method you could look like an amateur even after several long years experience on the computer. Within the touch typing method, each finger controls its own set of keys. Learning is not only about the keyboard use, it is also about the importance of using a correct sitting position, holding hands correctly and using correct techniques for keystrokes, etc. The computer keyboard is too extensive to use only one base position for the hands, therefore three positions must be used. There are three keyboard sections(alphanumeric, numeric and functional). Some people with experience `````There is an advantage for people who have experience with finger practicing. For example players of key instruments are used to playing without looking at the keys. This custom is important for touch typing learning. If somebody types with all ten fingers, without correct fingering, then it will be very hard to learn correct touch typing. It is a big disadvantage and it is important to start using the new method without switching to your old typing method. There is no different between left-handers and right-handers. It seams that left handed people are usually faster. People with dyslexia may have troubles with touch typing learning. The touch typing method uses an alphanumeric keyboard which corresponds to the old typewriter appearance. It is very important to use the base position for hands all the time when typing. Fingers should return to the base line after each keystroke. The base position is defined in the middle row for following fingers: left hand little finger ring finger middle finger index finger thumb right hand little finger ring finger middle finger index finger thumb
A S D F spacebar
; L K J spacebar
Fingers are slightly bent during typing. Keys are touched by finger pads and glide from one key to other. Don't try to bend wrist and fingers. Your Index finger should be near to orthogonal to the key rows. Palms cannot lean on the desk or front part of the keyboard when typing. Type only with one finger, and don't move your wrist. Unused fingers should stay in the base position and each finger should return to the base position after use. Numeric keyboard We use only the right hand for the numeric keyboard. The left hand will stay in its base position on an alphanumeric keyboard (Keys A, S, D, F and spacebar) The base position for a numeric keyboard is divided into two rows. 1. Base position for middle row:
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index finger middle finger ring finger ... 4 ... 5 ... 6
2. Base position for bottom row: thumb little finger ... 0 ... ENTER
The left hand is usually used for the spacebar, TAB, SHIFT and CTRL when a numeric keyboard is used. There is usually a problem with the error correction, because backspace is located out of the range of the base positions. Some keyboards contain a numeric keyboard where the backspace is included in the top right position and then followed by the minus, plus and Enter keys. Functional keyboard It is not possible to define a base position for your hand in this case because functional keys are placed in many locations. These keys are not used very often in practice. It is more popular to use the numeric keyboard in the second mode where the keys Page Up, Page Down, Home, End, Insert, Delete and arrows are available. Numbers can be typed with an alphanumeric keyboard; therefore a numeric keyboard should be always switched on for functional keys. Body posture To use an old mechanical typewriter is much different from a computer keyboard. Arms are along the body, and they are bent at the elbow with orthogonal angle. Your hands are in the base position, and your fingers are placed on the keys A, S, D, F, J, K, L, ;. Fingers are slightly bent during typing. Keys are touched by finger pads and glide from one key to other. Use movement of one finger only. Don't move your wrist while typing. Don't allow wrists to lean on the desk, because it can invoke permanent damage of your nerve fiber (There is a risk of occupational disease). The whole hand should move minimally A more detailed description about sitting position is here: Healthy sitting with the keyboard An incorrect sitting position can create more risk for health then radiation from computer display. Pain in the back can come soon when you sit in twisted position.
3. What is an Operating System?

Computers function with "bits" of information in the form of electrons or magnetic charges or pulses of light. They do think or communicate in the same manner that humans do. The Operating System is a computer program that acts as an intermediary between the computer's internal components and the human who wishes to operate the computer. Basically, an Operating System makes the components of a computer accessible to the user. Operating systems such asWindows or Unix may also present a "user interface" to the persons operating the computer. The user interface is, basically, what we see on the monitor outside of a particular application such as a word processor or a spreadsheet program.
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I have given, above, a rather crude yet, hopefully, functional definition of an operating system. The reader should be aware that the term probably cannot be accurately defined. In fact the dispute between the U. S. Department of Justice and Microsoft Corp. is, in part, over what actually constitutes an operating system. Probably the most important function of the operating system is the management of files. Files are, arguably, the most important concept a competent computer user needs to master. All information and all programs on a computer are stored in files. We will discuss files more fully later in this module. C. Windows and Unix The two most prevalent operating systems are Microsoft Windows and Unix. In the earlier days of computers every computer had its own operating system. It soon became clear that this was not practical or desirable. Windows runs on almost all models of PCs and on DEC Alpha computers. Unix runs on dozens of different computers including PCs. In fact, Unix was designed, in part, to be portable. In saying Unix is portable we mean that Unix will run on most computers. As with all operating systems Windows and Unix have their strong points and weak points. For each there is an environment for which it is most suitable. We will not settle the operating system controversy (i.e., which is better) in this course but you should know that such a controversy exists. Booting the system, handling diskettes, etc. The Boot or Bootstrap Process The process of starting or restarting a computer by loading and executing (running) its operating system is called "booting" the computer. The process of starting a computer is not like starting most other "household appliances". There is a dilemma . Ordinary computer programs like text editors are loaded from disk into primary memory by the operating system at the user's request. Recall that the operating is also a computer program. So how can the operating system itself be loaded from disk if there is no active operating system to load it. This is a classic chicken and egg situation (i.e., which must come first?). The answer is that a special program is embedded in the computer hardware. This program resides in a non-volatile ROM (Read Only Memory) chip called the "boot ROM". Since the boot ROM is non-volatile it retains its contents when power is removed from the computer. The computer is constructed (hard-wired) so that when the computer is restarted by turning on the power switch the program on the boot ROM chip automatically runs. The sole purpose of the program on the boot ROM is to load the operating system into primary memory and cause it to begin running. The program on the boot ROM chip is called the bootstrap program. The process of restarting the computer is called booting or bootstrapping the computer because the computer is compared to the person who pulls him/herself up by his/her own bootstraps (an old saying that younger generations may not be familiar with.) 1. When should I reboot/restart the computer? 2. Handling Diskettes 3. Backups are IMPORTANT! 4. Computer Viruses
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DISK OPERATING SYSTEM (DOS) 2.1 DOS INTRODUCTION When the computer starts, it starts the operating system that takes the control of the machine. An Operating System is a set of programs that help in controlling and managing the Hardware and the Software resources of a computer system. A good operating system should have the following features;
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1. Help in the loading of programs and data from external sources into the internal memory before they are executed. 2. Help programs to perform input/output operations, such as;
o o o
Print or display the result of a program on the printer or the screen. Store the output data or programs written on the computer in storage device. Communicate the message from the system to the user through the VDU.
As the name suggests, the operating System is used for operating the system or the computer. It is a set of computer programs and also known as DOS (Disk Operating System). The main functions of DOS are to manage disk files, allocate system resources according to the requirement. DOS provides features essential to control hardware devices such as Keyboard, Screen, Disk Devices, Printers, Modems and programs. Basically, DOS is the medium through which the user and external devices attached to the system communicate with the system. DOS translate the command issued by the user in the format that is understandable by the computer and instruct computer to work accordingly. It also translates the result and any error message in the format for the user to understand. DIRECTORY STRUCTURE IN DOS The files in the computer come from various sources. Some files come with DOS, while other come with publications such as a word processor. These files contain codes and other information that is necessary to make the computer application operational. Before long, there will be hundreds or even thousands of files in the computer, which can make it difficult to locate specific files. The names of all the files created in a disk are stored in its directory. Directory is just like a file folder, which contain all the logically related files. DOS files are organized in a hierarchical or an inverted tree-like structure. The general analogy is with a file cabinet containing a number of drawers, which in turn may contain folders. The content of these folders is the needed information. The file cabinet here is the ROOT DIRECTORY, the drawer is INDIVIDUAL DIRECTORY, the folders are SUBDIRECTORY and the information in these folders may in turn be classified as FILES. Otherwise, the large number of files that get created for various purposes in a disk can make the directory huge and difficult to view and manage. Therefore, DOS enables the user to organize the files in a disk into directories and sub-directories in a hierarchical structure. Directories can contain other directories. A directory within another directory is called a sub-directory. Of course, there may be sub-directories of sub-directories, but a file name is the furthest you may descend down the (inverted) tree of directories and files. Thus, a file name corresponds to a tree leaf, a sub-directory to a branch, the directory to the trunk, and the root directory to the root of the tree, hence the name ROOT DIRECTORY.
RSK Tech - Computer Fundamentals, MS Office, D.T.P., Internet & Soft skills 10
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Sample of Directory Structure
The directory/sub-directory is represented in bold letters. DIRECTORY COMMAND The content of each of the sub-directory cannot be viewed unless it is made active, or a subdirectory is specified as part of the DIR command. Doing either of these requires an understanding of the concepts of navigating around the disk. The directory, the user is in at any point of time, is called the WORKING/PRESENT/CURRENT directory. DOS indicates which directory you are in by displaying the directory's name in the command prompt. For example, the following command prompt indicate that you are in the DOS directory: C:\DOS>. Knowing which directory is current helps you find files, and to move from one directory to another more easily. Typically, the ROOT DIRECTORY (\) is the initial working directory. The entire specification of directory from root is called a PATH. By itself, the DIR command is applicable to the working/present directory. The names of the sub-directories at adjacent levels are separated by backslash (\), while specifying the path to be followed while traveling to a sub-directory.
USING PATH TO SPECIFY THE LOCATION OF FILES A path is the route that leads from the root directory of a drive to the file you want to use.
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For example, to access the NOS.LET file in the LETTER subdirectory of NOS directory, DOS must go from the ROOT (\) directory through the NOS directory to the LETTER directory, as
A Few DOS Commands 1. CHKDSK - Check a disk for errors. 2. DATE - Display the date and, optionally, allow the user to set the computer's calendar. 3. FORMAT - Format a disk to make it ready to accept data. 4. (NOTES: FORMAT destroys all data on a disk. A disk only needs to be formatted once.) 5. TIME - Display the time and, optionally, allow the user to set the 6. computer's clock. 7. VER - Display the current version of DOS in use on this computer.
2.2.Window Operating System An operating system (OS) is a set of programs that manages computer hardware resources, and provides common services for application software. The operating system is the most important
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type of system software in a computer system. Without an operating system, a user cannot run an application program on their computer, unless the application program is self booting. Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources. For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary between application programs and the computer hardware,[1][2] although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and will frequently call the OS or be interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on almost any device that contains a computer from cellular phones and video game consoles to supercomputers and web servers. Examples of popular modern operating systems include Linux, Android, iOS, Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows. Real-time A real-time operating system is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-time operating systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behavior. The main objective of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events. They have an event-driven or time-sharing design and often aspects of both. An event-driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external events while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts. Multi-user vs. Single-user A multi-user operating system allows multiple users to access a computer system concurrently. Time-sharing system can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable a multiple user access to a computer through the sharing of time. Single-user operating systems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by a single user at a time. Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not make it a multi-user system. Rather, only the network administrator is the real user. But for a Unix-like operating system, it is possible for two users to login at a time and this capability of the OS makes it a multi-user operating system. Multi-tasking vs. Single-tasking When only a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under a singletasking system. However, when the operating system allows the execution of multiple tasks at one time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-tasking can be of two types: preemptive or co-operative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux
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support pre-emptive multitasking. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner. MS Windows prior to Windows 2000 used to support cooperative multitasking. Distributed A distributed operating system manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other, gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system. Embedded Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems.
History of DOS:In the 1940s, the earliest electronic digital systems had no operating systems. Electronic systems of this time were so primitive compared to those of today that instructions were often entered into the system one bit at a time on rows of mechanical switches or by jumper wires on plug boards. These were special-purpose systems that, for example, generated ballistics tables for the military or controlled the printing of payroll checks from data on punched paper cards. After programmable general purpose computers were invented, machine languages (consisting of strings of the binary digits 0 and 1 on punched paper tape) were introduced that speed up the programming process (Stern, 1981). OS/360 was used on most IBM mainframe computers beginning in 1966, including the computers that helped NASA put a man on the moon. In the early 1950s, a computer could execute only one program at a time. Each user had sole use of the computer for a limited period of time and would arrive at a scheduled time with program and data on punched paper cards and/or punched tape. The program would be loaded into the machine, and the machine would be set to work until the program completed or crashed. Programs could
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generally be debugged via a front panel using toggle switches and panel lights. It is said that Alan Turing was a master of this on the early Manchester Mark 1 machine, and he was already deriving the primitive conception of an operating system from the principles of the Universal Turing machine. Later machines came with libraries of software, which would be linked to a user's program to assist in operations such as input and output and generating computer code from human-readablesymbolic code. This was the genesis of the modern-day operating system. However, machines still ran a single job at a time. At Cambridge University in England the job queue was at one time a washing line from which tapes were hung with different colored clothes-pegs to indicate job-priority. Mainframes Through the 1950s, many major features were pioneered in the field of operating systems, including batch processing, input/output interrupt, buffering, multitasking, spooling, runtime libraries, link-loading, and programs for sorting records in files. These features were included or not included in application software at the option of application programmers, rather than in a separate operating system used by all applications. In 1959 the SHARE Operating System was released as an integrated utility for the IBM 704, and later in the 709 and 7090 mainframes. During the 1960s, IBM's OS/360 introduced the concept of a single OS spanning an entire product line, which was crucial for the success of the System/360 machines. IBM's current mainframe operating systems are distant descendants of this original system and applications written for OS/360 can still be run on modern machines.[citation OS/360, offered the first
[citation needed] needed]
In the mid-'70s, MVS, a descendant of
implementation of using RAM as a transparent cache for data.
OS/360 also pioneered the concept that the operating system keeps track of all of the system resources that are used, including program and data space allocation in main memory and file space in secondary storage, and file locking during update. When the process is terminated for any reason, all of these resources are re-claimed by the operating system. The alternative CP-67 system for the S/360-67 started a whole line of IBM operating systems focused on the concept of virtual machines. Other operating systems used on IBM S/360 series mainframes included systems developed by IBM: COS/360 (Compatabililty Operating System), DOS/360 (Disk Operating System), TSS/360 (Time Sharing System), TOS/360 (Tape Operating System), BOS/360 (Basic Operating System), and ACP (Airline Control Program), as well as a few non-IBM systems: MTS (Michigan Terminal System), MUSIC (Multi-User System for Interactive Computing), and ORVYL (Stanford Timesharing System).
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Control Data Corporation developed the SCOPE operating system in the 1960s, for batch processing. In cooperation with the University of Minnesota, the Kronos and later the NOS operating systems were developed during the 1970s, which supported simultaneous batch and timesharing use. Like many commercial timesharing systems, its interface was an extension of the Dartmouth BASIC operating systems, one of the pioneering efforts in timesharing and programming languages. In the late 1970s, Control Data and the University of Illinois developed the PLATO operating system, which used plasma panel displays and long-distance time sharing networks. Plato was remarkably innovative for its time, featuring real-time chat, and multi-user graphical games. Burroughs Corporation introduced the B5000 in 1961 with theMCP, (Master Control Program) operating system. The B5000 was a stack machine designed to exclusively support high-level languages with no machine language or assembler, and indeed the MCP was the first OS to be written exclusively in a high-level language ESPOL, a dialect of ALGOL. MCP also introduced many other ground-breaking innovations, such as being the first commercial implementation of virtual memory. During development of the AS400, IBM made an approach to Burroughs to licence MCP to run on the AS400 hardware. This proposal was declined by Burroughs management to protect its existing hardware production. MCP is still in use today in the UnisysClearPath/MCP line of computers. UNIVAC, the first commercial computer manufacturer, produced a series of EXEC operating systems. Like all early main-frame systems, this was a batch-oriented system that managed magnetic drums, disks, card readers and line printers. In the 1970s, UNIVAC produced the RealTime Basic (RTB) system to support large-scale time sharing, also patterned after the Dartmouth BC system. General Electric and MIT developed General Electric Comprehensive Operating Supervisor (GECOS), which introduced the concept of ringed security privilege levels. After acquisition by Honeywell it was renamed to General Comprehensive Operating System (GCOS). Digital Equipment Corporation developed many operating systems for its various computer lines, including TOPS-10 and TOPS-20 time sharing systems for the 36-bit PDP-10 class systems. Prior to the widespread use of UNIX, TOPS-10 was a particularly popular system in universities, and in the early ARPANET community. In the late 1960s through the late 1970s, several hardware capabilities evolved that allowed similar or ported software to run on more than one system. Early systems had utilized microprogramming to implement features on their systems in order to permit different underlying architecture to appear to be the same as others in a series. In fact most 360s after the 360/40 (except the 360/165 and
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360/168) were microprogrammed implementations. But soon other means of achieving application compatibility were proven to be more significant. The enormous investment in software for these systems made since 1960s caused most of the original computer manufacturers to continue to develop compatible operating systems along with the hardware. The notable supported mainframe operating systems include:

Burroughs MCP B5000, 1961 to Unisys Clearpath/MCP, present. IBM OS/360 IBM System/360, 1966 to IBM z/OS, present. IBM CP-67 IBM System/360, 1967 to IBM z/VM, present. UNIVAC EXEC 8 UNIVAC 1108, 1967, to OS 2200 Unisys Clearpath Dorado, present.
Microcomputers
PC-DOS was an early personal computer OS that featured a command line interface.
Mac OS by Apple Computer became the first widespread OS to feature a graphical user interface. Many of its features such as windows and icons would later become commonplace in GUIs. The first microcomputers did not have the capacity or need for the elaborate operating systems that had been developed for mainframes and minis; minimalistic operating systems were developed, often loaded from ROM and known as Monitors. One notable early disk-based operating system was CP/M, which was supported on many early microcomputers and was closely imitated by Microsoft's MS-DOS, which became wildly popular as the operating system chosen for the IBM
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PC (IBM's version of it was called IBM DOS or PC DOS). In the '80s, Apple Computer Inc. (now Apple Inc.) abandoned its popular Apple IIseries of microcomputers to introduce the Apple Macintosh computer with an innovativeGraphical User Interface (GUI) to the Mac OS. The introduction of the Intel 80386 CPU chip with 32-bit architecture and paging capabilities, provided personal computers with the ability to run multitasking operating systems like those of earlier minicomputers and mainframes. Microsoft responded to this progress by hiring Dave Cutler, who had developed the VMS operating system for Digital Equipment Corporation. He would lead the development of the Windows NT operating system, which continues to serve as the basis for Microsoft's operating systems line. Steve Jobs, a co-founder of Apple Inc., started NeXT Computer Inc., which developed the Unix-like NEXTSTEPoperating system. NEXTSTEP would later be acquired by Apple Inc. and used, along with code from FreeBSD as the core of Mac OS X. The GNU Project was started by activist and programmer Richard Stallman with the goal of a complete free software replacement to the proprietary UNIX operating system. While the project was highly successful in duplicating the functionality of various parts of UNIX, development of the GNU Hurd kernel proved to be unproductive. In 1991, Finnish computer science student Linus Torvalds, with cooperation from volunteers collaborating over the Internet, released the first version of the Linux kernel. It was soon merged with the GNU user space components and system software to form a complete operating system. Since then, the combination of the two major components has usually been referred to as simply "Linux" by the software industry, a naming convention that Stallman and the Free Software Foundation remain opposed to, preferring the name GNU/Linux. The Berkeley Software Distribution, known as BSD, is the UNIX derivative distributed by the University of California, Berkeley, starting in the 1970s. Freely distributed and ported to many minicomputers, it eventually also gained a following for use on PCs, mainly as FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD. BSD and its descendants
The first server for the World Wide Web ran on NeXTSTEP, based on BSD.
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Main article: Berkeley Software Distribution A subgroup of the Unix family is the Berkeley Software Distribution family, which includesFreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD. These operating systems are most commonly found onwebservers, although they can also function as a personal computer OS. The Internet owes much of its existence to BSD, as many of the protocols now commonly used by computers to connect, send and receive data over a network were widely implemented and refined in BSD. The world wide web was also first demonstrated on a number of computers running an OS based on BSD called NextStep. BSD has its roots in Unix. In 1974, University of California, Berkeley installed its first Unix system. Over time, students and staff in the computer science department there began adding new programs to make things easier, such as text editors. When Berkely received new VAX computers in 1978 with Unix installed, the school's undergraduates modified Unix even more in order to take advantage of the computer's hardware possibilities. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency of the US Department of Defense took interest, and decided to fund the project. Many schools, corporations, and government organizations took notice and started to use Berkeley's version of Unix instead of the official one distributed by AT&T. Steve Jobs, upon leaving Apple Inc. in 1985, formed NeXT Inc., a company that manufactured high-end computers running on a variation of BSD called NeXTSTEP. One of these computers was used by Tim Berners-Lee as the first webserver to create the World Wide Web. Developers like Keith Bostic encouraged the project to replace any non-free code that originated with Bell Labs. Once this was done, however, AT&T sued. Eventually, after two years of legal disputes, the BSD project came out ahead and spawned a number of free derivatives, such as FreeBSD and NetBSD. Mac OS X
The standard user interface of Mac OS X
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Mac OS X is a line of partially proprietary graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., the latest of which is pre-loaded on all currently shipping Macintoshcomputers. Mac OS X is the successor to the original Mac OS, which had been Apple's primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its predecessor, Mac OS X is a UNIX operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT through the second half of the 1980s and up until Apple purchased the company in early 1997. The operating system was first released in 1999 as Mac OS X Server 1.0, with a desktop-oriented version (Mac OS X v10.0) following in March 2001. Since then, six more distinct "client" and "server" editions of Mac OS X have been released, the most recent being Mac OS X 10.7, which was first made available on July 20, 2011. Releases of Mac OS X are named after big cats; the current version of Mac OS X is "Lion". The server edition, Mac OS X Server, is architecturally identical to its desktop counterpart but usually runs on Apple's line of Macintosh serverhardware. Mac OS X Server includes work group management and administration software tools that provide simplified access to key network services, including a mail transfer agent, a Samba server, an LDAP server, a domain name server, and others. In Mac OS X v10.7 Lion, all server aspects of Mac OS X Server have been integrated into the client version.[5] Linux and GNU
Ubuntu, common GNOME desktop Linux distribution
a Kubuntu, a common KDE desktop Linux distribution
Linux (or GNU/Linux) is a Unix-like operating system that was developed without any actual Unix code, unlike BSD and its variants. Linux can be used on a wide range of devices from supercomputers to wristwatches. The Linux kernel is released under an open source license, so anyone can read and modify its code. It has been modified to run on a large variety of electronics. Although estimates suggest that Linux is used on 1.82% of all personal computers,[6][7] it has been widely adopted for use in servers[8] and embedded systems[9] (such as cell phones). Linux has
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superseded Unix in most places[which?], and is used on the 10 most powerful supercomputers in the world.[10] The Linux kernel is used in some popular distributions, such as Red Hat, Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint and Google's Android. The GNU project is a mass collaboration of programmers who seek to create a completely free and open operating system that was similar to Unix but with completely original code. It was started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, and is responsible for many of the parts of most Linux variants. For this reason, some claim that the combined product of the Linux kernel and the GNU software collection is more correctly called GNU/Linux. Thousands of pieces of software for virtually every operating system are licensed under the GNU General Public License. Meanwhile, the Linux kernel began as a side project of Linus Torvalds, a university student from Finland. In 1991, Torvalds began work on it, and posted information about his project on a newsgroup for computer students and programmers. He received a wave of support and volunteers who ended up creating a full-fledged kernel. Programmers from GNU took notice, and members of both projects worked to integrate the finished GNU parts with the Linux kernel in order to create a full-fledged operating system. Google Chrome OS Main article: Google Chrome OS Chrome is an operating system based on the Linux kernel and designed by Google. Since Chrome OS targets computer users who spend most of their time on the Internet, it is mainly a web browser with no ability to run applications. It relies on Internet applications (or Web apps) used in the web browser to accomplish tasks such as word processing and media viewing, as well as online storage for storing most files. AmigaOS
A screenshot of AmigaOS 4.1 Update 2. Main article: AmigaOS AmigaOS is the default native operating system of the Amiga personal computer. It was developed first by the Amiga Corporation then sold to Commodore International, and initially introduced in
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1985 with the Amiga 1000. Early versions (1.0-3.9) run on the Motorola 68k series of 16-bit and 32-bit microprocessors, while the newer Amiga OS 4 runs only on PowerPC microprocessors. On top of a preemptive multitasking kernel called Exec, it includes an abstraction of the Amiga's unique hardware, a disk operating system called Amiga DOS, a windowing system API called Intuition and a graphical user interface called Workbench. A command line interface called AmigaShell is also available and integrated into the system. The GUI and the CLI complement each other and share the same privileges. The current holder of the Amiga intellectual properties is Amiga Inc. They oversaw the development of Amiga OS 4 but did not develop it themselves, contracting it instead to Hyperion Entertainment. On 20 December 2006, Amiga Inc terminated Hyperion's license to continue development of Amiga OS 4. However, in 30 September 2009, Hyperion was granted an exclusive, perpetual, worldwide right to Amiga OS 3.1 in order to use, develop, modify, commercialize, distribute and market Amiga OS 4.x and subsequent versions of Amiga OS (including Amiga OS 5).[11] History of Windows
Windows 7, shown here, is the newest release of Windows. Main article: Microsoft Windows Microsoft Windows is a family of proprietary operating systems designed by Microsoft Corporation and primarily targeted to Intel architecture based computers, with an estimated 88.9 percent total usage share on Web connected computers.[12][13][14][7] Currently, the most widely used version of the Windows family is Windows XP,[15] released on October 25, 2001. The newest version is Windows 7 for workstations and Windows Server 2008 R2 for servers. Microsoft Windows originated in 1985 as an application running on top of MS-DOS, which was the standard operating system shipped on most Intel architecture personal computers at the time. In 1995, Windows 95 was released, combining MS-DOS 7.0 with Windows on the same medium, removing the need of getting a separate MS-DOS license. Keeping much legacy, it could run realmode MS-DOS[16][17] and 16 bits Windows 3.x[18] drivers. Windows Me, released in 2000, was the
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latest version of Windows of the Windows 95 family. Later versions have all been based on the Windows NT kernel. Current versions of Windows run onIA-32 and x86-64 microprocessors, although Windows 8 will support ARM architecture. In the past, Windows NT supported a few non-Intel architectures. Server editions of Windows are widely used. In recent years, Microsoft has expended significant capital in an effort to promote the use of Windows as a server operating environment. However, Windows' usage on servers is not as widespread as on personal computers, as Windows competes against Linux and BSD for server market share.[19][20] Components The components of an operating system all exist in order to make the different parts of a computer work together. All softwarefrom financial databases to film editorsneeds to go through the operating system in order to use any of the hardware, whether it be as simple as a mouse or keyboard or complex as an Internet connection. Kernel
A kernel connects the application software to the hardware of a computer. With the aid of the firmware and device drivers, the kernel provides the most basic level of control over all of the computer's hardware devices. It manages memory access for programs in the RAM, it determines which programs get access to which hardware resources, it sets up or resets the CPU's operating states for optimal operation at all times, and it organizes the data for long-termnonvolatile storage with file systems on such media as disks, tapes, flash memory, etc. Program execution Main article: Process (computing) The operating system provides an interface between an application program and the computer hardware, so that an application program can interact with the hardware only by obeying rules and procedures programmed into the operating system. The operating system is also a set of services which simplify development and execution of application programs. Executing an application
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program involves the creation of a process by the operating system kernel which assigns memory space and other resources, establishes a priority for the process in multi-tasking systems, loads program binary code into memory, and initiates execution of the application program which then interacts with the user and with hardware devices. Interrupts Main article: Interrupt Interrupts are central to operating systems, as they provide an efficient way for the operating system to interact with and react to its environment. The alternative having the operating system "watch" the various sources of input for events (polling) that require action can be found in older systems with very small stacks (50 or 60 bytes) but are unusual in modern systems with large stacks. Interrupt-based programming is directly supported by most modern CPUs. Interrupts provide a computer with a way of automatically saving local register contexts, and running specific code in response to events. Even very basic computers support hardware interrupts, and allow the programmer to specify code which may be run when that event takes place. When an interrupt is received, the computer's hardware automatically suspends whatever program is currently running, saves its status, and runs computer code previously associated with the interrupt; this is analogous to placing a bookmark in a book in response to a phone call. In modern operating systems, interrupts are handled by the operating system's kernel. Interrupts may come from either the computer's hardware or from the running program. When a hardware device triggers an interrupt, the operating system's kernel decides how to deal with this event, generally by running some processing code. The amount of code being run depends on the priority of the interrupt (for example: a person usually responds to a smoke detector alarm before answering the phone). The processing of hardware interrupts is a task that is usually delegated to software called device driver, which may be either part of the operating system's kernel, part of another program, or both. Device drivers may then relay information to a running program by various means. A program may also trigger an interrupt to the operating system. If a program wishes to access hardware for example, it may interrupt the operating system's kernel, which causes control to be passed back to the kernel. The kernel will then process the request. If a program wishes additional resources (or wishes to shed resources) such as memory, it will trigger an interrupt to get the kernel's attention.
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Modes
Privilege rings for the x86 available in protected mode. Operating systems determine which processes run in each mode. Modern CPUs support multiple modes of operation. CPUs with this capability use at least two modes: protected mode and supervisor mode. The supervisor mode is used by the operating system's kernel for low level tasks that need unrestricted access to hardware, such as controlling how memory is written and erased, and communication with devices like graphics cards. Protected mode, in contrast, is used for almost everything else. Applications operate within protected mode, and can only use hardware by communicating with the kernel, which controls everything in supervisor mode. CPUs might have other modes similar to protected mode as well, such as the virtual modes in order to emulate older processor types, such as 16-bit processors on a 32-bit one, or 32-bit processors on a 64-bit one. When a computer first starts up, it is automatically running in supervisor mode. The first few programs to run on the computer, being the BIOS or EFI, boot loader, and the operating system have unlimited access to hardware - and this is required because, by definition, initializing a protected environment can only be done outside of one. However, when the operating system passes control to another program, it can place the CPU into protected mode. In protected mode, programs may have access to a more limited set of the CPU's instructions. A user program may leave protected modeonly by triggering an interrupt, causing control to be passed back to the kernel. In this way the operating system can maintain exclusive control over things like access to hardware and memory. The term "protected mode resource" generally refers to one or more CPU registers, which contain information that the running program isn't allowed to alter. Attempts to alter these resources
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generally causes a switch to supervisor mode, where the operating system can deal with the illegal operation the program was attempting (for example, by killing the program). Memory management Among other things, a multiprogramming operating system kernel must be responsible for managing all system memory which is currently in use by programs. This ensures that a program does not interfere with memory already used by another program. Since programs time share, each program must have independent access to memory. Cooperative memory management, used by many early operating systems, assumes that all programs make voluntary use of the kernel's memory manager, and do not exceed their allocated memory. This system of memory management is almost never seen any more, since programs often contain bugs which can cause them to exceed their allocated memory. If a program fails, it may cause memory used by one or more other programs to be affected or overwritten. Malicious programs or viruses may purposefully alter another program's memory, or may affect the operation of the operating system itself. With cooperative memory management, it takes only one misbehaved program to crash the system. Memory protection enables the kernel to limit a process' access to the computer's memory. Various methods of memory protection exist, including memory segmentation and paging. All methods require some level of hardware support (such as the 80286 MMU), which doesn't exist in all computers. In both segmentation and paging, certain protected mode registers specify to the CPU what memory address it should allow a running program to access. Attempts to access other addresses will trigger an interrupt which will cause the CPU to re-enter supervisor mode, placing the kernel in charge. This is called a segmentation violation or Seg-V for short, and since it is both difficult to assign a meaningful result to such an operation, and because it is usually a sign of a misbehaving program, the kernel will generally resort to terminating the offending program, and will report the error. Windows 3.1-Me had some level of memory protection, but programs could easily circumvent the need to use it. A general protection faultwould be produced, indicating a segmentation violation had occurred; however, the system would often crash anyway.
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Virtual memory
Many operating systems can "trick" programs into using memory scattered around the hard disk and RAM as if it is one continuous chunk of memory, called virtual memory. The use of virtual memory addressing (such as paging or segmentation) means that the kernel can choose what memory each program may use at any given time, allowing the operating system to use the same memory locations for multiple tasks. If a program tries to access memory that isn't in its current range of accessible memory, but nonetheless has been allocated to it, the kernel will be interrupted in the same way as it would if the program were to exceed its allocated memory. (See section on memory management.) Under UNIX this kind of interrupt is referred to as a page fault. When the kernel detects a page fault it will generally adjust the virtual memory range of the program which triggered it, granting it access to the memory requested. This gives the kernel discretionary power over where a particular application's memory is stored, or even whether or not it has actually been allocated yet. In modern operating systems, memory which is accessed less frequently can be temporarily stored on disk or other media to make that space available for use by other programs. This is called swapping, as an area of memory can be used by multiple programs, and what that memory area contains can be swapped or exchanged on demand.
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Disk access and file systems
File systems allow users and programs to organize and sort files on a computer, often through the use of directories (or "folders") Access to data stored on disks is a central feature of all operating systems. Computers store data on disks using files, which are structured in specific ways in order to allow for faster access, higher reliability, and to make better use out of the drive's available space. The specific way in which files are stored on a disk is called a file system, and enables files to have names and attributes. It also allows them to be stored in a hierarchy of directories or folders arranged in a directory tree. Early operating systems generally supported a single type of disk drive and only one kind of file system. Early file systems were limited in their capacity, speed, and in the kinds of file names and directory structures they could use. These limitations often reflected limitations in the operating systems they were designed for, making it very difficult for an operating system to support more than one file system. While many simpler operating systems support a limited range of options for accessing storage systems, operating systems like UNIX and GNU/Linux support a technology known as a virtual file system or VFS. An operating system such as UNIX supports a wide array of storage devices, regardless of their design or file systems, allowing them to be accessed through a common application programming interface (API). This makes it unnecessary for programs to have any knowledge about the device they are accessing. A VFS allows the operating system to provide programs with access to an unlimited number of devices with an infinite variety of file systems installed on them, through the use of specific device drivers and file system drivers. A connected storage device, such as a hard drive, is accessed through a device driver. The device driver understands the specific language of the drive and is able to translate that language into a standard language used by the operating system to access all disk drives. On UNIX, this is the language of block devices.
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When the kernel has an appropriate device driver in place, it can then access the contents of the disk drive in raw format, which may contain one or more file systems. A file system driver is used to translate the commands used to access each specific file system into a standard set of commands that the operating system can use to talk to all file systems. Programs can then deal with these file systems on the basis of filenames, and directories/folders, contained within a hierarchical structure. They can create, delete, open, and close files, as well as gather various information about them, including access permissions, size, free space, and creation and modification dates. Various differences between file systems make supporting all file systems difficult. Allowed characters in file names, case sensitivity, and the presence of various kinds of file attributes makes the implementation of a single interface for every file system a daunting task. Operating systems tend to recommend using (and so support natively) file systems specifically designed for them; for example, NTFS in Windows andext3 and ReiserFS in GNU/Linux. However, in practice, third party drives are usually available to give support for the most widely used file systems in most general-purpose operating systems (for example, NTFS is available in GNU/Linux through NTFS3g, and ext2/3 and ReiserFS are available in Windows through FS-driver and rfstool). Support for file systems is highly varied among modern operating systems, although there are several common file systems which almost all operating systems include support and drivers for. Operating systems vary on file system support and on the disk formats they may be installed on. Under Windows, each file system is usually limited in application to certain media; for example, CDs must use ISO 9660 orUDF, and as of Windows Vista, NTFS is the only file system which the operating system can be installed on. It is possible to install GNU/Linux onto many types of file systems. Unlike other operating systems, GNU/Linux and UNIX allow any file system to be used regardless of the media it is stored in, whether it is a hard drive, a disc (CD,DVD...), a USB flash drive, or even contained within a file located on another file system. Device drivers A device driver is a specific type of computer software developed to allow interaction with hardware devices. Typically this constitutes an interface for communicating with the device, through the specific computer bus or communications subsystem that the hardware is connected to, providing commands to and/or receiving data from the device, and on the other end, the requisite interfaces to the operating system and software applications. It is a specialized hardware-dependent computer program which is also operating system specific that enables another program, typically an operating system or applications software package or computer program running under the operating system kernel, to interact transparently with a hardware device, and usually provides the
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requisite interrupt handling necessary for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs. The key design goal of device drivers is abstraction. Every model of hardware (even within the same class of device) is different. Newer models also are released by manufacturers that provide more reliable or better performance and these newer models are often controlled differently. Computers and their operating systems cannot be expected to know how to control every device, both now and in the future. To solve this problem, operating systems essentially dictate how every type of device should be controlled. The function of the device driver is then to translate these operating system mandated function calls into device specific calls. In theory a new device, which is controlled in a new manner, should function correctly if a suitable driver is available. This new driver will ensure that the device appears to operate as usual from the operating system's point of view. Under versions of Windows before Vista and versions of Linux before 2.6, all driver execution was co-operative, meaning that if a driver entered an infinite loop it would freeze the system. More recent revisions of these operating systems incorporate kernel preemption, where the kernel interrupts the driver to give it tasks, and then separates itself from the process until it receives a response from the device driver, or gives it more tasks to do. Many operating systems support one or more vendor-specific or open networking protocols as well, for example, SNA on IBM systems,DECnet on systems from Digital Equipment Corporation, and Microsoft-specific protocols (SMB) on Windows. Specific protocols for specific tasks may also be supported such as NFS for file access. Protocols like ESound, or esd can be easily extended over the network to provide sound from local applications, on a remote system's sound hardware. Security A computer being secure depends on a number of technologies working properly. A modern operating system provides access to a number of resources, which are available to software running on the system, and to external devices like networks via the kernel. The operating system must be capable of distinguishing between requests which should be allowed to be processed, and others which should not be processed. While some systems may simply distinguish between "privileged" and "non-privileged", systems commonly have a form of requester identity, such as a user name. To establish identity there may be a process of authentication. Often a username must be quoted, and each username may have a password. Other methods of authentication, such as magnetic cards or biometric data, might be used instead. In some cases, especially connections from the network, resources may be accessed with no authentication at all (such as reading files over a network share). Also covered by the concept of
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requester identity is authorization; the particular services and resources accessible by the requester once logged into a system are tied to either the requester's user account or to the variously configured groups of users to which the requester belongs. In addition to the allow/disallow model of security, a system with a high level of security will also offer auditing options. These would allow tracking of requests for access to resources (such as, "who has been reading this file?"). Internal security, or security from an already running program is only possible if all possibly harmful requests must be carried out through interrupts to the operating system kernel. If programs can directly access hardware and resources, they cannot be secured. External security involves a request from outside the computer, such as a login at a connected console or some kind of network connection. External requests are often passed through device drivers to the operating system's kernel, where they can be passed onto applications, or carried out directly. Security of operating systems has long been a concern because of highly sensitive data held on computers, both of a commercial and military nature. The United States Government Department of Defense (DoD) created the Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC) which is a standard that sets basic requirements for assessing the effectiveness of security. This became of vital importance to operating system makers, because the TCSEC was used to evaluate, classify and select computer systems being considered for the processing, storage and retrieval of sensitive or classified information. Network services include offerings such as file sharing, print services, email, web sites, and file transfer protocols (FTP), most of which can have compromised security. At the front line of security are hardware devices known as firewalls or intrusion detection/prevention systems. At the operating system level, there are a number of software firewalls available, as well as intrusion detection/prevention systems. Most modern operating systems include a software firewall, which is enabled by default. A software firewall can be configured to allow or deny network traffic to or from a service or application running on the operating system. Therefore, one can install and be running an insecure service, such as Telnet or FTP, and not have to be threatened by a security breach because the firewall would deny all traffic trying to connect to the service on that port. An alternative strategy, and the only sandbox strategy available in systems that do not meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements, is the operating system not running user programs as native code, but instead either emulates a processor or provides a host for a pcode based system such as Java. Internal security is especially relevant for multi-user systems; it allows each user of the system to have private files that the other users cannot tamper with or read. Internal security is also vital if
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auditing is to be of any use, since a program can potentially bypass the operating system, inclusive of bypassing auditing. User interface
A screenshot of the Bourne Again Shellcommand line. Each command is typed out after the 'prompt', and then its output appears below, working its way down the screen. The current command prompt is at the bottom. Main article: User interface Every computer that is to be operated by an individual requires a user interface. The user interface is not actually a part of the operating systemit generally runs in a separate program usually referred to as a shell, but is essential if human interaction is to be supported. The user interface requests services from the operating system that will acquire data from input hardware devices, such as a keyboard, mouse or credit card reader, and requests operating system services to display prompts, status messages and such onoutput hardware devices, such as a video monitor or printer. The two most common forms of a user interface have historically been the command-line interface, where computer commands are typed out line-by-line, and the graphical user interface, where a visual environment (most commonly with windows, buttons, icons and a mouse pointer) is present. Graphical user interfaces
A screenshot of the KDE graphical user interface. Programs take the form of images on the screen, and the files, folders (directories), and applications take the form of icons and symbols. A mouse is used to navigate the computer.
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Most of the modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces (GUI), and often include them. In some computer systems, such as the original implementation of Mac OS, the GUI is integrated into the kernel. While technically a graphical user interface is not an operating system service, incorporating support for one into the operating system kernel can allow the GUI to be more responsive by reducing the number of context switches required for the GUI to perform its output functions. Other operating systems are modular, separating the graphics subsystem from the kernel and the Operating System. In the 1980s UNIX, VMS and many others had operating systems that were built this way. GNU/Linux and Mac OS X are also built this way. Modern releases of Microsoft Windows such as Windows Vista implement a graphics subsystem that is mostly in user-space; however the graphics drawing routines of versions betweenWindows NT 4.0 and Windows Server 2003 exist mostly in kernel space. Windows 9x had very little distinction between the interface and the kernel. Many computer operating systems allow the user to install or create any user interface they desire. The X Window System in conjunction with GNOME or KDE is a commonly found setup on most Unix and Unix-like (BSD, GNU/Linux, Solaris) systems. A number of Windows shell replacements have been released for Microsoft Windows, which offer alternatives to the included Windows shell, but the shell itself cannot be separated from Windows. Numerous Unix-based GUIs have existed over time, most derived from X11. Competition among the various vendors of Unix (HP, IBM, Sun) led to much fragmentation, though an effort to standardize in the 1990s to COSE and CDE failed for various reasons, and were eventually eclipsed by the widespread adoption of GNOME and KDE. Prior to free software-based toolkits and desktop environments, Motif was the prevalent toolkit/desktop combination (and was the basis upon which CDE was developed). Graphical user interfaces evolve over time. For example, Windows has modified its user interface almost every time a new major version of Windows is released, and the Mac OS GUI changed dramatically with the introduction of Mac OS X in 1999.[21] Real-time operating systems Main article: Real-time operating system A real-time operating system (RTOS) is a multitasking operating system intended for applications with fixed deadlines (real-time computing). Such applications include some small embedded systems, automobile engine controllers, industrial robots, spacecraft, industrial control, and some large-scale computing systems.
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An early example of a large-scale real-time operating system was Transaction Processing Facility developed by American Airlines and IBMfor the Sabre Airline Reservations System. Embedded systems that have fixed deadlines use a real-time operating system such
as VxWorks, PikeOS, eCos, QNX, MontaVista Linuxand RTLinux. Windows CE is a real-time operating system that shares similar APIs to desktop Windows but shares none of desktop Windows' codebase[citation needed]. Symbian OS also has an RTOS kernel (EKA2) starting with version 8.0b. Some embedded systems use operating systems such as Palm OS, BSD, and GNU/Linux, although such operating systems do not support real-time computing. Operating system development as a hobby Operating system development is one of the most complicated activities in which a computing hobbyist may engage. A hobby operating system may be classified as one whose code has not been directly derived from an existing operating system, and has few users and active developers. In some cases, hobby development is in support of a "homebrew" computing device, for example, a simple single-board computer powered by a 6502 microprocessor. Or, development may be for an architecture already in widespread use. Operating system development may come from entirely new concepts, or may commence by modeling an existing operating system. In either case, the hobbyist is his/her own developer, or may interact with a small and sometimes unstructured group of individuals who have like interests. Examples of a hobby operating system include ReactOS and Syllable. Diversity of operating systems and portability Application software is generally written for use on a specific operating system, and sometimes even for specific hardware. When porting the application to run on another OS, the functionality required by that application may be implemented differently by that OS (the names of functions, meaning of arguments, etc.) requiring the application to be adapted, changed, or otherwise maintained. This cost in supporting operating systems diversity can be avoided by instead writing applications against software platforms like Java, or Qtfor web browsers. These abstractions have already borne the cost of adaptation to specific operating systems and their system libraries.
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4. MS Office 2003 It was introduced by Microsoft in 1990.The first version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Over the years, Office applications have grown with features such as a common spell checker etc. Ms Word 2003 A Word Processor is an application software that helps in creating a document. Preferred Communication is Written Communication. Written text such as: Letter Memo Report There are built-in features to make the text look attractive. Different Word Processing Packages MS Word Open Office Star Office To start Word using the Windows Start menu Click on the Start button, point to Programs, following by Microsoft Office and click on Microsoft Office Word 2003. Note: For Office previous version of Office - Click on the Start button, point to Programs and click on Microsoft Word. Immediately you will see the screen shown below. In the right hand side of the screen, the Getting Started task pane provides help to you. The Word window contains a number of standard features including the Menu bar, Standard toolbar, Formatting toolbar, etc.
To insert text into a document To enter text, just start typing! The text will appear where the blinking cursor is located. For example, you can type the following text into it accordingly. My name is John Smith. Today I just learn how to type using MS Word. To save a file
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From the File menu, click Save.
From the Save in drop down menu, select the location where you want to save the file or to
the different folder by clicking on it. In the File name box, type in the file name that you would like to give (e.g. File1). Click on the Save button. By Default word document To close a document From File menu, select Close. To exit Microsoft Word Click on the Close icon displayed on the top-right corner of the Word screen. Opening a file From the File menu, click Open. From the Open dialog box as displayed, use the Look in: drop down menu to select the drive or folder that contains the file you want. To open the file you can either double-click on the file name OR select the file name by clicking on it, and then click on the Open button.
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Moving through a Word document Using the Keyboard Arrow keys Using the Keyboard Page Up / Page Down keys Using the Scroll Button Using the Scroll Bar Toolbars To display additional toolbars From the View menu, point to Toolbars. From the Toolbars sub-menu, click on the required toolbar name. The toolbars that are already displayed on the screen are checked (ticked). Selection Techniques Important: Before you can apply any formatting to the text, you need to select (highlight) the text first. It can be a word, a line, a paragraph or entire Word document. To select a word - Double-click on the word. To select a line - Move the mouse pointer to the left of the line you wish to select, until the mouse pointer changes from an I-bean to an arrow pointing upwards and to the right. Click once with the mouse button. To select a paragraph - Move the mouse pointer to the left of the paragraph you wish to select, until the mouse pointer changes from an I-bean to an arrow pointing upwards and to the right. Double-click with the left mouse button. To select the entire document - From Edit menu, choose Select All. Deleting Text To delete a character - Place the insertion point to the left of the character to be deleted and press Delete key on your keyboard. To delete a word - Select the word to be delete by double-click on it and press the keyboard Delete key. To delete a line or lines - Select the line or lines to be delete (as describe in the Selection Techniques section above) and Press the Delete key. To delete a block of text - Select the block of text that you want to delete by dragging the mouse pointer over the text with the left mouse button depressed and press the Delete key.
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To delete the entire document - Select the entire document (as describe in the Selection Techniques section above) and Press the Delete key. Cut, Copy and Paste To copy text, graphic, or other items to the Clipboard o Select the item you wish to copy to the Clipboard. o From the Edit menu, click Copy. Note: The item here can be highlight text, select a graphic, etc. To copy multiple items to the Clipboard o To copy multiple items, simply select each item and copy it to the Clipboard. Note: Microsoft Office 2003 allows you to copy 24 items to the clipboard at once. To cut selected items from a document o Select the items that you want to cut. o From the Edit menu, click Cut. To paste data from the Clipboard Select the data/item you wish to Cut or Copy. Use the Cut or Copy command to place the data in the clipboard. Then locate the insertion point at a different location within your current document (or indeed in a different document, or even a different Windows program). From the Edit menu, click Paste. Formatting Toolbar and Text Formatting The formatting toolbar is a toolbar that contains icons on it as shown below. Each of the icons has a specific purpose that can change the outlook of your document text when you apply to it.
To change the font used by selected text Select the text that you wish to apply a different font to. This can be any amount of text in the document from the single character, a word, a sentence, a paragraph, or the entire document. From the Format menu, click Font.
From the Font dialog box, change from the following options: Text font Font Style Specifies the overall look of the character set. Determines the emphasis given to a character, i.e. Bold or Italic.
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Determines the size of the character in points. The higher the points, the larger the character will be. Determines the color of the text as it appears on the screen. Determines whether you have None, Single, Double, or Word Only underlining etc. Determines the underline color of the text appears on the screen. Only available after you choose the underline style. A strikethrough line is drawn through selected characters. Two strikethrough lines are drawn through selected characters. Text is raised above its normal position on the text line. Text is lowered below its normal position on the text line. Adds a shadow behind the text. Displays the inner and outer borders of each character. Text appears to be raised off the page in relief. Text appears to be printed or pressed into the page. Text is formatted in capital letters (smaller size). Text is formatted in capital letters (normal size). Characters are hidden on the page.
Size Font Color Underline style Underline Color Strikethrough Double Strikethrough Superscript Subscript Shadow Outline Emboss Engrave Small caps All caps Hidden
Preview The effect of the font is displayed before you apply it. When finish, click on the OK button or press Enter. To highlight pre-selected text Select the text you wish to highlight. Click on the Highlight icon on the Formatting toolbar and the selected text will be displayed with a yellow box around it. To remove highlighting from text Select the text that the highlighting is to be removed from. Click on the Highlight icon on the Formatting toolbar. To change the color used for highlighting Click on the down arrow to the right of the Highlight icon on the Formatting toolbar. This will display a range of colors that you can select from. Once you have selected an alternative this will become the default highlight color, until you select a different color.
Using Bullet and Numbering Bullets are used to set-off and emphasize sections of text and are symbols such as dots or diamonds. The numbering feature also acts like the bullets only that it use the number instead of symbol to represent. To apply default bullet formatting to a list Select the list you wish to apply number of bullet formatting to. Click on the Bullets icon on the Formatting toolbar.
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To apply alternate bullet formatting to a list Select the text you want to add bullets to. From the Format menu, click Bullets and Numbering. From the Bullets and Numbering dialog box displayed, the Bulleted tab should be displayed, if not, select it. A list of different bulleted styles will appear, select a style that you like. Click on the OK button or press Enter. To remove bullet formatting from a list Select the list to which the bullet formatting has been applied. Click on the Bullets icon on the Formatting toolbar To add numbering to a list Select the text you wish to re-format as a numbered list. Click on the Numbering icon on the Formatting toolbar. To add alternative numbering styles to a list Select the text you wish to re-format as a numbered list. From the Format menu, click Bullets and Numbering. From the Bullets and Numbering dialog box displayed, click on the Numbered tab. A list of different numbered styles displayed, select the numbering format that you require. Click on the OK button or press Enter.
Creating Headers and Footers You can create headers and footers in your Word document so that information such as the author's name, document title, or page numbers will appear in the top and/or bottom margin of your document. You can create a header and footer that appears the same on every page, or you can customize the pages with different headers and footers. The Header and Footer Toolbar View Header and Footer The Header and Footer toolbar contains buttons for functions that you will use frequently when working with headers and footers in your document. The buttons are described here.
Button
Function
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Inserts AutoText, a time-saving entry composed of an abbreviation and an associated phrase. Inserts the page number, inserts the number of pages, and formats page numbers Inserts the date and time Displays the Page Setup dialog box and shows or hides document text Makes the header or footer the same as the previous section Switches between header and footer, shows previous header or footer, and shows next header or footer NOTE: The previous and next options are relevant when your document is divided into sections. Closes Header and Footer view Drawing Toolbar Drawing toolbar provides many commands for creating and editing graphics. The toolbar normally located at the bottom of the PowerPoint screen.
To display the drawing toolbar From the View menu, point to Toolbars and click on Drawing. Drawing toolbar icons and its function: Draw Select Objects AutoShapes Line Arrow Rectangle Oval Text Box Insert WordArt Insert Diagram Organization Chart Insert Clip Art Insert Picture Fill Color Line Color Font Color or Enables you to apply different adjustments to the objects that you draw. Enables you to select a particular drawing object. For selecting multiple objects, keep the Shift key depressed. Click on the AutoShapes icon to bring up a list of shape menus. Drag the mouse on to a selected set of shapes and select one from the list. Used to draw a line. To draw perfectly horizontal or vertical line, depress the Shift key while dragging. Used to draw a line with an arrowhead on it. Used to draw a rectangle. To draw perfect square, depress the Shift key while dragging. Used to draw an oval. To draw perfect circle, depress the Shift key while dragging. Used to draw a text box into which you can enter text. Used to insert different pattern of WordArt to your presentation. Used to insert diagram or organization chart. Used to insert clip art. Used to insert picture from the location that you specify. Used to fill a drawing object with a color or shading. Used to define the line color of a drawing object. Used to formats the selected text with the color you pick.
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Line Style Dash Style Arrow Style Shadow Style 3-D Style Used to define the line style used by an object. Used to define the dashed line style used by an object. Used to define the arrow line style. Click the shadow style you want for the selected object. Click the 3D style you want for the selected object.
To add an AutoShape Click on the AutoShapes icon on the PowerPoint Drawing toolbar to display the AutoShapes menu. Click on the AutoShape you required to select it. Position the mouse pointer at the location where you want the AutoShape to begin. Hold down the left mouse button and drag to position the AutoShape on the slide. Release the mouse button when the size and proportion you require. To further adjust the shape, select the shape and drag the adjustment handle. To draw a line Click the Line icon from the PowerPoint Drawing toolbar. The mouse pointer changes into a cross-hair pointer when moved over the slide. Click at the location where you want the line to begin and drag. Release the mouse button when you want the line to end. To draw a rectangles Click the Rectangle icon from the PowerPoint Drawing toolbar. The mouse pointer changes into a cross-hair pointer when moved over the slide. Click at the location where you want the rectangles or ovals to begin and drag to draw the object. When you have finished, release the mouse button. To draw an ovals Click the Oval icon from the PowerPoint Drawing toolbar. The mouse pointer changes into a cross-hair pointer when moved over the slide. Click at the location where you want the rectangles or ovals to begin and drag to draw the object. When you have finished, release the mouse button. To create a text box Click on the Text Box icon on the PowerPoint Drawing toolbar. Position the cross-hair pointer using the mouse and depress the left mouse button. Drag the mouse until the size you require, then release the mouse button. The text box will appear in the document, and you can now type in text or import a graphic into the text box. To create a WordArt object Click on the Insert WordArt icon on the PowerPoint Drawing toolbar. From the WordArt Gallery select a style to use and click on the OK button. From the Edit WordArt Text dialog box displayed, enter the required text in the Your Text Here area. Click on the OK button to insert the WordArt. You can move the WordArt to the intended place in the slide.
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To create a Diagram or Organization Chart Click on the Insert Diagram or Organization Chart icon on the PowerPoint Drawing toolbar.
From the Diagram Gallery select a diagram type and click on the OK button.
To insert a clipart Click on the Insert Clip Art icon on the PowerPoint Drawing toolbar to open the Clip Art side pane.
The Search for: field allows you to enter one or more words pertaining to a specific
graphic you wish to search for. Once enter, click on Go button to begin search. Note: Most of the time, this required Internet connection. If you do not have, then Click on the Organize clips (blue color wordings) From the Microsoft Clip Organizer window, double-click on the Office Collections.
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As you can see, there are sub-categories such as academic, agriculture, etc. Each category has few clip arts on it. Click on the down arrow at the right hand side of the picture and select Copy. Position your mouse cursor at the location where you wish to place the clip art. Click the Paste icon on the Formatting toolbar.
To insert a picture Click on the Insert Clip Art icon on the Drawing toolbar to open the Insert Picture dialog box. Select the picture you wish to insert and click on Insert button. Step-by-step Guides to Document Printing But before you print, Microsoft Word requires that a printer driver has been installed in your computer and matches the printer you are currently using. ON the printer. The 3-step below guides you to proper document printing in Microsoft Word: Step 1: To Preview a Document Place the insertion point in the page where you want the document preview to begin. From the File menu, click Print Preview. Click once in the document to view it more closely and click again to zoom back out. On top of the screen, you will see the Print Preview toolbar. Each of the toolbar icon will have their own function as describe below:
Print Magnifier One Page
The document is send to the printer. The same as clicking inside the document. It gives a single-level zoom. Single-page view.
Multiple Pages Allows you to print preview up to six pages at a time on the screen. Zoom Control Allows you to control Zoom view percentages.
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View Ruler Shrink to Fit Full screen Close Allows you to view the ruler showing tabs and measurements. Enables you to fit a document that is just more than one page long into a single page. Allows you to change to Full Screen view. Allows you to leave Print Preview and return to the MS Word screen.
Note: The step 1 of document printing here is to let you see (preview) the document. If you satisfied, only proceed to the step 2 otherwise just make the necessary changes. Step 2: To Change the Printer Settings
From the File menu, click Print. From the Print dialog box displayed, you needs to do some settings as describe below:
Printer: Name Print to file Select the printer you wish to use from the list of installed printers. Will print the document to another file, rather than the printer.
Properties button Important! Refer below.
Page range: All Will print all the pages of a document. Current page Pages Will print the current page only. Allows you to print a single page, a range of pages, or disconnected ranges of pages. Enter the value such as 1, 5-9, 18, 25-33.
Print what: Document Document Properties
Will print the document (normally we choose this option). Will print summary information about the current document such as file size, word count, etc.
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Will print the document that show markup. Note: Markup features can quickly Document Showing see who made changes to your document, because Word color codes changes by markup reviewer. List of markup Styles AutoText entries Will print the list of markup. Will print the construction and set up of the styles for the current document. Will print the AutoText entries for the current document.
Key assignments Will print the keystroke assignments that are used in Microsoft Word. Print: All pages in range Will print all of the pages in a specified range. Odd pages Will print only the odd pages of a document. Even pages Will print only the even pages of a document. Copies: Number of Enter the number in the box will specify the number of copies that you wish to print the copies document. Collate Zoom: Pages per sheet: Scale size: to paper Will specify the number of pages in a sheet of paper, range from 1 page up to 16 pages. Specify the different types of paper size to be use. Will print an entire copy of a document before the next copy of it begins to print. When you select this option, MS Word creates the number of copies specified, and then sends all the copies to the printer. Printing takes longer if you choose the option.
The Properties Button Important: You need to click on this button, as it will let you set the printing paper size, paper orientation, color or black/white printing, etc. This is critical, as it will affect the printing output. However, different printer installed will have slightly different settings. Click OK when finish and return to the Print dialog box. Note: The step 2 of document printing is very important as you are required to change the printer related settings so that the outputs come out will fulfill your needs. Step 3: To Print 1. To accept the printer selection and setup, and print the document click on the OK button. 2. Before hit the OK button, ensure that you have put the plain papers to the printer tray. 3. To return to your document without printing, choose Cancel.
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5.Data Entry Material
Lesson 1: Home Row, Left Hand
Welcome to Lesson 1! First, a little orientation: at the top of every lesson you'll see a diagram of the keyboard that highlights in yellow the keys you will be working on. In subsequent lessons the keys you have already learned will be coloured green. It is vital that you will have mastered those keys before moving onto a new lesson. Mastery, for purposes of this course means that you can confidently and consistently type a lesson exercise in under 60 seconds with NO errors. With that out of the way, here we go! The home row is a key concept in typing (sorry for the pun!). It is that middle horizontal row of the keyboard that starts with A and goes all the way across. The idea behind the home row is that each
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finger remains in light contact with a particular key there when it is not typing in order to keep "grounded", providing a reference point for every other key. Here are the "home keys" for each of your 8 fingers: Finger Left hand pinky Left hand ring Left hand middle Left hand index Right hand index Right hand ring Right hand pinky Key A S D F J L ;
Right hand middle K
If you have a relatively recent keyboard, it more than likey has some sort of bump you can feel on the F and J keys, where your index fingers go. This is of course to help you quickly find the home row when you're not looking at the keyboard. Place your fingers gently on their respective keys now, light enough so that you are not actually pressing them! This is where your fingers "hang out" when they're not typing, and where they "spring" back to just after they have finished typing another key somewhere else. It is very important for your fingers to be able to go to these keys at any time, at a split second's notice. Practice taking your hands away and placing them on these keys several times, until you can do it confidently, and without looking. The space bar is pressed with either thumb. Most people probably use only one thumb, the one on their dominant hand. The thumbs basically float comfortably in the air when not in use. Below is your first interactive exercise based on the four left-hand home keys: ASDF. These are typed with the left-hand pinky, ring finger, middle finger and index finger respectively. Before typing even a single letter, please keep ALL of thePrinciples for Effective Learning in mind. Here are the instructions; all the exercises in all the lessons work this way, so read carefully:

This course makes use of the free Adobe Flash Player, available for all major browser and platforms. Chances are you have it installed already, but if you don't click here to download it. It's free and a snap to install. Press the "Click here to start" button, then type what you see on the screen. If you type correctly, the letter will turn to grey. If you err, it won't, and you will hear an error sound. To do the same again (which you should do if you make ANY mistakes), press the "Go again!" button that appears when you finish. To get a new exercise, reload the page. Remember, shoot for no errors!! That is the most important thing right now. Speed means nothing; certainty and correctness are what's important.
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For practical purposes, you can consider yourself having mastered an exercise only if you are able to type three reloaded screens of exercises in a row in under 60 seconds each, with no errors, confidently.
Lesson 2: Home Row, Right Hand
Presuming you've now mastered the left-hand keys of the home row, it's now time to have a look at the right hand. Below is an exercise that focusses on these keys, in addition to the 4 you just learned. Typing is of course a cumulative skill: everything you learn builds upon what you've learned before, so you mustn't forget what you've learned! I'm not going to let you get away with typing and not reading the Learning Principles again, so here they are:

No mistakes. Always be sure and in control. Follow the principle of 100% correct practice: to make a mistake is to learn incorrect things, and to confuse that which you already know. Slower is faster. Speed comes from certainty. The more you type things correctly, no matter how slow it has to be, the more certain you will be, and the faster you will become a proficient typist. Increase speed only when you feel sure enough to do so. Don't look at the keyboard! If you don't know where a key is, look at the keyboard to find it, then look away and type the key. Do not guess; always be sure. Relax. No unnecessary or dysfunctional tension! Hit the keys squarely in the center. If you find you aren't consistently doing so, SLOW DOWN!!! It should feel good to type!
Lesson 3: Home Row, Extended Index Fingers
Up until now, each finger has been responsible for only one key. If only life were so simple! Each finger will eventually be responsible for multiple keys, some more than others! In this lesson, we ease you in gently by introducing one additional letter for each index finger: the G key for the left hand index, and the H key for the right hand index.
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Lesson 4: The Shift Keys
This is one of the most important lessons in the course. Learning to use the shift keys without losing your home row orientation is one of the most important, and difficult skills you have to acquire in order to become a competent typist. The shift key is always pressed by the pinky finger opposite to the one hitting the other key. When you go to press a shift key, you may have to move your hand slightly to reach it, but try to get there mainly by stretching your pinky finger, allowing your remaining fingers to keep as much contact with the home row as possible. Try not to rotate or bend your wrists, as this will throw your home row orientation off and cause you to lose your grounding. This lesson also introduces the colon, which, like the semi-colon is pressed with the right-hand pinky finger, while holding the left shift key down. Lesson 5: Quotes and Apostrophe
The quotation marks and the apostrophe sit on the same key, which is pressed by the right-hand pinky finger in an extended position. Consider this a gentle introduction to extending your right hand pinky finger to reach non-alphanumeric characters. As you can see, there is an awful lot of responsibility for such a little finger! And with this, you have pretty much polished off the home row, with the obvious exception of the enter/return key and the caps lock key. Don't worry - we'll get to those later!
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Lesson 6: Top Row: QWERT
Your typing skills are growing up, and so now it's time to begin leaving the home row! In this lesson you will learn to type an additional key with each of the left-hand pinky, ring and middle fingers (Q, W and E respectively), and two with the index finger (R & T). When you move a finger from the home row to another one, try to keep as many of your other fingers in contact with their home keys as possible. In other words, try to stretch your finger over to where it needs to go, without upsetting the other fingers too much. Many times however, this will not be possible, and so it is ok to move you're whole hand a little bit. This most important thing is that your hands remain relaxed and comfortable at all times. Lesson 7: Top Row: YUIOP
Now we learn the corresponding top-row keys for the right hand fingers: Y & U for the index, I for the middle, O for the ring and P for the pinky! Lesson 8: Bottom Row: NM,./?
And now you graduate to the bottom row . . . congratulations! Here you'll be tapping on 5 more keys with your right-hand fingers: N & M for the right-hand index finger, the comma for the middle, the period for the ring, and the forward slash for the pinky. The pinky will also handle the question mark, which is on the same key as the slash, but with the shift key.
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You may find now that you fingers are moving around a lot more that you might start missing keys you have previously mastered. Don't be discouraged! This is perfectly normal as you expand the physical area you type in, and involve your wrists and forearms more in your typing movements. If you persist and are careful to go slow enough to avoid excess mistakes, you will quickly become very adept at this. None of your previous work is ever for naught Lesson 9: Bottom Row: ZXCVB
And here are the last 5 letters on the keyboard for you to learn: Z for the pinky, X for the ring, C for the middle and the index takes care of both V and B. B is actually a hard one. Notice how much farther your left-hand finger has to stretch to reach B than your right-hand index finger has to reach for its bottom row extended character, N. Just knowing this will help to reduce errors, but don't be surprised if you get tripped up on the B early on. Lesson 10: Letters Consolidation
Well if you've made it this far (and have been honest about your progress!), give yourself a great big pat on the back! You now have under your command all of the letters and some basic punctuation, which will probably get you through a good 90% or so of your typing needs. If you keep good form and do not let yourself make mistakes, you won't be able to help but get faster and faster with time. This lesson is a chance for you to take a pause from new learning, and consolidate that which you have already learned. Rather than giving you individual words to learn, I though it'd be nice for you to hone your skills with real sentences from real sources, of your choosing! Since you're using this course, you're obviously on the Internet, and thus you have pretty much the entire world in text-format at your disposal! So, go out there on the Web, and copy some text to practise your typing with. You can go to your favourite news site, or a poem site, or copy the
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weather report, or your friend's last email, or ANTHING! When you return, simply paste the text you've copied into the below box and hit the button Lesson 11: The Brackets
In this lesson we cover three sets of brackets: the angular brackets "above" the comma and period, the square brackets to the right of the top letters row, and the curly brackets on the same keys with the shift key. None of these bracket sets are terribly common in everyday typing, but they do pop up from time to time, especially if you're involved with any sort of computer programming or mathematics. The easy thing about all the bracket sets is that they are presented on the keyboard in pairs, with the closing bracket always to the immediate right of the opening one. Makes them kind of easy to remember! There is of course one more set of brackets, the round brackets at shift-9 and shift-0. Fear not; we'll get to those in a few more lessons. Lesson 12: Numbers Row: 12345
It's time to extend your reach, literally and figuratively, with the numbers row. Reaching this row requires a much larger stretch than any of the letters, but if you've been doing the exercises regularly to warm up your fingers won't have any trouble. It is easy to remember where they are and the proper fingers to use, because it is simply like counting on your fingers, in reverse! It goes from 1 to 0 (think of "0" as "10" for this!), starting the count with the left-hand pinky finger, ending with the right-hand pinky finger. Instead of counting the thumbs use the index fingers for two numbers. Easy-peasy!
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Lesson 13: Numbers Row: 67890
And now, for the other hand! Lesson 14: Numbers Row: !@#$%
In this lesson you will begin learning the symbols "above" the numbers in the number row. ALL of these are very common, and so you should learn them as well as you have the letters. Lesson 15: Numbers Row: ^&*()
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And now, the other side. Lesson 16: Math Keys: -=_+
Ok, so strictly speaking they're not exclusively math keys, but it is useful to have some way reference them. It is helpful to remember that these simple arithmetic operators reside in the very top row, alongside the numbers. Lesson 17: The Backspace/Delete Key
I have purposely saved the backspace (PC) or delete (Macintosh) key until the end, because I wanted you to think until this point that it wasn't even there! To learn efficiently, it is best to always go slow enough that you can type with virtually no mistakes, so that you don't build up a memory full of wrong ways of doing things! But now that you're nearing the end of the course, and will be back out in the real world of typing you will, unfortunately, from time to time change your mind about something you just typed, and/or make a few doosies! The good news is, using the delete/backspace key is fun! The best way to think of it is like the fire button in a video game: when you have multiple things to delete don't hit it at the same rhythm as the rest of your typing, rather hit it rapid-fire style! As in, bam-bam-bam-bam-bam-bam-bam!! Pretend you're blowing up those mistakes! Which is, after all, what you're doing....
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6. MS Excel 2003
A Workbook automatically shows in the workspace when you open Microsoft Excel 2003. Each workbook contains three worksheets. Excel sheet contains rows and columns Rows are represented in numbers Total number of rows per sheet is 65536(ctrl + down arrow). Columns are represented in Alphabets Total number of columns per sheet is 256(A to IV) (ctrl + right arrow) Spreadsheet information--text, numbers or mathematical formulas--is entered in the different cells. Click on the Start button, point to Programs, following by Microsoft Office and click on Microsoft Office Excel 2003. Immediately you will see the screen shown below. By default, Microsoft Excel workbook contains 3 blank worksheets, which are identified by tabs displaying along the bottom of the screen. To enter text into a worksheet Select the cell in which you want to enter the text and then type in the text. Text entries are left aligned by default.
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To enter numbers into a worksheet Select the cell in which you want to enter a number and type in the number. If you want to enter a negative number, type a minus sign in front of it or enclose it in parentheses (bracket), e.g. -15 or (15). To indicate decimal places, you type a full stop such as 125.89. The numbers will be right aligned by default. To save a workbook From File menu, click Save. If it is a new file, the Save As dialog box will appear. If necessary select a different folder that you may wish to save the file in. Enter a name in the File name: text box. Click on the Save button. (By default excel files are saved with extension .xls file) To minimize a workbook window Click on the Minimize button in the top right-hand corner of the workbook window. Note: If you minimize the window, the file is not close yet. To re-open the program, just click on the 'minimized program icon' on the window taskbar. To close a file From the File menu, click Close. You will be asked if you wish to save any changes you have made to the file. Select Yes to save, or No to ignore the changes. If you are saving a new file, the Save As dialog box will display. In the File name text box, enter a name and click on the Save button. To exit Microsoft Excel From the File menu, click Exit. If you have saved all the changes made in the active workbook files, Microsoft Excel will close. If you have not saved all the changes, the Save confirmation box will be displayed. To save the current workbook file before exiting, select Yes.
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To exit without saving the file, select No. To cancel the exit command, select Cancel or press Esc.
Creating and Opening Workbooks To start using Microsoft Excel, you can start with a new blank workbook or open the existing Excel file. To create a new default workbook Click on the New icon located on the Standard toolbar OR press Ctrl+N To open a file From the File menu, click Open. From the Open dialog box as displayed, use the Look in: drop down menu to select the drive or folder that contains the file you want. To open the file you can either double-click on the file name OR select the file name by clicking on it, and then click on the Open button. Data Entry Techniques Here is the guide that shows the easy ways that you can use to enter data into the worksheet. To fill a range of cells with the same data Highlight the cells you wish to fill. Enter the information that you wish to fill the selected range with. Press Ctrl+Shift+Enter and the range will be filled. To fill a range of cells with the 'automatic' data Highlight the cells you wish to fill. Enter the data into the cells as follow: A1: 1; A2: 2 Use the mouse to drag from cell A1 to A2. Place your mouse in the bottom right corner of the selected cells until you see the + sign appear as follow:
Click and drag the mouse down the cells as you wish. You will see the selected range will fill with continuous numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, Note: You also can replace the above A1 and A2 cells with days of week such as Monday, Tuesday,... and months like January, February,... Navigating in the Worksheet To move to a particular cell (quick way) Enter the cell that you wish to jump to into the Name Box (at the top, left of the screen). In the example shown the cell reference J50 has been entered. When you press the Enter key you will jump to the cell you entered.
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Selection Techniques The selection techniques in Microsoft Excel allow you to select or highlight the cell(s) quickly so that you can perform the tasks such as deleting, copying, etc. To select a cell Click on the cell you wish to select. To select a range of cells by dragging the mouse Click on the first cell in the range. Hold down the left-hand mouse button and drag over the cells you wish to include in the selection. To select a range of cells (making up a rectangular block) Click on the first cell of the rectangular block that you wish to select (i.e. the left top-left hand corner) Move down to the cell that marks the bottom-right corner of the rectangular block. Depress the Shift key (and keep it depress). Click once on the last cell of the required block and release the Shift key. To select a non-contiguous range Select the first cell or range. While holding down the Ctrl key, select the next range of cells. To select a row - Click on the row heading number. To select a column - Click on the column heading letter. To select an entire worksheet - Press Ctrl+A Inserting and Deleting Microsoft Excel offers a convenient way for you to either insert or delete cell(s), column(s), row(s), or entire worksheet. To insert a row(s) into a worksheet Select the row you want to move down when the new row is inserted above it. To select more than one row, drag the mouse pointer across the required row headings. Right-click on the selected row(s) to display a pop-up menu. Select Insert. Any existing data will move down to accommodate the new cells.
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To insert column(s) into a worksheet Select the column you want to move to the right when the new column is inserted. To select more than one column, drag the mouse pointer across the required column headings. Right-click on the selected column(s) to display a pop-up menu. Select Insert. Any existing data will move down to accommodate the new cells. To delete a row or column Use the same techniques outlined above, but select the Delete command from the pop-up menu. To insert cells or range of cells Select the cell where you want to insert a new cell. From the Insert menu, click Cells. From the Insert dialog box, select one of the following options: Entire column Entire row Moves all cells in the column to the right and inserts a new column. Moves all cells in the row down and inserts a new row.
Shift cells down Moves existing cells down and inserts one cell. Shift cells right Moves existing cells to the right and inserts one cell.
Click on the OK.

To delete cells or ranges of cells Select the cell(s) you want to delete. From the Edit menu, click Delete. From the Delete dialog box displayed, select one of the options. Click on the OK button.
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To insert a worksheet Click the sheet tab to select the worksheet where you want to insert a new one. The new worksheet will be inserted before this worksheet. From the Insert menu, click Worksheet. To delete a worksheet Click on the sheet tab to select the worksheet you wish to delete. From the Edit menu, click Delete Sheet. Select OK to permanently delete the selected sheet. Cut, Copy and Paste Data To use the clipboard to copy data to other program Select the cell or range you wish to copy. From the Edit menu, click Copy. OR click on the Copy icon on the Standard toolbar. Switch to the required destination program (e.g. Microsoft Word). Place the cursor where you want the data to appear. From the Edit menu, click Paste. OR click on the Paste icon on the Standard toolbar. To use the clipboard to cut data to other program Select the cell or range you wish to cut. From the Edit menu, click Cut. OR click on the Cut icon on the Standard toolbar. Switch to the required destination program (e.g. Microsoft Word). Place the cursor where you want the data to appear. From the Edit menu, click Paste. OR click on the Paste icon on the Standard toolbar. Note: You noticed that cut and paste is different from copy and paste. Cut and paste will let the original data disappear when you paste it to the destination program/location. Formatting Toolbar Excel formatting toolbar normally located near to the top of your screen as shown here. The toolbar icons have a specific purpose that can change the outlook of your spreadsheet when you apply formatting to it.
The formatting toolbar icons and functions: Font to select fonts from a drop-down list. Font Size to select a font size from a drop-down list. Bold to apply bold to a selected range. Italic to apply italic to a selected range. Underline to underline a selected range. Align Left to align a selected range to the left. Center to center a selected range Align Right to align a selected range to the right. Merge and Center to merge cells and center text across a selected range. Currency Style to apply currency style to a selected range.
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Percent Style to apply percentage style to a selected range. Comma Style to apply comma style to a selected range. Increase Decimal to decrease the number of decimal points displayed in a selected range. Decrease Decimal to increase the number of decimal points displayed in a selected range. Decrease Indent to decrease the level of indentation in a selected range. Increase Indent to increase the level of indentation in a selected range. Borders to select and apply borders to a selected range. Fill Color to select and apply color to a selected range. Font Color to select and apply color to text in a selected range.
Fonts To change the font used in a cell or range of cells Select the cell or range of cells you wish to change. On the Excel Formatting toolbar choose a font from the Font drop down list. To change other font characteristics Select the cell or range you wish to change. From the Format menu, click Cells. From the Format Cells dialog box displayed, select the Font tab to change the Font, font style, or size. Select the Underline: drop down list box to select a style of underline or None to remove the underlining. Select the Color: drop down list box to choose a font color. In the Effects section, you can tick Strikethrough, Superscript, or Subscript. To change all the settings in the dialog box back to the Normal style which is set in the Style dialog box, tick the Normal font check box. Select OK to close the Format Cells dialog box. Alignment To align data between the left and right sides of a cell Select the cell, or cells, you wish to align. On the Excel Formatting toolbar, click on the Align Left icon to align data with the left edge of the cell. Click on the Align Right icon to align data with the right edge of the cell. Click on the Center icon to center data in the cell. To align data between the top and bottom of a cell Select the cell, or cells, you wish to align. From the Format menu, click Cells. From the Format Cells dialog box displayed, click on the Alignment tab. In the Text alignment section, choose the Top, Center, or Bottom option in the Vertical area to align the data in the cell. To make the lines of data fit evenly within the height of a cell, tick the Justify distributed option and click on OK. To change the orientation of data cells Select the cell, or cells, you wish to change.
R.S.K Technologies From the Format menu, click Cells. From the Format Cells dialog box displayed, click on the Alignment tab. In the Orientation section, you can change the Degrees of the text or use the mouse to
drag the 'red small diamond' up or down. When satisfied, click on OK.
To wrap multiple lines of data in a cell Type the data you require into the cell and press Enter. The entry will appear as one long line and select the cell, or cells, you wish to format. From the Format menu, click Cells. From the Format Cells dialog box displayed, click on the Alignment tab. In the Text control section, tick the Wrap text check box and click on OK. To shrink the text into one cell Type the data you require into the cell and press Enter. From the Format menu, click Cells. From the Format Cells dialog box displayed, click on the Alignment tab. In the Text control section, tick the Shrink to fit check box and click on OK. To merge several cells Select the cells that you wish to merge to become one cell. Right-click on the selected cells, click Format Cells. From the Format Cells dialog box displayed, click on the Alignment tab. In the Text control section, tick the Merge cells check box and click on OK. Note: You also can use the Merge and Center icon on the Excel Formatting toolbar. Colors To change the color of text Select the cells containing the data you want to change the color. On the Excel Formatting toolbar, click the down arrow next to the Font Color icon. Choose a color from the Font Color palette. The color you selected from the Font Color palette will be displayed on the new icon face. Click on the icon face to apply the new color to the cell.
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To apply colors to cell(s) Select the cell or range of cells you wish to color. On the Excel Formatting toolbar, click the down arrow next to the Fill Color icon. Choose a color from the Fill Color palette. To turn off the cell(s) color Select the cell or range of cells you wish to color. On the Excel Formatting toolbar, click the down arrow next to the Fill Color icon. Choose No fill. Formatting Numbers To change number formatting using the formatting icons You can quickly change the formatting of a cell or selected range by using the following icons on the Formatting toolbar. 12345 will become $12,345.00 .25 will become 25% 98765 will become 98,765.00
Currency Percent Comma
Increase Decimal 12,345.00 will become 12,345.000 Decrease Decimal 98,765.00 will become 98,765.0 To format a number as a currency Select the cell or range of cells you want to format. From the Format menu, click Cells. From the Format Cells dialog box displayed, select the Number tab. In the Category: section, select Currency. Select the number of decimal places you require by using the Decimal places: spin box arrows. In the Symbol: section drop down list, select the type of currency. Click OK. To format a number as a percentage Select the cell or range of cells you wish to format. From the Format menu, click Cells. From the Format Cells dialog box displayed, select the Number tab. In the Category: section, select Percentage. Select the number of decimal places you require by using the Decimal places: spin box arrows. Click OK.
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Excel Formula A formula is an equation that performs operations on worksheet data. Excel formula can perform mathematical operations, such as addition and multiplication, or they can compare worksheet values or join text. To enter a formula Place the cursor in the cell where the formula will appear. Enter an = sign. Enter the expression that will produce the result you want, e.g. A5+E5. This will add the value in A5 with the value in E5. When the formula is complete, press Enter. The result of the formula will be calculated and displayed in the cell. If there is an error in an Excel formula, an error message which begin with a # sign will display. To enter a cell or range reference by pointing Place the cursor in the cell where the formula will appear. Enter the formula up to the point of the cell or range reference, e.g. to enter the formula =E2+E5, only enter the = sign. Using the arrow keys, move the cell pointer to the first cell reference, in this case E2. The formula will track your progress and enter the current address into the formula. Enter the operand, + sign. Using the arrow keys, move the cell pointer to the second cell reference, in this case E5. If you are calculating a range of cells, hold down the Shift key while using the arrow keys to move to the intended cells. Press Enter to complete the formula when you have reached the cell you require. Function Functions are special commands used in formulas to perform mathematical processes. To enter functions directly into the worksheet cell Select the cell into which the formula will be entered. Insert an equal (=) sign to begin the formula. The formula toolbar buttons will appear. Enter the name of the function [e.g. SUM], followed by an opening parenthesis [(], any arguments required for the function [e.g. E2:E5], and closing parenthesis [)]. Press Enter. If there are no errors in the formula, the result of the function will be entered in the cell. If you activate the cell again, the function will be displayed in the formula bar. To use the AutoSum function
R.S.K Technologies The functions can be accessed through the AutoSum icon on the Standard toolbar.
The functions included in the AutoSum drop-down menu will insert the function and predict the arguments. For example, if the active cell is positioned at the bottom of the list of values, AutoSum will display a sum function with the list of the arguments. o o o o o Sum -- add the contents of the list of arguments. Average -- determine the average value of the list of arguments. Count -- count the number of values in the list of arguments. Max -- return the maximum number in the list of arguments. Min -- return the minimum number in the list of arguments
Example: Using the Average function Enter the values as shown below from B1 to B5 and select the cell B6 which the formula will be entered.
Click the down arrow beside the AutoSum icon on the Standard toolbar and choose
Average from the drop-down menu. If the predicted range is correct, press the Enter key. If it is incorrect, select (click and drag) the range you want with the mouse and press the Enter key. The result will show in cell B6. You can use the same method to do other functions such as SUM, Max, etc. Note: Excel formula and function is one of the most powerful feature in Microsoft Excel. It is important for you to master it. Create an Excel Chart: The 4 Easy Steps We will use the step-by-step Excel Chart Wizard to create a chart that related to the Student exam results for the subject English, Science and Mathematics.
Step 1: The Chart Wizard (1) Chart Type Click on any cell within the data containing the information that you wish to display as a chart, or highlight the exact data that you wish to display as a chart.
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Wizard as show below:
From the Chart type: section you can select the type of chart that you wish to create. Then from the Chart sub-type: section you can select the exact format that you required
for the selected chart type. To see how the selected chart will look, use the Press and Hold to View Sample button within the dialog box. In our example, we accept the default selection. Click the Next button to see the next page of the dialog box - Chart Source Data. Step 2: The Excel Chart Wizard (2) Data Source The Data Range tab allows you to specify the exact data that you wish to display within your chart. You can choose to display Series in Rows or Columns. In the case of the example data used, the two effects will be as illustrated. Choose the Series in Rows. When you click on the Next button, this will display the Chart Options dialog box.
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Step 3: The Excel Chart Wizard (3) Chart Options From the chart options dialog box displayed, you can select Titles, Axes, Gridlines, Legend, Data Labels and Data Table tabs and make the necessary changes. To add title to a chart In the Chart title: text box, enter the name for the chart, i.e. Exam results. In the Category (X) axis: text box, enter a title for the X axis, i.e. Subject. In the Category (Y) axis: text box, enter a title for the Y axis, i.e. Mark score. In the example used, the screen will be as illustrated. To customize the chart axis From the Chart Option dialog box displayed, click on the Axes tab. It allows you to control the way the axes are displayed, you can tick or un-tick the check box to see the effects on the chart.
To customize chart gridlines From the Chart Option dialog box displayed, click on the Gridlines tab. You can choose to display the major and minor X and Y gridlines for the axis by clicking on the particular check box. To customize chart legend From the Chart Option dialog box displayed, click on the Legend tab. You can choose to display or not the chart legend and the placement of the legend in the chart by clicking on the radio button. To customize data labels From the Chart Option dialog box displayed, click on the Data Labels tab. You can choose to display or not the chart data labels by clicking on the radio button. To display a data table From the Chart Option dialog box displayed, click on the Data Table tab. You can choose to display or not the chart data table by ticking on the check box. Click on the Next button to continue and this will display the final page of the Chart Wizard Chart Location. Step 4: The Excel Chart Wizard (4) Chart Location To define the chart location You can choose to place the chart on an existing worksheet as an object, or you can place it on a new worksheet. Two options for you to choose:
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As new sheet: It will place the chart in the new worksheet. As object in: - It will place the chart in the existing worksheet.
Click on the Finish button and the chart will be created as you have specified during the Chart Wizard creation process.
7. MS PowerPoint 2003
Microsoft Office PowerPoint is one of the most powerful tool for communicating ideas and information. It allows you to place your content into a series of "slides" which can then be projected (using projector) for your audiences, printed and distributed as handouts, or published online using different file formats.
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Nowadays, this popular presentation program is being widely used by business people, educators, students, MLM consultants and trainers. It is among the most prevalent forms of persuasion technology. To start a PowerPoint program Click on the Start button, point to Programs, follow by Microsoft Office and click on Microsoft Office PowerPoint 2003. Note: For previous version of Office - Click on the Start button, point to Programs and click on Microsoft PowerPoint.
If you are not using it, you can click on the Close icon to close it. You also can start by
clicking on Create a new presentation at the bottom of the task pane. The PowerPoint 2003 screen elements: To enter text into a presentation From the PowerPoint slide pane, there is box that labeled Click to add title. Just simply click and enter the text there. For example, you may enter This is my first presentation. Then click on Click to add subtitle and you also can enter some text there. Saving and Closing a presentation This feature allows you to store new or existing presentations on disk. If you not save the file, you will be unable to view the presentation in the future. Once saved, you can re-open the file for viewing or editing.
To save a presentation From File menu, click Save. If it is a new file, the Save As dialog box displayed, ensure that you are located in the folder/disk drive of your choice by clicking the arrow to the right of the Save in: drop down box and navigating to your required location. Enter the file name in the File name: text box. The default file name is Presentation1, you can use it or type in a new file name. Let say we key in First presentation for the file name, click on the Save button to save. Note: By default presentation file are saved with extension .ppt
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To close a presentation From the File menu, click Close OR click Close Window icon. If unsaved changes have been made to your presentation the dialog box below is displayed, giving you the chance to save the presentation prior to closing.
Click Yes to save the presentation before closing OR click No to close without saving
changes OR click on Cancel to cancel the operation. To exit Microsoft PowerPoint Click on the Close icon displayed on the top-right corner of the screen. To open an existing presentation From the New Presentation task pane, click From existing presentationto display the New from Existing Presentation dialog box, and select the file you want. For example, you select the file First presentation created in topic 1. Click on Create New button. The presentation is opened and you can do the necessary modifications. To create a new blank presentation Click the Blank Presentation in the New Presentation Pane. OR click the New icon on the Standard toolbar. This will display the Slide Layout pane that allows you to choose the layout of your slide. The layouts contains text, content and both text and content. Click on the particular layout and begin create the slide.
The Outline and Slides Tabs The Outline Tab presents a title and text outline of each slide in your presentation. Slides can be edited in the Outline area or directly on the slide. If you prefer to edit your text and slides in the Outline area, the Outlining toolbar is dedicated to working in this view. To change the size of the Outline and Slides Tabs Click in the Slides tab or Outline tab area. Click the down arrow next to the Zoom box on the Standard toolbar and specify the percentage you want.
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The Slides Tab displays all slides in your presentation in thumbnail size. The Slides tab area is an easy way to navigate your presentation. You can jump to a slide just by clicking on it.
Different PowerPoint Views To see the different PowerPoint views, from the Menu bar, click on the View and you will see 4 types of view. Click on the particular view to see the effect.
1) Normal View The Normal View is the default view in PowerPoint. All slide editing is performed in this view. The normal view comprises the Slide Pane, Outline and Slides tabs and the Notes Pane. 2) Slide Sorter View The Slide Sorter view displays all slides in your presentation as thumbnails. This view is useful to reorder, add, or delete slides. You an also preview animation effects applied to each slide. 3) The Slide Show View The Slide Show view allows you to view your presentation as a slide show. Your presentation is displayed as a full screen and you can view applied animations. 4) The Notes View The Notes Page view displays how notes pages will print. A notes page contains a smaller version of the slide and notes entered from the Notes Pane underneath the slide. To insert a new slide From the Insert menu, click New Slide OR click the New Slide icon on the Formatting toolbar To insert a duplicate slide From the Insert menu, click Duplicate Slide. Copy and Paste Slides You can copy and paste slides in Normal View with the Outline and Slides tabs or in Slide Sorter view. To copy slides with the Outline tab Click the slide icon of the slide you want to copy. Click the Copy icon on the Standard toolbar OR right-click on the slide icon and select Copy.
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To paste the slide Click the slide icon after which you would like the newly copied slide to appear. Click the Paste icon on the Standard toolbar OR right-click on the slide icon and select Paste. Note: You also can copy and paste the slide with the Slides tab or in the Slide Sorter view. Deleting Slides You can delete slides in Normal View with the Outline and Slides tabs or in Slide Sorter view. To delete slides with the Outline tab Click the slide icon of the slide you want to delete. From the Edit menu, click Delete Slide. OR right-click on the slide icon of the slide you want to delete and select Delete Slide. To delete slides with the Slides tab Click the slide thumbnail of the slide you want to delete. From the Edit menu, click Delete Slide OR right-click on the slide thumbnail of the slide you want to delete and select Delete Slide. To delete slides in Slide Sorter view Click the slide thumbnail of the slide you want to delete. From the Edit menu, click Delete Slide. OR right-click on the slide thumbnail of the slide you want to delete and select Delete Slide. PowerPoint Slide Background Backgrounds can be applied to the PowerPoint slides, handouts, and notes. The Background options that you can change include colors, gradients, textures, patterns, and pictures. To select a Slide Background Color From the Format menu, click Background. Click the down arrow and select the color you wish to apply to the slide background. Click on More Colors to choose from a wider selection of colors. To select a Slide Background Fill Effect From the Format menu, click Background. Click the down arrow and select Fill Effects. This will open a Fill Effects dialog box. Click on the Gradient, Texture, Pattern, or Picture tabs to apply the fill effect. Choose the colors as you like.
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When finish, click OK. It will back to the Background window, there are 4 buttons:
Apply to All To apply the formatted background to all slides. Apply Cancel Preview To apply the formatted background to the current slide only. To cancel the formatted background. To preview what the slide background will look like.
Click on the button that suit your needs. Headers and Footers Headers and footers consist of the text, slide or page number, and date you want at the top or bottom of your slides. You can use headers and footers on single slides or all slides. To insert slide Headers and Footers From the View menu, click Header and Footer. This will display the Header and Footer dialog box.
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To insert the date and time, tick the Date and time check box. To add a slide number, tick the Slide number check box. If you choose to insert the footer, make sure the Footer check box is checked and type in
your desired text. Click Apply to apply to the current slide. Click Apply to All to apply to all slides. PowerPoint Slide Design The PowerPoint Slide Design Pane offers three easy ways to make your presentation look professional, colorful, and interesting: Design Templates, Color Schemes, and Animation Schemes. To Display the Slide Design Pane Click the Slide Design icon on the Formatting toolbar OR From the Format menu, click Slide Design. 1) PowerPoint Slide Design - Design Templates Design Templates offer a quick and easy way to provide an attractive and interesting background to your presentation. 2) PowerPoint Slide Design - Color Schemes Color Schemes quickly add to or change the colors of your slides including the background, title text, body text, fills, shadows, and hyperlinks. A default color scheme is applied to your slides when you select a Design Template. Each Design Template includes additional Color Schemes you can use. To apply a Color Scheme to One Slide Open the PowerPoint slide where you want to apply the Color Scheme. Click the down arrow next to the Color Scheme you want. Click Apply to Selected Slides.
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Note: If you wish to apply the color scheme to all slides, click Apply to All Slides. To customize Color Schemes At the bottom of the Slide Design Color Schemes Task Pane, click Edit Color Schemes This will open the Edit Color Scheme dialog box.
Click on the element you want to customize (e.g. Background, Title text, etc) and click
Change Color button. Select a color and click OK. When you have completed customizing your colors, click Apply button. 3) PowerPoint Slide Design - Animation Schemes Preset Animation Schemes make it easy to animate your slide show. Animations are divided into subtle, moderate, and exciting schemes, and generally apply animations to titles, bulleted lists, and paragraphs. To apply an Animation Scheme to One Slide Open the PowerPoint slide where you want to apply the Animation scheme. Open the Slide Design Animation Schemes Task Pane, and select the animation you want.
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The animation will automatically be applied to the current slide. To apply an Animation Scheme to All Slides Select the animation you want. Click on the Apply to All Slides button at the bottom of the Slide Design Animation Schemes Task Pane. Slide Show PowerPoint slide show is the slide that running in 'full screen' mode. That is the actual show screen that your audiences will see, so run it with just a click or press of a button. To view a Slide Show from the first Slide From the View menu, click Slide Show. To view a Slide Show from the current Slide Click the Slide Show icon at the bottom left of the PowerPoint screen.
To move to the next slide in a Slide Show Press the Enter key. To move to the previous slide in a Slide Show Press the Backspace key. To move to a specific slide in the Slide Show Right-click on the current slide (in the slide show) and select Go to Slide. Select the slide you want. To Pause the Slide Show Right-click on the current slide (in the slide show) and select Pause. To Turn the Screen Black Right-click on the current slide (in the slide show). Point to Screen and click on Black Screen.
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To Turn the Screen White Right-click on the current slide (in the slide show). Point to Screen and click on White Screen. Pointer Options The Automatic Pointer is the default pointer in a PowerPoint slide show. When set to automatic, the pointer disappears after fifteen minutes of inactivity. To use the arrow pointer The Arrow pointer is always visible during a presentation. To select the arrow pointer Right-click on the current slide (in the slide show). Point to Pointer Options and click on Arrow. To change the pointer to a pen By changing the pointer to a pen, you can write on your slides during the slide show. Right-click on the current slide (in the slide show). Point to Pointer Options and click on Pen. To change pen color Right-click on the current slide (in the slide show). Point to Pointer Options and Ink Color. Select the color that you want.
8. ADOPE PAGE MAKER

Introduction Adobe PageMaker 6.5 is the "world's leading cross-platform professional page layout software". PageMaker is primarily used for designing and producing publications such as flyers and newsletters and any other application that requires a combination of text and graphics. PageMaker 6.5 has a rich array of facilities to import text and artwork from other computer application packages, as well as allowing you to generate these directly from within PageMaker itself. PageMaker can handle text better than Illustrator and PhotoShop and also gives you the flexibility of graphic control not available in word processors.
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New Features in PageMaker 6.5 Document Layers Layers allow you to place elements one over the other. It can be thought of as sheets stacked up one on top of the other. You can place elements on these layers or temporarily hide the layers. These layers can be used for adding annotations, floating or background images. Easier Layout There is a new concept of frames in PageMaker 6.5, which can hold any type of text or images. PageMaker's freeform layout capabilities have become even more flexible with its frame and text controls. Better Integration PageMaker can work seamlessly with PhotoShop, Illustrator etc. It also builds the ability to drag and drop images and elements directly from one of these applications to the other. Color Controls PageMaker 6.5 introduces new color technologies, which helps in reproducing high fidelity colors in your publications. A new desktop color separation tool is also included. The Kodak color management system now supports the International Consortium of Standard for sharing device profiles. Internet Ready The current release of PageMaker (i.e. Version 6.5) includes an option to export your PageMaker documents to Internet ready HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) files with the links preserved.
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The document images are converted to GIF or JPEG format required by the Internet. There is also an option to export the PageMaker documents in to Adobe Acrobat format. PageMaker Environment Menu Bar The standard menu bar contains all the main menus for File, Layout, Element and other utilities. Ruler The top and left ruler bars helps you to precisely position the cursor, text, and graphics in the page. The Current Cursor location is shown by two dotted lines in the rulers. To view the rulers select View > Show Rulers. Master Page The Master Page icon shows the position of the master Pages. Clicking it will Icon display the Master Page. Master Pages contain text, graphics, layout and settings, which are common, thought the publication. Page Icon The Page icon shows the list of pages in the publication with the currently selected page in black. Clicking a particular page icon will display the selected page. Pasteboard Surrounding the page is an area of white space called the Pasteboard. It is used to store graphics and texts as you work. Items you place on the pasteboard are visible from any page and can be selected and moved regardless of the page you are currently working on.
File Menu New Open Save Revert New command is used to create a new publication. This command gives rise to a dialog box where you define the various options before opening a new page of the publication. Open allow you to open an existing PageMaker file. Save command saves the current publication. To save all the open files, press the shift key while choosing the Save option. Revert command rolls back all the changes made since the last save. It is the same as closing the publishing, without saving and opening it again.
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Place Acquire Export Place command is used to place text and graphics into the publication. The Acquire command is used to scan an image into your publication.
Export command lets you export your publications into the format you select.
Edit Menu Paste Multiple Paste Special Insert Object Edit Story Paste Multiple lets you paste multiple copies of text or graphics. Paste Special is used to specify the format to use when you paste an object into your publication. Insert Object is used to specify the format to be used to insert an OLE embedded object within a PageMaker publication. Edit Story is used to toggle between the word processing mode and the layout mode.
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Understanding Page maker Tools Toolbox Toolbox contains all the tools used to create a publication in PageMaker. Choose Window and select Show Tools to display the toolbox. The individual tools will be explained in detail later in this session.
Zero Position Zero Position allows you to set the zero position on the screen. Zero position is the position, where both the top and the left side rulers are at zero. By Zero positioning all measurements in the pages are made relative to this point. Click it and drag it to anywhere on the workspace to set it as the Zero Point.
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Pointer Tool Pointer tool is used to pick, drag and drop graphics and text.
Text Tool Text Tool is used to edit and select text and insert text frames. Click the text tool and click anywhere in the document and start entering text. The text tool creates a free flowing text box.
Rotate Tool Rotate tool is used to rotate text and graphic objects. Click the rotate tool, then click on the object reference point and drag to rotate the object.
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Crop Tool The Crop tool is used to crop imported graphic images to the required size. The crop tool only works on TIFF type of images. Click on the toll and, drag the image handles, to crop the image.
Type Menu Define Styles This option will present you a dialog box with the list of styles used in the publication. You can add, modify and delete styles from this dialog box.
Element Menu Frame Align Objects Link Options Frame has options for frame alignment, position and margins. Align Objects lets you align multiple objects relative to each other.
Link Options is used to define whether the linked text or graphic is to be updated along with the publication in use and also its frequency.
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Utilities Menu Plug-ins: Plug-ins has a list of sub commands, which lists out the various plug-ins, which have been included with PageMaker as additions.
View Menu Display Master Items: Display Master Items toggle the display of items from the master pages to be reflected in the current page of the publication. Display Non-Printing Items: Display Non-Printing items toggle the display of non-printing items.
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Window Menu Show Tools Hide/Show tools toggles the display of PageMaker toolbar. Show Control Show/Hide Control Panel toggles the display of control panel on the screen. Palette Show Colors Show/Hide Colors Toggles the display of the Color Palette on the screen. Show Styles Show/Hide Styles toggles the display of the Styles Palette on the screen. Show Layers Show/Hide Layers toggles the display of the Layers Palette on the screen. Show Master Show/Hide Master Pages toggles the display of the Master Pages Palette on the Pages screen. Show/Hide Hyperlinks toggles the display of the Hyperlink Palette on the Show Hyperlinks screen.
Text Basics Entering Text
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In PageMaker, text is typed in text blocks or frames. Text blocks are defined by the amount of text and the margins of the page. To open a text block First click the Text tool.
Click anywhere on the page within the margin guides.
Press the mouse button and drag the insertion point to the right. Release the mouse when you have opened the box to the correct size. Type "Layout Galaxy".
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Placing Text Click on Edit Menu. Select Edit Story.
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Type "Demo for Placing Text". Click on Story. Select Close Story.
PageMaker displays an alert message that says, "The story has not been placed." Click the place button to place the story.
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PageMaker displays a loaded text icon. Click the icon to flow text into the frame or column you click on.
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Text Objects, Stories and Editors Understanding Text in PageMaker is part of a story. A story can be a single letter or text objects and several pages of text and can be contained in a single text object or stories threaded through many different objects. Layout Editors Text blocks that are threaded together in the Layout Editor comprise the and Story Editors same story in the Story Editor. A text block may be split among several
pages in the Layout Editor, but it appears as a continuous story in the Story Editor.
Formatting Text Changing Sizes Font In PageMaker, by default the type size is 12 points but you can change
the size as often as you like using the Control Palette. The Control Palette can be activated or deactivated from the Window menu. There are ten different styles for any typeface. They are Normal, Bold, Italic, Underline, Reverse, Strikethrough, Small caps, All caps, Super script and Sub script.
Changing Typeface Styles
Changing Character Specifications
The Character Specifications dialog box allows you to choose several type attributes in one step. This dialog box can be opened by double clicking the Text tool.
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Kerning and Tracking PageMaker provides three types of kerning. Automatic pair Automatic pair kerning adjusts the space between certain character pairs, based kerning on the kerning information that's built into the font. Manual kerning Manual kerning lets you kern any range of text, from one character pair to a whole story, using cursor keys or by using the Control palette. Expert kerning Expert kerning calculates a manual kerning value for every character
pair in a selected range of text.

Tracking Tracking is similar to kerning in that it deals with the horizontal space between letters. PageMaker includes five built-in tracks from Very Loose to Very Tight. To set the required track, first select the text.
Click the Window menu.
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Select Show Control Palette.
Click on the Tracking pop-up menu.
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Select Very Tight from the menu.
Paragraph Setting Paragraph formatting includes setting indent values, paragraph spacing, text alignment, dictionary, etc. In this exercise we shall see how to draw a line below a paragraph. Click on the Text tool.
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Select the paragraph.
Click on the Type menu.
Select Paragraph.
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Installing A PostScript Printer Driver
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
On your Windows desktop, click the Start button. The Start Menu will appear. In the Start Menu, click Settings then click Printers. The Printers window will open. Click your printer to select it. On the main menu of the Printers window, click File then click Properties. The Properties window will open. Click on the Details tab.
On the Details tab, look under "Print to the following port". Write down the network port exactly as it appears there, including all periods, spaces, and capital and lowercase letters. (You might need to click inside the box and scroll over to make sure that you get the entire name of the port.)
Click the OK button to close the Properties window.
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In the Printers window, double-click Add Printer.
The Add Printer Wizard will open. Click the Next button to begin the installation.
The Add Printer Wizard will ask how your printer is connected to your computer. Click Network Printer then click the Next button.
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Next, the Add Printer Wizard will ask for the network path to your printer. In the space provided, type the path that you wrote down in Step 6. Remember to copy the path exactly as you wrote it, including punctuation, spelling, and capitalization. You don't need the PostScript driver to print from DOS, so click No. Click the Next button.
12.
The next step is choosing your printer's manufacturer and model.
a. In the menu on the left, click your printer's manufacturer. b. The menu on the right, labeled "Printers" is a list of drivers. Scroll to find an entry
with your printer's model series, followed with "PostScript" or "PS". Click your printer's PostScript driver. c. Click the Next button.
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13. In the next window of the Add Printer Wizard, you will see the printer driver's name. 14. Under "Do you want your Windows-based programs to use this printer as the default printer?", click No.
A Copying Files window will pop up. In the Copy Files From drop-down box, click C:\\Windows\Options\Cabs then click the OK button.
Windows will take a few moments to copy your driver.
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After your driver is copied, Windows will print a test page. Click the Yes button to close the Add Printer Wizard.
18.
You will now see your PostScript printer driver in the Printers window. Click file then click Close to close the Printers window.
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Adobe Photoshop Basics Menu Bar Let's get started by exploring the basic elements of the Photoshop workspace. There are four main counterparts to the Photoshop workspace: the menu bar, the status bar, the toolbox, and the palettes. In this lesson we'll be learning about the menu bar. The Menu Bar
The menu bar consists of nine menus: File, Edit, Image, Layer, Select, Filter, View, Window, and Help. Take a few moments now to look at each of the menus. You may notice that some menu commands are followed by ellipses (...). This indicates a command that is followed by a dialog box where you can enter additional settings. Some menu commands are followed by a right pointing arrow. This indicates a submenu of related commands. As you explore each menu, be sure to take a look at the submenus as well. You'll also notice that many commands are followed by keyboard shortcuts. Gradually, you'll want to get to know these keyboard shortcuts as they can be incredible time savers. As we make our way through this course, we'll be learning the most useful keyboard shortcuts as we go along. In addition to the menu bar, Photoshop often has context sensitive menus for accessing some of the most likely commands depending on which tool is selected and where you click. You access the context sensitive menu by right clicking in Windows, or pressing the Control key on a Macintosh.
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One of the most convenient contextual menus can be accessed by right clicking/Control clicking on the title bar of a document for quick access to the duplicate command, image and canvas size dialogs, file information, and page setup. If you already know how to open an image, go ahead and try it now. Otherwise, you'll learn how in the next section
b: Status Bar Let's continue our exploration of the Photoshop workspace. There are four main counterparts to the Photoshop workspace: the menu bar, the status bar, the toolbox, and the palettes. We looked at the menu bars in the first section. In this lesson we'll be learning about the status bar. The Status Bar
Now take a look at the status bar along the bottom edge of the Photoshop workspace. The status bar is often taken for granted or overlooked entirely, but it can be a valuable tool. You'll need an open document before the status bar will display any information, so let's open one now To the far left of the status bar you will see the magnification level of the active document. You can swipe your cursor in this area and type in a new number to change the magnification of your document. Go ahead and try it now. To return your document to 100% magnification, locate the zoom tool in the toolbox and double click the button. The keyboard equivalent to this shortcut is Ctrl-Alt-0/Cmd-Option-0. (We'll explore more of the toolbar a bit later.)
To the left of the magnification display on the status bar, you will see a display of document sizes. The number on the left displays the uncompressed size of the image if it were to have all layers flattened. The number on the right displays the uncompressed size of the document including all layers and channels. It's important to know that both of these numbers will usually be larger than the final file size of the saved document. For more on the Document Sizes display, look up Document Sizes option in the online Help file. Next to the Document sizes display there is a small black arrow that pops up a menu. You'll find this arrow other places in the Photoshop workspace, so when you see it, remember that there is a
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menu hiding there. In this case, the menu allows you to change what is displayed in this area of the status bar. In addition to Document Sizes, you can optionally choose to display Scratch Sizes, Efficiency, Timing, or the current tool. You can look up each of these items in Photoshop's online Help for more information. Next in the status bar, you can see useful information about the tool you have selected. If you still have the zoom tool selected, your status bar should say "Zoom In" if you are outside of the document area. Move the cursor into the document area and you will see the status bar display instructions for using that tool. Now hold down the Alt/Option key and the status bar will show "Zoom Out" and the cursor will change to a minus sign. Next try the Ctrl/Command key in conjunction with the zoom tool and observe the tips displayed in the status bar. Try the other key combinations such as Ctrl-Shift/Cmd-Shift, or Ctrl-Alt/Cmd-Option while observing the status bar instructions. Let's review each of the zoom tool options: No modifier key = click to zoom in; click and drag to zoom into a specific area Double click = zoom to 100% magnification , Ctrl-Alt-0/Cmd-Option-0 = zoom to 100% magnification ,Alt/Option = click to zoom out ,Ctrl/Cmd = temporarily toggles to the move tool Here are a few more zoom shortcuts we have not yet covered: Double click the Hand tool = zoom to fit the screen Ctrl-0/Cmd-0 = zoom to fit the screen Ctrl- /Cmd- (plus sign) = zoom in Ctrl--/Cmd-- (minus sign) = zoom out The Toolbox Let's continue our exploration of the Photoshop workspace. There are four main counterparts to the Photoshop workspace: the menu bar, the status bar, the toolbox, and the palettes. We've already covered the menu bar and the status bar. In this lesson we'll be learning about the toolbox. Since this is a general overview of the toolbox, the materials here are useful for any version of Photoshop. The Toolbox You got bar in a jump start on learning about the zoom tool while we were studying the status the last
section.
Now let's explore more of the Photoshop toolbox. If you have the Quick Reference Card that came with Photoshop, it would be a good idea to locate it
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now. If you cannot locate a copy, Version 6.0 users can find a PDF file of the Quick Reference card on the main level of your Photoshop installation CD. Version 5.x users can find a diagram of the toolbox and all hidden tools on page 25 of the Photoshop 5.0 User Guide.
When you look at the toolbox, notice how some of the buttons have a tiny arrow in the lower right corner. This arrow indicates that other tools are hidden under that tool. To access the other tools, click and hold down on a button and the other tools will pop out. Try this now by clicking on the rectangle marquee tool and changing to the elliptical marquee tool. The hidden marquee tools are shown here.
Now hold your cursor over one of the buttons and you should see a tooltip appear that tells you the name of the tool and its keyboard shortcut. All the marquee tools have a shortcut of M. An easier way to switch between the different hidden tools is to use the keyboard shortcut along with the Shift key modifier. For the marquee tools, the Shift-M combination toggles between the rectangular and elliptical marquee tools. The single row marquee tools are less often used and must be selected from the toolbox flyout. Another shortcut for cycling through the hidden tools is to Alt/Option click on the toolbox button. Take a few moments now to familiarize yourself with the tool names using the tooltips. Use the shortcuts you've just learned to explore all the hidden tools. As you select each tool, note the hints provided in the status bar area for each tool. Don't worry about using each tool for now; we'll get to that soon enough. For now, you should just get to know the tool locations and their icons. Moving down in the toolbox, we come to the color swatches. This is where the foreground and background colors are displayed. The tiny arrow to the top right allows you to swap foreground and background colors. The tiny black and white swatch symbol to the lower left allows you to reset the colors to the default of black foreground and white background. Hold your cursor over those two areas to learn the keyboard shortcuts. To change a color, simply click on either the foreground or background color swatch and select a new color in the color picker. Experiment by changing the foreground and background colors and then resetting them back to defaults.
The next two buttons on the toolbox allow you to toggle between quick mask and selection mode. We'll learn more about this later in future lessons.
Below that you have a set of three buttons that allow you to change the appearance of the workspace. Hold your cursor over each button to see what it does. Notice the keyboard shortcut for all three is F. Hitting F repeatedly toggles between all three modes. Try it now.
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This is a convenient place to mention a few more shortcuts for modifying the workspace appearance. Feel free to try them out as you read. When in either of the full screen modes, you can toggle the menu bar on and off with the Shift-F key combination. In any screen mode you can toggle the toolbox, status bar, and palettes on and off with the Tab key. To hide only palettes and leave the toolbox visible, use Shift-Tab. The last button on the toolbox is for moving your document to Image Ready. We will not be exploring ImageReady in this course. Before we move on to the palettes, let's review what we learned about the toolbox: 1. An arrow indicates a flyout of hidden tools. 2. Each main tool has a single letter keyboard shortcut assigned to it. 3. The Shift key combined with a tool shortcut allows you to toggle the hidden tools. 4. D = resets the foreground color to black and background color to white. 5. X = swap foreground and background colors. 6. F = toggles screen modes 7. Shift-F = Turns menu bar on and off in full screen modes 8. Tab = toggles the toolbox, status bar, and palettes on and off 9. Shift-Tab = toggle only the palettes on and off Palettes Let's continue our exploration of the Photoshop workspace. There are four main counterparts to the Photoshop workspace: the menu bar, the status bar, the toolbox, and the palettes. All that's left to cover now are the palettes. Since this is a general overview of the palettes, the materials here are useful for any version of Photoshop. You'll need to have an image open for this lesson, so go ahead and open one now.
The Palettes When you first open Photoshop, the palettes are stacked along the right edge of your screen in palette groups. The first group contains the Navigator, Info, and Options palettes. Next is the Color Swatches, and Brushes palettes. Below that are the History and Actions Palettes. Finally, you have the Layers, Channels, and Paths Palettes.Palette groups can be moved around in the workspace by clicking on the title bar and dragging. Each palette group has a collapse and a close button in the title bar area. Try the collapse button for each of the palette groups now. You'll notice the button works as a toggle, clicking the button a second time after the palette is collapsed will expand the palette again. You may also notice that some palettes do not completely collapse. Try collapsing the color palettes and you'll see that the color ramp is still visible.
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Color Palette Expanded
Color Palette Partially Collapsed
Color Palette Completely Collapsed For palettes that partially collapse, you can completely collapse them by holding down the Alt/Option key as you press the collapse button. You can also collapse a group by double clicking on any of the palette tabs. To display a collapsed palette, just click once on the palette tab if it's in the back of the group, or double click if it's in the front of the group. Palettes can be resized either by holding your cursor over an edge and dragging when the cursor changes to a double pointing arrow, or by clicking and dragging on the right corner. Only the Color, Options, and Info palettes are not resizable. When you click the close button on a palette group it closes all the palettes in the group. To display a palette that is not shown, you can either choose the command from the Window Menu, or display the palette using its keyboard shortcut. They are:

Enter or Return = Show/Hide Options Palette (V5.x only) Double click tool button = Show/Hide Options Palette (V5.x only) F5 = Show/Hide Brushes Palette F6 = Show/Hide Color Palette F7 = Show/Hide Layers Palette F8 = Show/Hide Info Palette F9 = Show/Hide Actions Palette
And don't forget these which we learned in the last lesson:

Tab = Show/Hide Toolbar and all Palettes Shift-Tab = Show/Hide all Palettes
To bring a grouped palette to the front of the group, click on the palette's tab. You can also ungroup and rearrange the palettes by clicking on a tab and dragging it outside of the group or to another group. Try it now by dragging the navigator palette out of it's default group. Then put it back by dragging it back onto the palette group.
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In version 6, several palettes can be grouped in one large super-group. To do this, drag a palette to the bottom edge of another palette group. An outline will appear long the bottom edge and then you can let go. Now the two palettes will be attached, but not overlapping. You can attach several palettes this way to create one massive palette collection.
Docking two palettes Two palettes that have been docked Also in Photoshop 6.0, you have a palette well in the options bar. You can drag palettes to this area and they will remain there hidden until you click on the palette tab to reveal it. (If you cannot see the palette well of the options bar, you will need to adjust your screen resolution to at least 1024x768 pixels.)Another common feature of all the palettes is the palette menu. Notice the small arrow in the upper right corner of each palette. If you recall from our lessons on the menu and status bar, this indicates a pop-out menu. Whenever you see me refer to a palette menu throughout these lessons, you'll know I mean this menu for whichever palette is being discussed. Take a look at the palette menu for each of the palettes now. Notice that each individual palette has a unique menu. Practice showing, hiding and moving the various palettes, click on the palette tabs to familiarize yourself with each palette, and take a look at each of the palette menus while you're at it. If you'd like to return the palettes to the default locations after you finish experimenting, go to File
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> Preferences > General and click the button to reset Palette Locations. If you always want to start Photoshop with you palettes this way, uncheck the box "Save Palette Locations" box while you are there. If you work with many large images you may prefer to keep your palettes collapsed along the bottom edge of the Photoshop workspace to give you the maximum space for documents. We'll take a closer look at each of the individual palettes in future lessons. Review :It may not seem like we have covered very much so far, but you may be surprised at what you've learned. Let's review what we have studied in You learned how to find hidden menus and tools when you see a small arrow on a menu, palette, or tool button. You learned how to identify many of the most commonly used keyboard shortcuts. You learned how to take advantage of tool tips and hints in the status bar area. You learned how to open a file. You learned how to change the foreground and background colors, swap colors, and reset colors to defaults. You learned how to change screen mode, as well as hide and show the toolbar, palettes, and menu bar. You learned how to move, arrange, group, hide and show the palettes. You learned how to access additional palette options through the palette menu. You learned several ways to zoom in and out of documents. Let's review each of the keyboard shortcuts and commands we've discussed so far: Zoom shortcuts:

No modifier key = click to zoom in; click and drag to zoom into a specific Ctrl- /Cmd- (plus sign) = zoom in Double click the Zoom tool = zoom to 100% magnification Ctrl-Alt-0/Cmd-Option-0 = zoom to 100% magnification Double click the Hand tool = zoom to fit the screen Ctrl-0/Cmd-0 = zoom to fit the screen Alt/Option with zoom tool = click to zoom out Ctrl--/Cmd-- (minus sign) = zoom out Type any number into the status bar imagination level display.
area
Opening a File:

File > Open Ctrl-O/Cmd-O Double click the application background (Windows Only)
Screen Mode and Display:

F = toggles screen modes Shift-F = Turns menu bar on and off in full screen modes Tab = toggles the toolbox, status bar, and palettes on and off Shift-Tab = toggle only the palettes on and off
Palettes:
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Enter or Return = Show/Hide Options Palette (V5.x only) Double click tool button = Show/Hide Options Palette (V5.x only) F5 = Show/Hide Brushes Palette F6 = Show/Hide Color Palette F7 = Show/Hide Layers Palette F8 = Show/Hide Info Palette F9 = Show/Hide Actions Palette
10. COREL DRAW

COREL DRAW BASICS A peek under the hood of the Corel DRAW Graphics Suite X3 hints at a change in the wind at Corel. Two years of development and more rigorous testing have brought to the suite better reliability and performance along with the many new tools, effects, and advancements. But it's the
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quality woven into the very fabric of the suite that really caught my eye. Maybe, it's the subtle sophistication that comes with maturity. Take a look at what's new, and you'll see what I mean. Corel DRAW X3 boasts a myriad of new and improved Toolbox components. The new innovations include an ingenious new Smart Fill tool, a new bitmap-cropping tool, an overhauled star-drawing tool, and significant improvements to the Shape Tool. The Smart Fill Tool doesn't just apply fill colors to shapes, it also creates the shapes. Just use the Property Bar options to choose your fill and outline colors and the outline width, and click an enclosed area where any two shapes overlap (as shown below). The result is a new shape that exactly matches the area you clicked. The Smart Fill Tool simultaneously performs a shaping command and applies new fill and outline colors to the new object.
The Crop Tool enables you to interactively redefine the rectangular boundaries of an existing bitmap. Just marquee-select the area you wish to preserve, and double-click to permanently eliminate the unwanted pixels (as shown below).
The Polygon Tool seen in previous versions has been split in two separate tools to make drawing stellated (star) shapes easier for experts and less mysterious for new users. The Star Tool now enables you to draw simplified star shapes (formerly created using the Star mode of the Polygon Tool). The Complex Star Tool enables you to create the more complex stars shapes previously drawn with the Polygon Tool (as shown below).
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Shapes created with the Complex Star Tool now include glyph nodes for controlling the position of the outer points when editing their shape at the node level (see below).
The Shape Tool has been enhanced to provide improved interactive feedback when you're making node selections and while manipulating nodes and curve segments. When making node selections, a new Property Bar option now enables you to choose between Freehand or Rectangular selection modes (see below).
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Vector editing is now easier and more intuitive thanks to the new Shape Tool onscreen feedback during node editing sessions. Nodes and curve markers now appear in blue, and curve handles now sport arrowhead shapes (see below), making them easier to differentiate from surrounding elements. These markers also appear while you're drawing curves with the Bezier Tool.
New Object-Shaping Commands If you've ever tried to manually round or bevel the point where two straight lines join, you'll appreciate the three new shaping commands in Corel DRAW X3. You can now instantly apply symmetrical chamfering, filleting, or scalloping commands to objects. These corner-shaping effects can be applied to a specific radius value by using a new a docker (shown below), essentially eliminating the time-consuming workarounds needed to accomplish the same effect.
Chamfering enables you to apply inside rounding to straight corners, while filleting applies the inverse of this shaping effect (as shown below). Scalloping enables you to create a flattened-corner effect of a specific length.
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You can apply these shape commands to all corners of an object selected by using the Pick Tool, or apply the effects only to specifically selected points by using the Shape Tool (see below)
While we're on the subject of shaping, you'll also find an object cut-line/keyline command available in this version. The Create Boundary command enables you to create a new shape based on the enclosed area created by any overlapping shapes. You can access it from the Shaping portion of the Property Bar (shown below) or from the Object menu.
The new shape is closed and is based on your current fill and outline property defaults. The Create Boundary command can be applied to both vector and bitmap objects. In the illustration shown below, the Create Boundary command was applied to three overlapping rectangles to produce a new shape that precisely matches the outline of the selected overlapping shapes.
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New Dynamic-Beveling Effects Of all the new features, Corel DRAW X3's new dynamic Bevel effect is the only bitmap-based effect you'll see. This cleverly implemented new effect enables you to quickly create realisticlooking three- dimensional effects from flat two- dimensional shapes by way of a new Bevel docker (shown below).
Your object's current fill color serves as the basic color scheme for the effect, with options available for controlling the bevel offset, the shadow color, as well as lighting color, direction, intensity, and altitude options. The effects are dynamic, meaning they can be persistently editable and can be applied by using a flat Emboss style, or realistically by using a Soft Edge style (see below).
Improved Text Resources for Typographic Experts Text-related tools and resources in both Corel DRAW X3 and Corel PHOTO-PAINT X3 have been overhauled to include professional-level features sure to please both pundits and critics alike. The logistics behind text formatting is more clearly defined, and you can now insert coding for line and column breaks, and add professional-level hyphens, dashes, and spaces. Corel DRAW X3 includes two re-engineered text dockers (see below) that supplement, rather than repeat, options found on the Property Bar when you format text.
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The new Paragraph Formatting and Character Formatting Dockers enable you to apply property changes at the object level by using the Pick Tool, or at the character level by using the Text Tool. As in other professional layout applications, the text docker properties in Corel DRAW X3 are logically organized by style type. Each option area in the dockers can expand or collapse, as needed. The choice of specific text options is menu-based (see below).
The dockers themselves are context-sensitive, which means that they display the current properties of the selected text object or character string. This subtle but important shift in docker operation means that the changes you apply to character or paragraph properties occur instantly - you don't have to click an Apply button as you would in other Corel DRAW Dockers. Although the management of typographic properties in Corel DRAW has migrated through several different interface methods over the years, these redesigned dockers offer the smartest solution yet. Typography professionals will certainly welcome the new special character-coding capabilities of Corel DRAW X3. By choosing Text > Insert Formatting Code, you can access commands for
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inserting special-function characters (see below). Adding these characters can improve the typographic readability of your designs. You can now control the size of spaces, dashes, and hyphens in text and limit the amount of text in a paragraph text frame. The new formatting codes in Corel DRAW X3 enable you to insert space characters, such as em, -em, en, nonbreaking spaces, and column or frame breaks, into your text.
Advanced dash and hyphen formatting codes enable you to add em and en dashes, and nonbreaking or optional hyphens. You can insert any of the special formatting characters when you import text. You can also use shortcut keys for codes when typing an artistic or paragraph text string. You can also create your own lists of hyphenation exceptions by using the Custom Option Hyphens dialog (see below). Hyphenation can now be toggled on or off for specific text objects using command menus.
New Dynamic Text-to-Path Controls If you create effects involving text applied to a path, you'll see how much more smoothly this effect can be applied with Corel DRAW X3. Manipulating text on a path is enormously easier, thanks to the new dynamic previewing capabilities. You can adjust the text position on the path more easily and adjust the path offset interactively. The dynamic feedback shows you the new position of the character string measured to the text baseline position, and an on-screen display shows the precise text-to-path offset value (see below). By dragging the glyph node, you can access a crosshair pointer for controlling the text position on the path, and you can drag the text above or below the path to control the path offset.
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The revamped text-to-path Property Bar (see below) also includes several new options. You can quickly mirror the text orientation by using the Mirror Horizontally option and/or Mirror Vertically option. You can also use and control the new Tick Snapping option, which enables you to specify snapping increments for offsets as you position the text in relation to the path.
Better Bullet Options When it comes to structuring point-form text, you can more easily access and customize bullet effects for selected text. Although Corel DRAW has always enabled you to apply and format bullets, you now have more options and better access to this feature. Just choose Text > Bullets for access to the Bullets dialog (see below), independently of the Text Formatting dialog.
Using the Bullets dialog options, you can customize your bullet characters using any symbol font installed on your system. New options also enable you to automatically set the space between the bullet character and the first character in the string, eliminating the need to devise a tab character arrangement (see below).
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Integrated Bitmap Tracing You no longer need to launch a separate application to trace bitmap images into vectors. Corel's new PowerTRACE utility is now accessible from a single dialog launched from the Bitmap menu or the Bitmap portion of the Property Bar (as shown below).
PowerTRACE includes many of the features previously available in CorelTRACE, but also includes an impressive toolset for customizing and manipulating the colors of the newly traced vector shapes. Power TRACE features six different tracing modes which provide varying degrees of tracing quality and accuracy. You can also apply a Quick Trace command that is applied almost instantly at basic settings, without opening the dialog. The example shown below illustrates the tracing results of a digital photo traced by using the Quick Trace command, which generated just 76 objects.
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Advanced Color Support < transparency with objects or effects vector behind layered to applied are they if even preserved colors spot means also support improved The transparency. and fills, mesh blends, shadows, drop as such tools interactive bitmap dynamic include now can You PHOTOPAINT. Corel Corel DRAW supported fully palettes color Fixed> Although applying fill and outline overprints at the object level in Corel DRAW is nothing new, what's new is what you see when one color is set to overprint an underlying color (shown below). You can now choose Enhanced with Overprints (the default view setting) as a view mode to enable you to preview the overprints you manually apply to objects in your drawing.
Expanded Object Layer and Page Ordering If you're accustomed to working on layers, you'll appreciate the added object ordering commands. You can now control the object layering either within a layer or within the page structure by using new Order commands (shown below). You can use command menus or keyboard shortcuts to quickly change the order of selected objects in relation to their current layer order, or within the page structure.
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Recouped Object-Copy Handling Power Corel DRAW X3 enables you to create copies of selected objects in many ways using a variety of techniques. Improvements in this area make locating the Duplicate offset options easier. The first time you use the Duplicate command (Ctrl+D), a dialog opens (as shown below) prompting you to set and/or confirm your current duplicate options.
The Clone command has returned to the default workspace of Corel DRAW X3 after an absence from last version. You can create a clone by choosing Edit > Clone, to establish a relationship between your clone and its master. The Select Master and Revert to Master commands are available via right- mouse button functionality. A new Step and Repeat docker now enables you to create multiple copies of selected objects at specified offsets. To toggle display of the docker (shown below), choose Edit > Step and Repeat (Ctrl+Shift+D).
New and Improved Image-Manipulation Tools A new fully-equipped Image Adjustment Lab (shown below) is now available in both Corel DRAW X3 and Corel PHOTO-PAINT X3, enabling you to quickly correct color and exposure flaws in digital images. This new lab enables you to correct images by creating snapshots of previewed settings for evaluation before making a selection. Adjust image properties manually by
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using the dialog sliders, or simply click Auto Adjust to apply instant corrections. Auto Adjust can also be applied via command menus without the need to open the dialog.
Revamped Photo-PAINT Cutout Lab The beefed up Cutout Lab available in Corel PHOTO-PAINT X3 now enables you to fine- tune the defined areas you wish to isolate in an image and use new previewing, background, clip mask, and image- preserving options (as shown below).
New Spot Color and Alpha Channel Options: Corel PHOTO-PAINT X3 includes two new Channel docker options (shown below) for you to use when preparing and manipulating digital images. You may now create new alpha channels as an option from the Channels docker options menu. You may also create new spot color channels enabling you to preserve spot color information for color printing. The spot colors you add can be
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previewed as either opaque or transparent relative to other colors. Corel PHOTO-PAINT X3 images that include spot color channels can also be saved in PSD, DCS, PDF, or EPS file formats.
Integrated Raw Camera File Support The Corel DRAW Graphics Suite X3 now includes Raw Shooter, an application that enables you to open and edit the image censor information stored by high-end digital cameras. Raw Shooter 2005 now supports file formats from various manufacturers, including NEF, CRW, DCR, ORF, and MRW. Advanced PDF Publishing Power When it comes to digitally publishing your Corel DRAW X3 or Corel PHOTO-PAINT X3 documents, you'll have access to the latest in security advancements. The improved Publish to PDF filter enables you to produce documents that can be viewed with Adobe Acrobat Reader or viewed online with the Acrobat Reader browser plug-in. Although PDF publishing isn't new, the PDF Security options (see below) now enable you to protect the documents you create with passwords for opening, printing, editing, and copying the newly created PDF document.
When using PDF permissions, you can control if and when the document can be opened, edited, or printed. When a Document Open password is used to encrypt a PDF document, Acrobat Reader requires the password to be entered before the document can be viewed, copied, edited, and/or printed. Smarter Learning Resources If you're a newcomer to Corel DRAW or Corel PHOTO-PAINT, you'll no doubt benefit from the new Hints docker (shown below). It provides task-based directions on how to use program tools and features. The Hints docker is also now context-sensitive, meaning it includes a live-update feature that displays information relevant to whatever tool or feature you select as you work.
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A new Insights from the Experts feature links you to a series of project tutorials in PDF format written by well-known experts from the Corel community that guide you through strategies and techniques on how to tackle a wide variety of design projects. If you're an experienced user who's upgrading, you can quickly get yourself up to speed on what's new and improved from specific past versions using the Highlight What's New. It activates color highlighting to indicated tools, menu commands, and Property Bar options new since previous versions (shown below).
We've really just scratched the surface of what's new and improved in the Corel DRAW X3 Graphics Suite. There are certainly more new features you'll want to explore on your own. In the coming months, we'll take a closer look at how you can benefit from many of the new tools and features in the suite.
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Managed Outsource Solutions (MOS) is a business process outsourcing company based in the USA. We provide a number of services to clients in different parts of the world. You can avail of practice forms data entry services from MOS; our practice forms data entry service is available for personnel in the field of law, business, medicine, education and more. At MOS, we have the most practical and cost effective practice forms for you. We have some of the best data entry operators in the field to enter data for you. We offer 99% accurate data entry services within limited period. Availability of ready-made data entry form templates makes the data entry process easy. At MOS, we provide both online and offline data entry services. The practice forms we have include medical data entry forms, tax practices forms, insurance practice forms and so on. Every business concern has individual data entry requirements and at MOS, we maintain a well organized online data management system for our clients. For this we have expert staff who will carry out your practice forms data entry to perfection. Besides, we have already earned a name for the speed and accuracy of job delivery. MOS practice forms data entry is also done at our offshore locations in India and the Philippines. MOS practice forms data entry is available for:

Medical claims forms Insurance data processing forms Airline service forms Tax mates data processing forms Immigration processing forms Shipping documents preparing forms Other back office data entry forms
How to Practice Data Entry Skills
Data entry workers enter data from raw sources into a computer or spreadsheet. There are many jobs that are available for people who are good with computers and can type quickly and accurately. Hospitals, government jobs, real estate, finance, and other industries all hire data entry workers. In addition, someone with data entry skills can work from home, which saves businesses money while
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allowing you the freedom of choosing your bosses. The challenge to getting a good data entry job is that there are many people with similar skills, so you need to really stand out in some way or have outstanding typing skills. Difficulty:
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Download a trial version of typing training software. This will teach you how to properly use a keyboard or improve your existing data entry/typing skills. Some programs are free and others cost money, but a good program will allow you to keep track of your progress and offer many levels to improve your skills. See Resources below for some examples of typing trainers.
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Practice typing for at least one hour every day. Get a comfortable chair and a bright light. Start with the basic levels and work your way up, improving on speed and accuracy. Become proficient with the letters before you start with the numbers. Try to obtain 99% accuracy at over 90 WPM. Try not to take a break, since data entry jobs often require long hours of staring at a computer.
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Practice your 10-key typing skills for at least an hour a day, separate from your letters. Take the tests and try to beat your last score. Print out your scores so you can see progress and where you need to improve. Work on your accuracy over speed here, since typing the wrong number in a workplace can cost you your job.
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Take a course at your local community college or earn a certificate in data entry if you want to stand out to employers. Some colleges offer classes in software programs used by local employers, such as FileMaker.
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6. LOCAL AREA NETWORK

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers in a limited area such as home, school, computer laboratory or office building.[1] The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide area networks (WANs), include their usually higher data-transfer rates, smaller geographic area, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. ARCNET, Token Ring and other technology standards have been used in the past, but Ethernet overtwisted pair cabling, and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies currently used to build LANs. A computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are confined to a single building or group of buildings. However, one LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. A system of LANs connected in this way is called a wide-area network (WAN). Most LANs connect workstations and personal computers. Each node(individual computer ) in a LAN has its own CPU with which it executesprograms, but it also is able to access data and devices anywhere on the LAN. This means that many users can share expensive devices, such aslaser printers, as well as data. Users can also use the LAN to communicate with each other, by sending e-mail or engaging in chat sessions. There are many different types of LANs Ethernets being the most common forPCs. Most Apple Macintosh networks are based on Apple's AppleTalk network system, which is built into Macintosh computers. The following characteristics differentiate one LAN from another: topology : The geometric arrangement of devices on the network. For example, devices can be arranged in a ring or in a straight line. protocols : The rules and encoding specifications for sending data. The protocols also determine whether the network uses a peer-to-peer or client/server architecture. media : Devices can be connected by twisted-pair wire, coaxial cables, or fiber optic cables. Some networks do without connecting media altogether, communicating instead via radio waves. LANs are capable of transmitting data at very fast rates, much faster than data can be transmitted over a telephone line; but the distances are limited, and there is also a limit on the number of computers that can be attached to a single LAN.
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(n.) A network is a group of two or more computer systems linked together. There are many types of computer networks, including: local-area networks (LANs) : The computers are geographically close together (that is, in the same building). wide-area networks (WANs) : The computers are farther apart and are connected by telephone lines or radio waves. campus-area networks (CANs): The computers are within a limited geographic area, such as a campus or military base. metropolitan-area networks MANs): A data network designed for a town or city. home-area networks (HANs): A network contained within a user's home that connects a person's digital devices. In addition to these types, the following characteristics are also used to categorize different types of networks: topology : The geometric arrangement of a computer system. Common topologies include a bus, star, and ring. See the Network topology diagrams in the Quick Reference section of Webopedia. protocol : The protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that computers on the network use to communicate. One of the most popular protocols for LANs is called Ethernet. Another popular LAN protocol for PCs is the IBM token-ring network . architecture : Networks can be broadly classified as using either apeer-topeer or client/server architecture. Computers on a network are sometimes called nodes. Computers anddevices that allocate resources for a network are called servers. (v.) To connect two or more computers together with the ability to communicate with each other. topology
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The shape of a local-area network (LAN) or other communications system. Topologies are either physical or logical. There are four principal topologies used in LANs. bus topology: All devices are connected to a central cable, called thebus or backbone. Bus networks are relatively inexpensive and easy to install for small networks. Ethernet systems use a bus topology. ring topology : All devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop, so that each device is connected directly to two other devices, one on either side of it. Ring topologies are relatively expensive and difficult to install, but they offer high bandwidth and can span large distances. star topology: All devices are connected to a central hub. Star networks are relatively easy to install and manage, but bottlenecks can occur because all data must pass through the hub. tree topology: A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable. These topologies can also be mixed. For example, a bus-star network consists of a high-bandwidth bus, called the backbone, which connects a collections of slower-bandwidth star segments. mesh Also called mesh topology or a mesh network, mesh is a network topology in which devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between network nodes. In a true mesh topology every node has a connection to every other node in the network.
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There are two types of mesh topologies: full mesh and partial mesh. Full mesh topology occurs when every node has a circuit connecting it to every other node in a network. Full mesh is very expensive to implement but yields the greatest amount of redundancy, so in the event that one of those nodes fails, network traffic can be directed to any of the other nodes. Full mesh is usually reserved for backbone networks. Partial mesh topology is less expensive to implement and yields less redundancy than full mesh topology. With partial mesh, some nodes are organized in a full mesh scheme but others are only connected to one or two in the network. Partial mesh topology is commonly found in peripheral networks connected to a full meshed backbone. stub network A stub network is an internal network, usually a LAN (Local Area Network) that carries data packets only among local hosts. Data on a stub network is destined for an endpoint located on that network. Network traffic on a stub network is local in that it doesn't travel off the internal network. token-ring network
)(1) A type of computer network in which all the computers are arranged (schematically) in a circle. A token, which is a special bit pattern, travels around the circle. To send a message, a computer catches the token, attaches a message to it, and then lets it continue to travel around the network. Also see token passing. For network diagrams, see Network Topology Diagrams in the Quick Reference section of Webopedia. (2) When capitalized, Token Ring refers to the PC network architecture developed by IBM. The IBM Token-Ring specification has been standardized by the IEEE as the IEEE 802.5 standard. bus network A type of local-area network (LAN) that has a bus topology and uses a token -passing mechanism to regulate traffic on the bus. A token bus network is very similar to a token ring network, the main difference being that the endpoints of the bus do not meet to form a physical ring. Token bus networks are defined by the IEEE 802.4 standard.
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14. INTERNET
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support electronic mail. Most traditional communications media including telephone, music, film, and television are reshaped or redefined by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and IPTV. Newspaper, book and other print publishing are adapting to Web site technology, or are reshaped into blogging and web feeds. The Internet has enabled or accelerated new forms of human interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Online shopping has boomed both for major retail outlets and small artisans and traders. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries. The origins of the Internet reach back to research of the 1960s, commissioned by the United States government in collaboration with private commercial interests to build robust, fault-tolerant, and distributed computer networks. The funding of a new U.S. backbone by the National Science Foundation in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other commercial backbones, led to worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies, and the merger of many networks. The commercialization of what was by the 1990s an international network resulted in its popularization and incorporation into virtually every aspect of modern human life. As of 2009, an estimated one-quarter of Earth's population uses the services of the Internet.
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The Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own standards. Only the overreaching definitions of the two principal name spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address space and the Domain Name System, are directed by a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a nonprofit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise.
Terminology Internet is a short form of the technical term internetwork,[1] the result of interconnecting computer networks with special gateways or routers. The Internet is also often referred to as the Net. The term the Internet, when referring to the entire global system of IP networks, has been treated as a proper noun and written with an initialcapital letter. In the media and popular culture a trend has also developed to regard it as a generic term or common noun and thus write it as "the internet", without capitalization. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized as a noun but not capitalized as an adjective. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used in everyday speech without much distinction. However, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not one and the same. The hardware and software infrastructure of the Internet establishes a global data communications system between computers. In contrast, the Web is one of the services communicated via the Internet. It is a collection of interconnected documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. Ukraine State-of-the-art information technology is developing at a rapid rate in the Ukraine. An essential initiative driving this momentum is the alliance between the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine and Microsoft to create a Ukrainian language computer environment. We are well aware of how significant it is for users to be able to work with an interface adapted to their native language a factor that becomes even more important in the sphere of public education and science. We are extremely pleased to expand and improve the localization of Microsoft software together. Andrey Nikolaevich Gurzhiy First Vice Minister of Education and Science
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United Kingdom Wales The Welsh Language Board is delighted to be working with Microsoft in creating a specialized Welsh version of its computer programs. This new solution from Microsoft is a huge boost to the language and will provide a much-needed service. This pioneering scheme will give more people access to the Welsh language and will enable computer users across the world to choose Welsh in work and in recreation. Computing is at the cutting edge of new technology. What better way to promote and develop the Welsh language than through this most contemporary form of communication.
15. COMMUNICATION SKILLS Communication is defined as a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. Use of these processes is developmental and transfers to all areas of life: home, school, community, work, and beyond. It is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur. Communications Skills The Importance of Removing Barriers Problems with communication can pop-up at every stage of the communication process (which consists of the sender, encoding, the channel, decoding, the receiver, feedback and the context see the diagram below). At each stage, there is the potential for misunderstanding and confusion.
To be an effective communicator and to get your point across without misunderstanding and confusion, your goal should be to lessen the frequency of problems at each stage of this process, with clear, concise, accurate, well-planned communications. We follow the process through below:
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Source... As the source of the message, you need to be clear about why you're communicating, and what you want to communicate. You also need to be confident that the information you're communicating is useful and accurate. Message... The message is the information that you want to communicate. Encoding... This is the process of transferring the information you want to communicate into a form that can be sent and correctly decoded at the other end. Your success in encoding depends partly on your ability to convey information clearly and simply, but also on your ability to anticipate and eliminate sources of confusion (for example, cultural issues, mistaken assumptions, and missing information.) A key part of this knows your audience: Failure to understand who you are communicating with will result in delivering messages that are misunderstood. Channel... Messages are conveyed through channels, with verbal channels including face-to-face meetings, telephone and videoconferencing; and written channels including letters, emails, memos and reports. Different channels have different strengths and weaknesses. For example, it's not particularly effective to give a long list of directions verbally, while you'll quickly cause problems if you give someone negative feedback using email. Decoding... Just as successful encoding is a skill, so is successful decoding (involving, for example, taking the time to read a message carefully, or listen actively to it.) Just as confusion can arise from errors in encoding, it can also arise from decoding errors. This is particularly the case if the decoder doesn't have enough knowledge to understand the message. Receiver... Your message is delivered to individual members of your audience. No doubt, you have in mind the actions or reactions you hope your message will get from this audience. Keep in mind, though, that each of these individuals enters into the communication process with ideas and feelings that will
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undoubtedly influence their understanding of your message, and their response. To be a successful communicator, you should consider these before delivering your message, and act appropriately. Feedback... Your audience will provide you with feedback, as verbal and nonverbal reactions to your communicated message. Pay close attention to this feedback, as it is the only thing that can give you confidence that your audience has understood your message. If you find that there has been a misunderstanding, at least you have the opportunity to send the message a second time. Context... The situation in which your message is delivered is the context. This may include the surrounding environment or broader culture (corporate culture, international cultures, and so on). Removing Barriers at All These Stages To deliver your messages effectively, you must commit to breaking down the barriers that exist within each of these stages of the communication process. Lets begin with the message itself. If your message is too lengthy, disorganized, or contains errors, you can expect the message to be misunderstood and misinterpreted. Use of poor verbal and body language can also confuse the message. Barriers in context tend to stem from senders offering too much information too fast. When in doubt here, less is oftentimes more. It is best to be mindful of the demands on other peoples time, especially in todays ultra-busy society. Once you understand this, you need to work to understand your audiences culture, making sure you can converse and deliver your message to people of different backgrounds and cultures within your own organization, in your country and even abroad. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION: Verbal Communication Non-Verbal Communication Written Communication Visual communication
VerbalCommunication Verbal communication includes sounds, words, language and speaking. Language is said to have
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originated from sounds and gestures. There are many languages spoken in the world. The bases of language formation are: gender, class, profession, geographical area, age group and other social elements. Speaking is an effective way of communicating and is again classified into two types viz. interpersonal communication and public speaking. Good verbal communication is an inseparable part of business communication. In a business, you come across people from various ages, cultures and races. Fluent verbal communication is essential to deal with people in business meetings. Also, in business communication self-confidence plays a vital role which when clubbed with fluent communication skills can lead to success. Public speaking is another verbal communication in which you have to address a group of people. Preparing for an effective speech before you start is important. In public speaking, the speech must be prepared according to the type of audience you are going to face. The content of your speech should be authentic and you must have enough information on the topic you have chosen for public speaking. All the main points in your speech must be highlighted and these points should be delivered in the correct order. There are many public speaking techniques and these techniques must be practiced for an effective speech. Non-VerbalCommunication Non-verbal communication involves physical ways of communication, like, tone of the voice, touch, smell and body motion. Creative and aesthetic non-verbal communication includes singing, music, dancing and sculpturing. Symbols and sign language are also included in non-verbal communication. Body language is a non-verbal way of communication. Body posture and physical contact convey a lot of information. Body posture matters a lot when you are communicating verbally to someone. Folded arms and crossed legs are some of the signals conveyed by a body posture. Physical contact, like, shaking hands, pushing, patting and touching expresses the feeling of intimacy. Facial expressions, gestures and eye contact are all different ways of communication. Reading facial expressions can help you know a person better. WrittenCommunication Written communication is writing the words which you want to communicate. Good written communication is essential for business purposes. Written communication is practiced in many different languages. E-mails, reports, articles and memos are some of the ways of using written communication in business. The written communication can be edited and amended many times before it is communicated to the second party to whom the communication is intended. This is one of the main advantages of using writing as the major means of communication in business activity. Written communication is used not only in business but also for informal communication purposes. Mobile SMS is an example of informalwrittencommunication. VisualCommunication
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the last type of communication out of the four types of communication is the visual communication. Visual communication is visual display of information, like, topography, photography, signs, symbols and designs. Television and video clips are the electronic form of visual communication. Important Characteristics of Communication:

It is a 2-way process. Communication process happens between or among two or more parties. (Sender and Receiver) Communication involves exchange of ideas, feelings, information, thoughts, and knowledge. Communication involves mutuality of understanding between Sender and Receiver. ACTIVITY How would you communicate to the Police men about the theft of your twowheeler? Telephonic Conversation between two friends who contacted each other after a long time? Enquiring to a Customer Care Executives based on some queries about the concern product? Course Detail Enquiry to a Training Centre on seeing the ads in the Newspaper?
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16. GROUP DISCUSSION Introduction Group discussions are today an important part of the selection process to many entry-level executive jobs and management institutes. This is often done when a large number of candidates are involved even after the initial screening of resumes/ entrance tests. The selection committee then uses group discussions as the next round to quickly identify the most suitable candidates for the next round, that is interviews. It is not a very easy task to stand out from a group of ten to twenty candidates. You are being assessed for your team behavior. You cannot win by either being a mute witness to the action or by being to aggressive. Here are a few things you would do well to internalize for your group discussion rounds.
Prepare This sounds the most obvious thing, but many people dont understand how they can prepare for a group discussion. There are two parts to it. One is that you need to be well read about current happenings and public controversies, as group discussions are often about these topics. This reading pays off in many ways, as it can help you in other areas like entrance tests and interviews too. Second, try to practice group discussions with a group of friends you are comfortable with. Get a few friends who are in the same situation as you, job hunting or preparing for entrance tests. It is easier to motivate these people to practice seriously than your cricket buddies. Practicing with a group you are comfortable with helps you to be natural when you are at the competitive GD. Participate This means that you need to be actively involved in the discussions. You need to speak up. You wont win by being a silent observer of the goings on. The person who initiates or concludes the discussion gets easily noticed, but take it easy if you just missed out on this. You can still score with intelligent views and appropriate behavior.
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Appropriate Behavior This is perhaps the most crucial part. As we saw earlier, group discussions are used to assess a persons behavior in a group. You need to be assertive, not aggressive or submissive. Express your views by all means. If you do not agree with someone, be sure to express your disagreement appropriately. Dont use expressions like youre wrong, that is wrong, what nonsense etc. Always show respect to the other persons point of view and then show your disagreement with expressions like what you say has some truth, however I do not agree entirely with you, I have a somewhat different take on this or I beg to differ with you. Show your appreciation when someone makes a good point or an intelligent observation. This wins you their rapport as well as a few points towards healthy team behavior. Be mindful of your body language. Use gestures, but dont overdo it. Remember that we use gestures in our everyday conversations. Try to be your natural, relaxed self in the group discussion too. Dont Lose Your Cool In the group discussion, you are with people you dont know well. Be alert to sound respectful and avoid anything that may sound offensive to the other people. On the other hand, some other speakers may behave aggressively or sound offensive. Dont take it personally. Stay calm, objective and voice your views/objections respectfully under all circumstances. You score by being coolheaded under provocation. Take it Easy Earlier in this article I advised you to be well read. However no one can be a know-it-all. It may so turn out that you are not well informed of the topic selected for the group discussion. Dont panic. Wait till someone starts the discussion. You can pick up the thread by following the conversation and then say something intelligent. Remember that the main purpose of this round is not to test your general knowledge. Similarly, sometimes you may have some really interesting point to make-something that is original/ complex. You may suddenly find yourself stuck for the right words and phrases to express the thought with all its nuances. It doesnt pay to be seen struggling with a thought. Simplify your idea to its most essential elements so that you can express it clearly. It is better to be articulate with a simple thought than sound vague. Summary Preparation and assertive behavior are the key to success in group discussions. Your behavior at the group discussion indicates how good a team player are you, something very valuable for every organization. A good team player is someone who can get his ideas across to others, win their rapport and also give due support and appreciation to his team members. Remember to follow these pointers in mind when you practice group discussions.
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Role Plays Learning a language is a complex and long process as anyone who has tried will agree. One of the most difficult and challenging thing is making the change from the classroom to the 'real' world. In the classroom, everyone knows you are a participant and mistakes are allowed, and the environment is safe. Speaking another language outside the classroom is completely different and often participants are lost as soon as they step outside the door. Lists of memorized vocabulary are suddenly useless when ordering in a restaurant.
Role-plays can ease participants transition into using English in real world situations. Students act out a real-life situation, for example checking into at a hotel, but do not act out a different personality. Role-plays are where students take on different personalities. In a role-play, for example, one student may be asked to take on the role of "an angry neighbor" which is out of character for the student. Role-plays require more imagination by participant and teacher and are challenging because they are unpredictable. The initial scenario develops from the participants interacting with each other and can literally go in any direction. This gives participants practice in a non-threatening environment, and gives the motivation and involvement where they have to think in English. Roleplays are interesting, memorable and engaging, and participants retain the material they have learned. Exaggeration is good! You can exaggerate your actions, opinions and movements. Exaggeration helps us to immerse ourselves in the role. In their assumed role, participants drop their shyness and other personality and cultural inhibitions, making them one of the best tools available for learning a second language Role play is a simulation in which each participant is given a role to play. Trainees are given with some information related to description of the role, concerns, objectives, responsibilities, emotions, etc. Then, a general description of the situation, and the problem that each one of them faces, is
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given. For instance, situation could be strike in factory, managing conflict, two parties in conflict, scheduling vacation days, etc. Once the participants read their role descriptions, they act out their roles by interacting with one another. Role Plays helps in Developing interpersonal skills and communication skills Conflict resolution Group decision making Developing insight into ones own behavior and its impact on others
There are various types of role plays, such as: Multiple Role Play In this type of role play, all trainees are in groups, with each group acting out the role play simultaneously. After the role play, each group analyzes the interactions and identifies the learning points. Single Role Play One group of participants plays the role for the rest, providing demonstrations of situation. Other participants observe the role play, analyze their interactions with one another and learn from the play. Role Rotation It starts as a single role play. After the interaction of participants, the trainer will stop the role play and discuss what happened so far. Then the participants are asked to exchange characters. This method allows a variety of ways to approach the roles. Spontaneous Role Play In this kind of role play, one of the trainees plays herself while the other trainees play people with whom the first participant interacted before
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Exercises Scenario 1- The Job Interview/Store (Characters: Two interviewers and one interviewee) Note: effective with a costume/prop, i.e. a wig for a male; facial hair for a female. Two people are interviewing a job applicant for a sales job in a clothing retail store. The applicants appearance is gender ambiguous. One interviewer thinks the applicant is male and the other thinks the applicant is female. They refer to the applicant using different pronouns. The applicant is vague about former jobs and former employers, and seems uncomfortable about giving references or discussing previous training or education. Conduct a brief interview, dismiss the applicant, and discuss his/her merits/disadvantages. Use the different pronouns, discuss how you are confused and what that means for your business. Scenario-2- Job Interview/CBO (Characters: Two interviewers and one interviewee) Note: effective with a costume/prop, i.e. a wig for a male; facial hair for a female. Two people are interviewing a job applicant to work in a community non-profit organization. (You can decide what kind of job, and interview accordingly.) The applicants appearance is gender ambiguous. One interviewer thinks the applicant is male and the other thinks the applicant is female. They refer to the applicant using different pronouns. The applicant seems very competent, but is vague about former jobs and former employers, and seems uncomfortable about giving references or discussing previous training or education. Conduct a brief interview, dismiss the applicant, and discuss his/her merits/disadvantages. Use the different pronouns, discuss how you are confused and what that means for your organization.
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17. GRAMMAR WHAT IS GRAMMAR? Grammar is the system of a language. People sometimes describe grammar as the "rules" of a language; but in fact no language has rules*. If we use the word "rules", we suggest that somebody created the rules first and then spoke the language, like a new game. But languages did not start like that. Languages started by people making sounds which evolved into words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken language is fixed. All languages change over time. What we call "grammar" is simply a reflection of a language at a particular time. Do we need to study grammar to learn a language? The short answer is "no". Very many people in the world speak their own, native language without having studied its grammar. Children start to speak before they even know the word "grammar". But if you are serious about learning a foreign language, the long answer is "yes, grammar can help you to learn a language more quickly and more efficiently." It's important to think of grammar as something that can help you, like a friend. When you understand the grammar (or system) of a language, you can understand many things yourself, without having to ask a teacher or look in a book. So think of grammar as something good, something positive, and something that you can use to find your way - like a signpost or a map. Grammar is the science which teaches the nature of words, their forms, and their uses and relations in the sentence. WHY GRAMMAR IS IMPORTANT? Grammar is important because it is the language that makes it possible for us to talk about language. Grammar names the types of words and word groups that make up sentences not only in English but in any language. As human beings, we can put sentences together even as children--we can all do grammar. But to be able to talk about how sentences are built, about the types of words and word groups that make up sentences--that knows about grammar. And knowing about grammar offers a window into the human mind and into our amazinglycomplexmentalcapacity. People associate grammar with errors and correctness. But knowing about grammar also helps us understand what makes sentences and paragraphs clear and interesting and precise. Grammar can be part of literature discussions, when we and our students closely read the sentences in poetry and stories. And knowing about grammar means finding out that all languages and all dialects follow grammatical patterns.
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PARTS OF SPEECH Learning about the parts of speech is the first step in grammar study just as learning the letters of the alphabet is the first step to being able to read and write. From learning the parts of speech we begin to understand the use or function of words and how words are joined together to make meaningful communication. To understand what a part of speech is, you must understand the idea of putting similar things together into groups or categories. Let's look at some examples of categories in the following table to differentiate.
COLORS blue red yellow green black
FRUITS banana apple orange grape lemon
DRINKS milk water soda beer coffee
LANGUAGES Spanish Arabic Japanese English Korean
Colors, fruits, drinks, and languages are categories. If I tell you that Grebois a language, you would understand exactly what Grebo is. If we did not have the category language, it would be hard to explain what is meant by the word Grebo. It is very convenient to have categories to talk about similar things. Let's look at some more examples of categories. In the list below, which does not belong with the others? a) Violin b) hammer c) drums d) piano e) guitar If you chose hammer, you are right. Violin, drums, piano, and guitar are used to make music, but a hammer is not used to make music. Hammer doesn't fit with the other words because it is a tool and all of the others are musical instruments. Let's try another example. Which of these does not belong with the others? a) Hammer b) saw c) violin
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c) screwdriver d) wrench This time, the word violin does not belong because it is not a tool. It is very useful to have categories like musical instruments and tools to organize our ideas. The parts of speech are categories used to organize or classify words according to how they are used. We use parts of speech as a way to make it easier to talk about language. The philosopher Aristotle and later scientists studied animals and classified them according to what they have in common. For example, eagles, robins and sparrows are kinds of birds; sharks, salmon and tuna are kinds of fish; and dogs, horses and elephants are kinds of mammals. Aristotle and others also studied language and classified words according to what they have in common. We usually use 8 categories or parts of speech to classify all the words we use in English. This classification is not perfect. Sometimes it is hard to tell which category a word belongs in. The same word may belong in different categories depending on how it is used. There may be better ways to classify English than by using the 8 parts of speech. But this classification has been used for a long time and many grammar books use it, so it is easier to keep on using it. It is possible to speak or learn a language without knowing the parts of speech, but for most of us, knowing about parts of speech makes things easier. Here is an example of how it can be helpful to know about the parts of speech. Look at the sentence: The man surreptitiously entered the room. You probably don't know the meaning of the word surreptitiously, but if you know about parts of speech, you will recognize that it is an adverb and that it tells you something about how the man entered the room. You may still not understand the exact meaning of the word, but you can understand the whole sentence better than if you did not know about parts of speech. When you look up a word in a dictionary, you will find not only the meaning of the word but also what part of speech it is. This information is very helpful in understanding the full meaning of the word and knowing how to use it.
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The 8 parts of speech that are used to describe English words are: Nouns Verbs Adjective Adverbs Pronouns Prepositions Conjunctions Articles Interjections

NOUNS:
A noun is often defined as a word which names a person, place or thing. Here are some examples of nouns: boy, river, friend, Mexico, triangle, day, school, truth, university, idea, John F. Kennedy, movie, aunt, vacation, eye, dream, flag, teacher, class, grammar. John F. Kennedy is a noun because it is the name of a person; Mexico is a noun because it is the name of a place; and boy is a noun because it is the name of a thing. TYPES OF NOUN:
Common nouns are the names of things in general, such as cat, dog, road, city, skirt, color etc. Proper noun is the name of a particular person, place or thing, such as Kate, Billy, Manchester, Thames, Rover etc. All proper nouns start with a capital letter. Collective noun is the name given to a group of things, for example a flock of birds or a herd of cows. Abstract noun is something you can't see, hear, touch or taste. These can be emotions (happiness, grief) or states (peace, quiet) for example
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VERB The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word. Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many verbs give the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like run, fight, do and work all conveys action. But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of state, of "being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong all convey state. A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English", John is the subject and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they describe:

Action (Ram plays football.) State (Anthony seems kind.) Occurrence (The snow glistened on the trees tops.)
TYPES OF VERBS: There are two types of verbs, Regular and Irregular.
With regular verbs, the past and perfect forms end with '~ed', e.g. talk/talked. Irregular verbs don't end their past and perfect forms with '~ed'. They change quite differently e.g. speak/spoke/spoken, sing/sang/sung.
BASIC FORMS OF VERB: Base Verb: Work Simple Perfect Continuous Perfect Continuous Past I worked/ I did work I had worked I was working I had been working Present I work/ I do work I have worked I am working I have been working Future I will work I will have worked I will be working I will have been working
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PRONOUN A pronoun is often defined as a word which can be used instead of a noun. For example, instead of saying John is a student, the pronoun he can be used in place of the noun John and the sentence becomes He is a student. We use pronouns very often, especially so that we do not have to keep on repeating a noun. This chapter is about the kind of pronoun called a personal pronoun because it often refers to a person. Like nouns, personal pronouns sometimes have singular and plural forms (I-we, he-they). Person 1st person Singular form I, me, mine, myself Plural Form We, us, ours, ourselves You, yours, yourselves theirs,
2nd person You, yours, yourself
3rd person He/She/It, Him/Her/It They, them, His/hers, himself, herself,themselves Itself ADJECTIVES
An adjective is often defined as a word which describes or gives more information about a noun or pronoun. Adjectives describe nouns in terms of such qualities as size, color, number, and kind. In the sentence the lazy dog sat on the rug, the word lazy is an adjective which gives more information about the noun dog. We can add more adjectives to describe the dog as well as in the sentence the lazy, old, brown dog sat on the rug. We can also add adjectives to describe the rug as in the sentence the lazy, old, brown dog sat on the beautiful, expensive, new rug. The adjectives do not change the basic meaning or structure of the sentence, but they do give a lot more information about the dog and the rug. As you can see in the example above, when more than one adjective is used, a comma (,) is used between the adjectives. Usually an adjective comes before the noun that it describes, as in tall man. It can also come after a form of the word be as in the man is tall. More than one adjective can be used in this position in the sentence the man is tall, dark and handsome. In later lessons, you will learn how to make comparisons with adjectives.
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ADVERB An adverb is usually defined as a word that gives more information about a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives and adverbs in terms of such qualities as time, frequency and manner. In the sentence Sue runs fast, fast describes how or the manner in which Sue runs. In the sentence Sue runs very fast, very describes the adverb fast and gives information about how fast Sue runs. PREPOSITIONS A preposition is a word which shows relationships among other words in the sentence. The relationships include direction, place, time, cause, manner and amount. In the sentence she went to the store, to be a preposition which shows direction. In the sentence He came by bus, by is a preposition which shows manner. In the sentence they will be here at three o'clock, at is a preposition which shows time and in the sentence it is under the table, under is a preposition which shows place. Prepositions of time: at two oclock, on Wednesday, in an hour, in January; in 1992, for a day Prepositions of place: at my house, in New York, in my hand, on the table, near the library, across the street under the bed, between the books
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CONJUNCTION Conjunctions are a small set of words used to connect phrases or sentences. They are traditionally categorized into several types: coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions and correlative conjunctions. Some examples of each follow.
Coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor, for, but, yet, so Subordinating conjunctions: because, since, while, before, after, unless Correlative conjunctions: if...then, either...or, neither...nor, both...and, whether...or, not only...but...also, as...as
INTERJECTIONS Interjection comes from a Latin word that means throw between. Its a word or phrase that is thrown into a sentence to express an emotion: Goodness, how youve grown! Darn, I forgot my lunch! Alas, will he never return? All the impolite expressions that we call expletives are interjections. Some examples are as follows Hi, Dear, Alas, and Hurray, Hey etc ARTICLES An article (abbreviated
ART)
is a word that combines with a noun to indicate the type of
reference being made by the noun. Articles specify the grammatical definiteness of the noun, in some languages extending to volume or numerical scope. The articles in the English language are the, a, and an. Definite article A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be the same thing that the speaker has already mentioned, or it may be something uniquely specified. The definite article in English is the. Some languages include masculine or feminine articles instead or in addition to a neutral gender definite article. The children knew the fastest way home.
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Indefinite article An indefinite article indicates that its noun is not yet a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be something that the speaker is mentioning for the first time, or its precise identity may be irrelevant or hypothetical, or the speaker may be making a general statement about any such thing. English uses a or an (depending on the initial sound of the next word) as its indefinite article. She had a house so large that an elephant would get lost without a map. INTRODUCTION TO SENTENCE STRUCTURE The two fundamental parts of every English sentence are the subject and the predicate. A simple sentence can also be described as a group of words expressing a complete thought. Subjects can be described as the component that performs the action described by the Predicate. SUBJECT + PREDICATE = SENTENCE A simple sentence or independent clause must have a verb. A verb shows action or state of being. The subject tells who or what about the verb.
SUBJECT + VERB = SENTENCE Sentence Structure Vocabulary
The sentence format consists of a subject and a predicate. The subject names the topic and the predicate tells about the subject. A sentence with one subject and one predicate is called a simple sentence. The receiver of actions is called the object. A group of words used as a single value without subject or predicate is called a phrase. A clause is a group of words with a subject and predicate. Principal or independent clauses can form sentences. A compound sentence contains two or more principal clauses. A clause which cannot form a sentence is called a dependant clause. A complex sentence contains a principal clause and one or more dependant or subordinate clauses. A compound-complex sentence contains two principal clauses and one or more subordinate clauses.
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Four Kinds of Sentences Four kinds of sentences: declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory. 1. A declarative sentence makes a statement. Example: The hockey finals will be broadcast tomorrow. 2. An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request. Example: Pass the puck to the open man. 3. An interrogative sentence asks a question. Example: Do you know the rules of hockey? 4. An exclamatory sentence shows strong feeling. Example: Stop that man! Declarative, imperative, or interrogative sentences can be made into exclamatory sentences by punctuating them with an exclamation point. DEGREES OF COMPARISON Degrees of Comparison are used when we compare one person or one thing with another. There are three Degrees of Comparison in English. They are: 1. Positive degree. 2. Comparative degree. 3. Superlative degree. Let us see all of them one by one. 1. Positive degree. When we speak about only one person or thing,We use the Positive degree. Examples: This house is big. In this sentence only one noun The house is talked about.
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He is a tall student. This flower is beautiful. He is an intelligent boy. Each sentence mentioned above talks about only one noun. The second one in the Degrees of Comparison is... 2. Comparative degree. When we compare two persons or two things with each other, We use both the Positive degree and Comparative degree. Examples: a. This house is bigger than that one. (Comparative degree) This house is not as big as that one. (Positive degree) The term bigger is comparative version of the term big. Both these sentences convey the same meaning. b. This flower is more beautiful than that. (Comparative) This flower is not as beautiful as that. (Positive) The term more beautiful is comparative version of the term beautiful. Both these sentences convey the same meaning. c. He is more intelligent than this boy. (Comparative) He is not as intelligent as this boy. (Positive) The term more intelligent is comparative version of the term intelligent. Both these sentences convey the same meaning. d. He is taller than Mr. Hulas. (Comparative) He is not as tall as Mr. Hulas. (Positive) The term taller is comparative version of the term tall. Both these sentences convey the same meaning.
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The third one in the Degrees of Comparison is... 3.Superlative degree: When we compare more than two persons or things with one another, We use all the three Positive, Comparative and Superlative degrees. Examples: a. This is the biggest house in this street. (Superlative) This house is bigger than any other house in this street. (Comparative) No other house in this street is as big as this one. (Positive) The term biggest is the superlative version of the term big. All the three sentences mean the same meaning. b. This flower is the most beautiful one in this garden. (Superlative) This flower is more beautiful than any other flower in this garden. (Comparative) No other flower in this garden is as beautiful as this one. (Comparative) The term most beautiful is the superlative version of the term beautiful. All the three sentences mean the same meaning. c. He is the most intelligent in this class. (Superlative) He is more intelligent than other boys in the class. (Comparative) No other boy is as intelligent as this boy. (Positive) The term most intelligent is superlative version of the term intelligent. Both these sentences convey the same meaning. d. He is the tallest student in this class. (Superlative) He is taller than other students in this class. (Comparative) No other student is as tall as this student. (Positive) The term tallest is superlative version of the term tall. Both these sentences convey the same meaning.
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*Degrees of Comparison are applicable only to Adjectives and Adverbs* *Nouns and verbs do not have degrees of comparisons* He is the tallest student in the class. The term tallest is an adjective. Among the members of the group, Mr. Clinton speaks most effectively. The term effectively is an adverb. All the terms used in the above-examples are either adjectives or adverbs. We have seen all the three Degrees of Comparison. Let us see their models. Model -1: The best: Examples: i. This is the best hotel in this area. No other hotel is as better as this on in this area. No other hotel is as good as this one in this area. ii. Unemployment is the most serious problem facing our country. Unemployment is more serious than any other problem facing our country. No other problem facing our country is as serious as unemployment. Model-2: One of the best: Examples: i. Calcutta is one of the largest cities in India. Calcutta is large than most other cities in India. Very few cities in India are as large as Calcutta. ii. Satin Tendulkar is one of the best batsmen in the world. Satin Tendulkar is better than most other batsmen in the world. No other batman in the world is as good as Satin Tendulkar.
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Model-3: Not the best: Examples: i. This is not the best solution to the problem. ii. This is not better than few other solutions to this problem. iii. Other solutions to this problem are not as good as this one. ii. New York is not the largest city in America. New York is not bigger than many other cities in America. Few other cities in America are at least as large as New York. Few adjectives and adverbs get their Comparative forms by simply getting more before them. And their superlative terms, by getting most before them. Examples: Beautiful..........more beautiful..........most beautiful Effective.more effectivemost effective Effectivelymore effectively.most effectively Enjoyable.more enjoyable.most enjoyable Useful.more useful..most useful Different..more differentmost different Honest..more honest..most honest Qualifiedmore qualifiedmost qualified Few adjectives and adverbs get their Comparative forms by simply getting er after them and their superlative terms, by getting est after them. Examples: Hard..harder..hardest Big.bigger.biggest Tall..tallertallest
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Longlongerlongest Short..shorter.shortest Costlycostliercostliest Simple.simpler.simplest Table for Adjectives: 1. Adjectives of one syllable Adjectives of one syllable add -er and -est. Adjectives ending on 'e' just add -r and -st. Some adjectives double the final consonant. Adjective small warm old nice big Comparative smaller warmer older nicer bigger Superlative smallest warmest oldest nicest biggest
2. Adjectives of two syllables Some adjectives of two syllables add -er and -est. Adjectives ending in 'y' use -ier and -iest. Adjectives ending in -ful, -less, -ing, -ed use more and most. Some other adjectives of two syllables use more and most (modern, famous, normal, correct, ...). Adjective narrow happy useful boring modern Comparative narrower happier more useful more boring more modern Superlative narrowest happiest most useful most boring most modern
3. Adjectives of three or more syllables Adjectives of three or more syllables use more and most. Adjective beautiful dangerous Comparative more beautiful more dangerous Superlative most beautiful most dangerous
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exciting more exciting most exciting
4. Irregular adjectives You will have to learn these by heart. Adjective good (well) bad little much, many far late old ACTIVITY 1. Write about 10 sentences including all parts of speech in it. 2. Create sentences as per the format discussed to get complete meaning. 3. Write all forms for the following verbs:Walk Drive Arise Think Put 4. Write the Degrees of Comparison for the following words: Large Thin Bad Carefully Far Comparative better worse less more farther, further later older, elder Superlative best worst least most farthest last, latest older, oldest
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5. Fill in the blanks with respective verbs:1. Shhhhh! be quiet! John (sleep) ________________. (Present Continuous) 2. This delicious chocolate (be) ______________ made by a small chocolatier in Zurich, Switzerland. (Simple Present) 3. Don't forget to take your umbrella. It (rain) ______________. (Present Continuous) 4. I (try) __________to change a light bulb that had burnt out. (Simple Past) 5. Jane: I can't believe how late we are! By the time we get to the dinner, everyone (finish, already) _______________eating. Jack: It's your own fault. You took way too long in the bathroom. Jane: I couldn't get my hair to look right. Jack: Who cares? By the time we get there, everyone (left) ______________. Nobody (see, even) ____________your hair. (Future Perfect/Continuous)
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18. PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT - INTRODUCTION Personal growth has to be consistent by each and everyone in their daily routine. For many people, self improvement is a continual necessary process. By improving ourselves, we dramatically improve our outcomes and opportunities in our life. Personal development is a path that takes us to the desired location where we want to meet our goal. It helps us to improve our career, spirituality, emotional health, and every other aspects of our life. Basically, personal development is about making conscious decisions about everything that you do, the way you think and the way you respond to situations. It helps you to attain everything that you always dreamed of. Here are some of the few steps on personal development which can help you out: One of the biggest steps toward personal development is a change of mind set. If you think that you can do better, you will. When you think positively, you will find that you put forth more effort into everything that you do, and you will have much better results. Everybody needs a strong support system and reinforcing positive feedback. Another important step towards personal development is to set obtainable goals. This is not to say that your dream is not obtainable. But if you constantly think about the goal of being a millionaire with a successful family, you will feel pretty hopeless as that goal seems so far out of reach. Setting obtainable goals simply means that you set goals that lead to the ultimate goal. For instance, when you decide that you need food in your refrigerator, it does not automatically appear. You must make a grocery list, go to the grocery store, shop for items, purchase them, bring them home, and put them in the fridge. Obtaining a large goal is much the same way. You will not get them overnight. It takes going through a series of steps, or smaller goals, to find your way. For some people, personal development is also a matter of moving beyond past failures and their bad luck to see what is possible in the future. Often the major obstacle would be the negative comments made by their own friends and family is difficult to overcome.
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Personality TEST There are several tests to judge the mental aptitude. Motivation level, attitude, inter personal skills and communications skills of a person. Many companies, prior to recruitment, conduct these tests as they find the formal way of face to face interviews not good enough to judge the personality of an individual. These personality tests are done in a controlled environment. The personality test can identify an individuals: Value System Emotional Reaction to A Critical Situation, Moods and Handling a Crisis, Ability to Adjust Himself to The Stress Of Day-To-Day Executive Lifestyle, Self confidence, personal ambition, emotional control and sociability etc. To assess some of the behavioral traits such as impulsive, emotional reaction, fear, patience, distrust, optimism, initiative and leadership capability, the companies generally conduct these tests.
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This can be used for the selection of the right candidate who can handle difficult situations with case. There are three types of personality test, which are conducted by most of the companies. We may like to know what are intended for and how they are conducted. Objective test: These tests are conducted to assess the level of irrational tendencies in a person that arise in a not always get a working environment where all his subordinates are co-operative of his endeavour. These tests indicate the self-confidence of the person and also help in assessing the domination and submission of the person. Projective test: These are some of the tests in which a person is required to interpret the situation or react to a stimulus. The response of the person to these stimuli will indicate the persons motives, value and his personality in total. When we are required to react to such a situation, we always to interpret it in a way we deem is right as per our own value. The results will be biased if the person conducting the test has indicated his own view. Situation test : These assess a persons capability of handling stress. These tests are conducted in a room with no identified leader to guide it to structured discussions. The discussion is allowed to take its own course and people are allowed to come out freely and openly to express themselves. People generally behave spontaneously in such an environment. Components of Personality Development There are immense possibilities within you to develop your personality with strong character. You must recognize and understand them. The key to success is hidden within you. The wealth you have earned is not important but what is important is the means you have adopted for acquiring that wealth. Your personality, your capabilities, your thoughts and your ideals are all very important in determining your character. We will discuss some essential components of personality Development in this article. Be polite and speak sweetly: Sweetly spoken words have their own advantage and it is a major component in developing our personality. Society gives respect to a person who has control over his speech and everybody wants to conserve with a person who is sweet spoken. That is why we should always try and inculcate sweet and soft spoken words in our speech.All actions are controlled by tongue or speech. They originate from speech. So it is essential that speech is controlled by mind. A person who is not honest by speech is considered dishonest in all respects. The man who has not control
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over his speech can not be sure if he can exercise any control over his self while working. If a wrong thing is said in good style it also becomes effective. Then if you say a good thing in good way it has no comparison. Keep away from lies, fraud and deception: It is evident that the fate of a person is formed by the work he dies, the branch of a tree bends in the direction it is diverted. If a person once entangles him self in lies and cunningness, then in spite of making countless efforts he can never get out of it and day by day he will keep moving toward downfall. We never improve our personality keeping these elements with in us or a part our habits. Believe in healthy competition: The path of all success is filed with thorns. There is no hindrance in the path of downfall, but no sooner we lift the first step towards progress we start facing difficulties. Only those people who have immense courage and enthusiasm can advance on this path. Those who have moved forward have become immortal. These who cross all the barriers, all the pains, sufferings and sorrows are also able to taste the sweet fruits of success. To achieve success it is necessary that all the energies of body, mind and wealth are utilized in one direction only. When a nab m avoiding all temptations in life works towards one definite foal, he is bound to get total victory. When all energies of mind and soul are concentrated for a particular work then all sources become available for completion of that particular work.
The importance of positive attitude: Positive attitude is of great importance in our personality. Many people, inspite of having sufficient talent and qualification, do not progress and succeeds in life because of their narrow outlook. Nobody likes people who have narrow outlook. In life only that person is considered will behave who have positive and health bend of mind.
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The real beauty of a man lies not in his physical appearance but in his work and good qualities. The ability and achievements of a person are judged by his mentality. That is why it is important that we improve our mental outlook. By adopting positive outlook we can get rid of mental dissatisfaction. This change will help you to contribute a lot in making your relations better and sweet with people as well as your personality will bright all over as like the stars in the sky. Anger and irritation are your enemies: To be angry is part of human nature. Probably there is no man in this world who has never been angry for some or the other reason.
But some people are such who become temperamentally angry. People who get angry and irritated habitually do not realize that this habit of theirs will be a hindrance in path of their personality development and they will become their own enemies. Anger results in foolishness and insanity. There is a saying that hot temper is the main obstacle in completion of delicate genes of the body. Sometimes delicate tissues and veins even get burnt, outwardly we do not come to know that damage has been caused but we destroy many hidden treasures in our body in fire of anger. Spare time for social service: If we want to be recognized in the society and want to reach the pinnacle of success, we should not keep out self aloof from society.
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Our deep feelings and responsibility towards society makes us good and responsible citizen of the society we live in. The more we work for society and the more we remain connected with it, the more famous we will become the fame will enhance our personality and enthusiasm. Always remember that society is ours. We need it. Live not only for yourself but for the society. Develop your creative power: Our creative streak and positive propensity can pay us dividends. One who is engaged in constructive activity of one or the other kind is always happy. All men should channelise their energies in creative work. Be it agriculture, physical labour, daily wager, craftsmanship, office work, domestic chores or social work. Breach in creativity is a breach in peace and happiness. Know the value of time: Every moment of our life is a golden moment. The door of progress and development remain open for the person who knows to utilize and make best use of these moments. He not only pushes away all the failures and gets victory over all setbacks and obstacle but also becomes very popular in society dye to his punctual behavior. On the other hand worthless pursuits or pass these moments carelessly, face depression and disappointment on all sphere victims of vicious circle of failures. Some Essential Personality Development Tips Every man who wants to develop his personality also wants to become popular. Mans life is a burden without popularity. If we leave aside certain action, there is not much difference between a man and an animal. Everybody can be popular if he/you takes care of these few enlisted personality development tips-
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1. If you want to progress in life than honestly analyze the traits of your character.
2. Do not laugh at people when they are in difficulty or trouble other wise you will loose your personality in a moment. 3. This is a great way to develop your personality by listening everyone politely, even if their ideas are baseless or not of your interest. 4. During conversation do not keep talking yourself too much. 5. When ever somebody brings any gift for you, dont forget to praise it. It does not matter even if you were expecting something else. 6. 7. Make other feel that you love them. Keep your moral high in case of defeat and be more polite on being victorious.
8. Solve your problems in a creative way. Try your best not to let these spoil your relations with your friends. 9. Enlist your bad habits and try to get rid of them. 10. We should not uplift our standard of living but also help others to do so. Try to remove the feeling of inferiority in others by loving them and by keeping good behavior towards them. 11. Be careful of what your say about others because others will say the same thing about us at different times and at different places and in this way form a public opinion about us. 12. Some people often have a favorite sentence which they repeat frequently. We should try and get rid and get rid of such a habit. 13. Independence increases our good qualities and personality and slavery bad qualities. 14. Independent thinking and freedom to work is the only source of progress and welfare. 15. Love is the greatest magic in this world. You can do every thing with help of love. Develop this art to improve your personality. 16. Positive attitude is of great importance in our personality. No body like people who have narrowed out look. In life only that person is considered well behaved who has positive and healthy bend of mind. 17. The real beauty of man lies not in his physical appearance but in his work and good qualities. That is why it is important that we improve mental outlook to develop our personality. 18. Every individual should develop the ability to adjust with others, because basically man is a social animal, so one can not survive by living alone. 19. Some people keep repeating a particular statement and it becomes a part of their nature. At the most you may repeat a statement twice but it you do it more than that it leaves a bad impact. Boost Your Personality with Strong Character The question of building a character is a personal matter for every individual. It has nothing to do with any other person. No other man can be instrumental in making you mentally and physically strong and powerful. None can turn you from weak to powerful, unsuccessful to successful and
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from nothing to everything. You yourself have the ability and potential of becoming everything and anything. In todays materialistic world there is a rat race for achieving things at supersonic speed and there is chaos all around, everyone is involved in some or the other problem which does not seem to resolve. The sense of great dissatisfaction has set deep down to resolve. The sense of great dissatisfaction has set deep down in our hearts. We wish to board more money, more comforts and more and more luxuries as compared to other. This greed has overpowered us to such an extent that we do not hesitate in fulfilling our desires even at the cost of spoiling and ruining our relations with others. We are ready to do anything to make ourselves successful and capable. Nothing thinking and negative approach leads to downfall whereas the result of positive thinking, positive approach and good behavior is no less then a boon. Today the progress/success of an individual is judged by his materialistic achievements. Therefore, men adopt all fair and unfair means to attain materialistic components. It might be important to attain to lead a luxurious and comfortable life but this does not necessarily make you happy and successful. If we look around we can find many rich people and they did become luxuries of life but they had a miserable and they did becomes wealthy but they were unable to become good human beings. People who are engaged in achieving materialistic things remain busy in developing only one aspect of their personality. The result is that their entire personality becomes imbalanced/controversial. Such people generally lack in striking a balance in totality, they lack farsightedness and tolerance. For achieving these qualities everyone should utilize every possible second of his/her life. Any man, who wants to attain the highest pinnacle of success in his life, should meticulously work upon building a progressive and strong personality. Sweeten Your Personality with Polite Speech It costs nothing to be polite, but it definitely gives a lot. Its receivers become rich but the givers do not become poor. It is a relief for tired and ray of light for depressed, sunshine for the one facing cold and natures best gift to the sufferer. I am highly impressed by you. This is a sentence which everyone likes to hear and feel honored. Your personality should be so pleasing and attractive that it should impress others, but it can not be achieved if you are not polite and soft spoken. The building of good qualities can only be constructed on the foundation of politeness. An ordinary man can become great if he is polite and if he is deprived of it he can lose respect. Polite and cultured people are clear to all, such people have a strange magical touch in their conduct and behavior, and miracle in their deeds too. They cast permanent impression on the mind of everybody with their balanced behavior.
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Useful and sweet conversation is considered a blessing for speech. A man who dedicates his life for the cause of politeness treads on the path of truth, goodness and beauty, is like a saint. There is an old saying thatif speech is silver than silence is gold. But in the modern age and fast changing world we have completely forgotten the meaning of this proverb. If we are in social field or we are at work place, we have to communicate with each other. In such situation we should take care of what is right and what is wrong. Many a times we spoil our work by unnecessary dialogue and conversation. We respect badly if we hear any adverse statement or if anyone teases us, we start hot discussion and fight if someone interrupts us. In this way we get involved in a vicious circle. Think how nice it would be to listen to teasing remarks of someone with a smile and keep ourselves busy in our work. To keep silence is a great art and a smile with silence is greater than that. In this world there is enough to see and hear along with speaking. But most of us are so fond of talking that we fail to see and hear when we are engaged in talking. A person who can exercise control over his tongue, he alone can make the right use of his eyes and ears. It has been rightly said that after making any wrong statement due to its madness the tongue rests in the mouth but the cheek has to suffer a slap.
Project Your Personality Through Good Behavior What is personality after all? The outcome of ideas, beliefs and sentiments. Your character is formation of whatever opinion you have about yourself. It is possible that nature has not bestowed you with an impressive personality, but there is no doubt that you can make your personality great by your good behavior. We are always dependant on each other whether it be at home, in office or in business circle. We are always in search of those qualities without which we find ourselves incomplete. We have to learn these qualities from others. Therefore, we must develop an attitude to look after others. It is a must for every individual to inculcate the feeling of friendship and togetherness. In the absence of these qualities even the most competent and capable person will be a pigmy and his personality will remain unimpressive. A person who limits all his activities around his self only, can never progress in live. If you wish to be recognized as a learned and successful person in the world, you have to do away with yourself, your ideas, your thought process to such an extent that the feeling of discrimination between mine and your vanishes. It can be a stage when you realize in your thought, action and heart that the whole universe is one. The man who is interested only in his own affairs and himself is never accepted by society. In other words this type of person is deprived of the sympathy of others. Such a person can neither exert any influence on society nor can his own personality be energetic and impressive. He casts a negative influence on people around him and so nobody wants to remain associated with such a person.
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A person who is self centered and takes pride in self praise is isolated from society. Just as a branch from the trees dries up in the same way if an individual refrains from society he too become useless. His human qualities die, and his and support if he comes in contact with other people. This fact can be understood in the words of famous Britain poet Rudyard Kipling in this way- The strength of a wolf lies in his group, character can not be developed in isolation. When we mix up with people we learn many things from them and in turn teach them many things. We can add to special attributes of our character only when we live among people. Just as a sharp stone becomes blunt and takes proper shape when it hits the other stones in the current of river, in the same way we can develop our innate qualities and capabilities when we can live in society and meet other people. People often face failures in friendship, in marriage, in business, in career, in dealing, in employment just because they are unable to adjust with other people. Good behavior and co-operation makes a man popular. As a result the possibilities of his progress and success increasingly multiply. The feeling of help and gratitude towards others not only adds to human qualities in a person but also increases his characteristic qualities. Your success to a great extent depends on how you behave with others. It is rightly said that you should behave with others as you expect others to behave with you. The behavior of a person should be such that it spreads fragrance of love and affection all around so that tomorrow he too may experience similar feeling of oneness and sympathy from others. Generally man by nature loves to live in society with co-operation. He realizes the need of family and society while moving on difficulty path of live. Man has to depend upon his companions for survival. The feeling of co-operation makes a man competent. In his competence lies his achievements and sense of satisfaction. The success of a person depends on the co-operation of his fellow beings and his relation with then. All the mental obstructions can be overcome by inculcation the feeling of love and co-operation for others. Twenty centuries ago, Saint Paul wrote a letter to evil minded people, in which he tried to explain a new point of view of love, He clarified through certain symbols that man can get rid of his aggressiveness with the help of love and co-operation. Love is tolerant, it is kind and it is not jealous of others. Love is neither proud not arrogant, neither indecent not selfish, it does not easily get irritated. Love does not find with others. It does not rejoice in others faults, but feels elevated with truth. Love does not fear anyone. There is no limit of confidence, hope and tolerance which originates from love. In every individual there is an inner desire and need for love. It is rightly said the love begets love. That is why when a person loves someone he comes to know his own importance and realizes that others also love and respect him. The need of love starts from childhood and develops in the company of friends and passes through the experiences of married life. Once a couple went to an orphanage, they liked a child after taking him home they wanted to adopt him. They told the child that after taking him home they would give lots of things. Then the child said that if they could not provide him anything more than a good house, cloths, expensive toys the,
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he would rather prefer to stay on in the orphanage, Then the couple asked himWhat else do you want? then the child replied- I want that someone should love me. You will be held in high esteem if you have respect tolerance, cooperation and love for others. So to achieve success in life we must always care for others. What is the hesitation in giving love and respect? We are in fact giving something not taking anything. Just wake up and break the wall of separation and you will find that the whole universe is your own. Simple way to Impress Your Employer Being human, an employer wants value for his money. He also wants the best possible people in the key positions of his business. The best people, in his eyes, are those who give him most value for his money. Make yourself valuable to your employer and you are well on the way to promotion. If you want to get on well in your job, therefore, carry out the following suggestions faithfully and you cannot fail to impress your employer. Always be conscientious. See mat you do not rob your employer in any way. Be punctual. Consistent lateness is daylight robbery. You are paid to be at your business for certain hours. See that you are there. Secondly, don't waste his materials. This may be done by thoughtless appropriation for one's own purposes, or by bad, careless workmanship which causes waste. Third, don't waste his time. Countless hours are wasted every day by employees who gossip, make private phone calls, do personal jobs, extend tea-breaks and lunch times, and leave before time. Lastly, do your work to the best of your ability. Your employer expects that from you. He engaged you on that assumption. Shoddy, third-rate work is a form of pilfering, and ill becomes anyone who claims to be a moral being. Improve yourself in every way. Dress appropriately for the job. See that you look tidy and clean, at least to start the day, even if your work involves gelling dirty. To Impress Your Employer take an interest in your work. Find out why you do what you do. Know something of the history of your job, your trade, your profession, your firm. Visualize its future development. When promotion is considered, it will go to the cheerful rather man the moaning employee, though the latter be more proficient. Cheerfulness makes us likable. Cheerfulness puts people on our side. Like willingness, it puts us on the royal road to advancement. Acquire relevant skills. If you see that certain skills will help in the more efficient execution of your duties, make it your business to acquire those skills. Would typing help you? Then learn to type. Shorthand? Then master it. Public speaking? Begin to master it.
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19. INTERVIEW TECHNIQUES The most commonly used tools for the selection process is the personal interview. An interview is a conversation with a purpose between two persons or groups of persons. They are done not only for the purpose of recruitment or selection for a post, but also to gather information from someone important.Even through it is a two-way traffic, it is mostly seen that the employed is the one who asks questions and the interviewee is supposed to reply. Different purposes of a personal interview are to rate a candidate for his physical appearance, education achievement and qualification, level of intelligence, background, interests and aptitude, There are different types of interviews, like: 1. Informal Interview: This is the type of interview that is conducted in an informal setting. The interview can be held at the residence of the managing director for the post of a legal consultant. Similarly, many senior level job assignments are finalized during dinner at some hotel or restaurant. 2. Formal interview: This is the interview that is conducted most commonly for recruitment of personnel. In such interviews the candidate is called for an interview at a particular location and time. The candidate is required to answer questions asked, based on the outcome of which he is rated for selection. 3. Patterned Interview: To maintain a uniform approach there are few interviews where a set pattern of questions are asked. In such patterned interview the choice of person conducting the interview is restricted and the selection criteria are also limited within a set frame. 4. Depth Interview: In such a interview, questions are based upon a specific area of the interviewees interest. In a depth interview the person has to answer in detail. The academic competence and knowledge is tested thoroughly in such type of interviews. 5. Stress Interview: For the selection of supervisor and executive positions, it is of equal importance to judge the suitability of individual competence based on stress endurance along with knowledge and intelligence. Therefore a candidate is required to appear for the stress interview. In such and interview a person is required to respond to a tress situation and the assessment is done on the basis of the response.
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6. Group Interview: When we are required to perform a task in a group the selection is done in a group interview and the candidate along with a group is asked to solve a particular problem. The performance and behavior is, however, assessed and rated individually. 7. Panel Interview: For a senior level position selection, a panel of experts selects the candidate. Listed below are a few interview do nots and usual reasons for failure in interviews that every candidate should keep in mind: The candidate should not lack self-confidence or appear shaky. The hello-effect of the candidate should be impressive to the interviewing board. Poor communication skills are an absolute put-off. Body language must not reflect negativity. The candidate must not lack the relevant subject knowledge. There is a difference between self confidence and over confidence. Even if the expectation level of the candidate is high, he should not exhibit arrogance. The candidates background and family history are important. The candidate must have reasonable amount of Knowledge about the company and the industry in which he has applied for employment. The candidate must not be improperly dressed or lack a sense of hygiene. If the interview board is harsh, the candidate must not lose his or her cool during the interview. The candidate must give a focused reply. Also, at time, the number of candidates is very large and board members are unable give sufficient time to each candidate for answering. Thus, answers should be as precise as possible. Simple rules of Interview Rule I-Behave as you are: A person facing an interview is generally nervous and does not behave as his or her normal self. He tries to follow the set guidelines that he has been told and in the process becomes very stiff and unnatural. Do not act, be yourself.
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Rule II-Reach the interview site well before time: The early arrival at the interview venue will give you time to understand the office culture, the local etiquette and the expectation of the office and a chance to adapt to the particular environment. Reaching in advance also gives you the time to make yourself comfortable and more presentable by giving you time to freshen up. The settling time will help you to handle difficult situation properly. Rule III -Try to know the company: The interview board expects you to know what the company is doing and what the industry norms the company is in are. Prepare from all sources such as the internet, company brouchers and other sources, if any. Try to find out the companys area of operation and expansion /diversification plans for which they are recruiting people. Rule IV-Be focused: The purpose of your appearing for the interview is that you are looking for a job. The questions asked by the board will at times derail your prepared answers and will take you to a different direction. Try to be focused about your strength areas and the requirements of the company concerned. Try to be as short and straight as possible while dealing with a controversial issue. Rule V-Behave as if you are already in the job: When a person applies for the job of a front desk manager, the interview board will like to see him in that pretext and would judge him keeping that person in the mould of a manager. If he starts feeling and behaving like a manager, half the work is done. Rule VI-Be genuine and honest: Never lie to the board members. It is very easy for them to judge the truth or falsity of any statement or claim. Besides, everyone would like to reward your honesty. Rule VII-Never answer question about which you are not sure: If you are honest in staying that you do not know the answer, people will appreciate it more than if you guess something absurd. Rule VIII-Wish all members before and after the interview: It has been noticed that many candidates do not feel it necessary to wish the members and many others skip it due to nervousness. It does not give a good first impression of the candidate if he does not wish the board members. Rule IX-Mind your body language: It is extremely important to mind your body language in the interview as you meticulously plan the words you utter. Rule X-Anticipate the probable questions:
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When we are to appear for an interview we do have a clue as to what questions the board will ask. Say, a person has an education gap of two years mentioned in his CV. The board would like to know what the candidate was doing during that period. Similarly, a housewife applying for a teachers post will in all probability be asked about her routine for the day. Well-prepared answers for irritating questions will help you fare better in the interview.
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20. DECISION MAKING SKILLS How to Make Good Decisions Good decision making is an essential skill for career success generally, and effective leadership particularly. If you can learn to make timely and well-considered decisions, then you can often lead your team to spectacular and well-deserved success. However, if you make poor decisions, your team risks failure and your time as a leader will, most likely, be brutally short. The techniques in this section help you to make the best decisions possible with the information you have available. These tools help you map out the likely consequences of decisions, work out the importance of individual factors and choose the best course of action to take. Introduction to Decision Making Techniques All of us have to make decisions every day. Some decisions are relatively straightforward and simple: Is this report ready to send to my boss now? Others are quite complex: Which of these candidates should I select for the job? Simple decisions usually need a simple decision-making process. But difficult decisions typically involve issues like these:

Uncertainty - Many facts may not be known. Complexity - You have to consider many interrelated factors. High-risk consequences - The impact of the decision may be significant. Alternatives - Each has its own set of uncertainties and consequences. Interpersonal issues - It can be difficult to predict how other people will react.
With these difficulties in mind, the best way to make a complex decision is to use an effective process. Clear processes usually lead to consistent, high-quality results, and they can improve the quality of almost everything we do. In this article, we outline a process that will help improve the quality of your decisions. A Systematic Approach to Decision Making A logical and systematic decision-making process helps you address the critical elements that result in a good decision. By taking an organized approach, you're less likely to miss important factors, and you can build on the approach to make your decisions better and better. There are six steps to making an effective decision: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Create a constructive environment. Generate good alternatives. Explore these alternatives. Choose the best alternative. Check your decision. Communicate your decision, and take action.
Here are the steps in detail:
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Step 1: Create a constructive environment To create a constructive environment for successful decision making, make sure you do the following:

Establish the objective - Define what you want to achieve. Agree on the process - Know how the final decision will be made, including whether it will be an individual or a team-based decision Involve the right people - Stakeholder Analysis is important in making an effective decision, and you'll want to ensure that you've consulted stakeholders appropriately even if you're making an individual decision. Where a group process is appropriate, the decisionmaking group - typically a team of five to seven people - should have a good representation of stakeholders. Allow opinions to be heard - Encourage participants to contribute to the discussions, debates, and analysis without any fear of rejection from the group. This is one of the best ways to avoid groupthink (member only). The Stepladder Technique is a useful method for gradually introducing more and more people to the group discussion, and making sure everyone is heard. Also, recognize that the objective is to make the best decision under the circumstances: it's not a game in which people are competing to have their own preferred alternatives adopted. Make sure you're asking the right question - Ask yourself whether this is really the true issue. The 5 Whys technique is a classic tool that helps you identify the real underlying problem that you face. Use creativity tools from the start - The basis of creativity is thinking from a different perspective. Do this when you first set out the problem, and then continue it while generating alternatives. Our article Generating New Ideas will help you create new connections in your mind, break old thought patterns, and consider new perspectives.
Step 2: Generate Good Alternatives When you generate alternatives, you force yourself to dig deeper, and look at the problem from different angles. If you use the mindset there must be other solutions out there,' you're more likely to make the best decision possible. If you don't have reasonable alternatives, then there's really not much of a decision to make! Here's a summary of some of the key tools and techniques to help you and your team develop good alternatives.

Generating Ideas Considering Different Perspectives Organizing Ideas :This is especially helpful when you have a large number of ideas. Sometimes separate ideas can be combined into one comprehensive alternative.
Step 3: Explore the Alternatives
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When you're satisfied that you have a good selection of realistic alternatives, then you'll need to evaluate the feasibility, risks, and implications of each choice. Here, we discuss some of the most popular and effective analytical tools.
Risk In decision making, there's usually some degree of uncertainty, which inevitably leads to risk. By evaluating the risk involved with various options, you can determine whether the risk is manageable.
Risk Analysis helps you look at risks objectively. It uses a structured approach for assessing threats, and for evaluating the probability of events occurring - and what they might cost to manage.
Implications Another way to look at your options is by considering the potential consequences of each.

Six Thinking Hats helps you evaluate the consequences of a decision by looking at the alternatives from six different perspectives. Impact Analysis (member only) is a useful technique for brainstorming the unexpected' consequences that may arise from a decision.
Validation Determine if resources are adequate, if the solution matches your objectives, and if the decision is likely to work in the long term.

Star bursting helps you think about the questions you should ask to evaluate an alternative properly. To assess pros and cons of each option, use Force Field Analysis, or use the PlusMinus-Interesting approach. Cost-Benefit Analysis looks at the financial feasibility of an alternative. Our Bite-Sized Training session on Project Evaluation and Financial Forecasting (member only) helps you evaluate each alternative using the most popular financial evaluation techniques.
Step 4: Choose the Best Alternative After you have evaluated the alternatives, the next step is to choose between them. The choice may be obvious. However, if it isn't, these tools will help:
Grid Analysis, also known as a decision matrix, is a key tool for this type of evaluation. It's invaluable because it helps you bring disparate factors into your decision-making process in a reliable and rigorous way.
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Use Paired Comparison Analysis to determine the relative importance of various factors. This helps you compare unlike factors, and decide which ones should carry the most weight in your decision. Decision Trees are also useful in choosing between options. These help you lay out the different options open to you, and bring the likelihood of project success or failure into the decision making process.
Step 5: Check Your Decision With all of the effort and hard work that goes into evaluating alternatives, and deciding the best way forward, it's easy to forget to sense check' your decisions. This is where you look at the decision you're about to make dispassionately, to make sure that your process has been thorough, and to ensure that common errors haven't crept into the decision-making process. After all, we can all now see the catastrophic consequences that over-confidence, groupthink, and other decisionmaking errors have wrought on the world economy. The first part of this is an intuitive step, which involves quietly and methodically testing the assumptions and the decisions you've made against your own experience, and thoroughly reviewing and exploring any doubts you might have. Step 6: Communicate Your Decision, and Move to Action! Once you've made your decision, it's important to explain it to those affected by it, and involved in implementing it. Talk about why you chose the alternative you did. The more information you provide about risks and projected benefits, the more likely people are to support the decision.
R.S.K Technologies 21. PERSONAL GROOMING & HYGIENE First Impression Most people form a first impression about you during the first seven seconds of a meeting. Not much is said in this short time; early judgment is based strictly on appearance. It is this first impression that remains the lasting impression. When other people look at you, they make judgments about you based on what they see. They may judge your ability and disposition by that first impression. Appearance creates a picture of who you are. When other people lack personal information about you, they may use your personal appearance to judge your character. By changing any part of your appearance such as hairstyle, grooming, or clothing, you can change the total image others have of you. Appearance can be a powerful and useful tool in controlling the kind of message you send to others. An untidy and messy appearance puts a person at a disadvantage and very few people will stay around such a person to find his true worth. So, it is very important to be well dressed and well groomed.
Clothing The clothes you wear affect all your attitude and confidence levels. When people take the time to dress for success, they tend to feel good about themselves. There are no absolute rules regarding dress. Your selection will vary based on your occupation, location, and preference. A business suit for a construction job or overalls for an office job would not be appropriate dress. The goal is to look the part, to have your appearance be consistent with your occupation. Neat, clean work clothes would be suitable for assembly, production, or warehouse positions. Sales and office positions require business clothes. A conservative suit would be the recommended style for professional and managerial positions. Common sense and good taste are the best guides in selecting clothing for you. Avoid faddish styles and loud colors. Jewelry should be conservative and kept to a minimum. Clothing should fit comfortably. Grooming Personal grooming is just as important as what you wear. You may select the right clothes, but neglecting personal hygiene can ruin the image you wish to present. The following grooming should be taken into account. Small geometric or abstract patterns printed or woven onto a solid background small objects such as ducks, golf clubs, horseshoes, etc., embroidered onto a solid color background.
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ITEMS
GROMMING Clean, trimmed and neatly combed or arranged Freshly shaved; mustache or beard neatly trimmed. Neat, Clean and Trimmed Brushed and Fresh breath Beware of food that may leave breath order. Beware of tobacco, alcohol & coffee order. Use a breath mint if needed. Freshly bathed/showered; use deodorant. Use sparingly & be natural looking Use sparingly or none at all. Your "scent" should not linger after you leave
Hair Facial Hair (in case of Men) Finger Nails Teeth Breath Body Make-up (For Womens) Perfume/colognes/aftershave Business Dress Scale Garment Suit / Jacket Style Color Pattern Fabric Shirt Style Color Pattern Tie Shoes Dress White Business suit Dark
Formal / Conservative
Informal / Less Conservative
Business separates Light Tweed or subtle paid Loosely woven
Solid or pinstripe Firmly woven worsted
Button -down Pastel / Light Pinstripe or small print
Solid or tone-on-tone
Foulard*, pin dot, or single Club**, paisley, or small print stripe Multistoried or knit Lace-up in black Slip-on in black or Brown
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Dressing Dos and Dont Dressing Dos for Men Do wear socks that blend with your slacks and shoes. Do wear socks that cover the calf. Do wear a thin watch with leather straps or with a gold or stainless band. Do wear clothes that fit well. Do wear clothes that are well coordinated. Do wear clothes that are well pressed. Do wear clothes that feel comfortable. Dressing Donts for Men Dont wear slacks that are too long or too short. Dont wear clothes that are soiled or in need have repair. Dont wear loud, flashy clothes. Dont wear a tie that is too short or too long (tip of tie should end near the center of the belt buckle). Dont wear clip-on ties, which are seldom the right length. Dont wear shoes that are not shined or that have run-down heels. Dont wear clothes that are out of style. Dont wear too many patterns (shirt, tie, and jacket should offer a maximum of two patterns). Dressing Dos for Women Do wear Sarees, salwar kameez or formal western outfits i.e. skirt and blouse or trousers, shirt, and jacket for daily office wear Do wear Sarees for formal wear Do wear silks in winter and cottons, chiffons, chanderis or kotas in summer Do wear light colored blouses with dark colored skirts. Do wear Matching petticoats with chiffon, cotton, synthetic, chanderi sarees Do maintain neatly pinned pleats Do ensure that sarees length to should cover gap Dressing Donts for Women No mix and match of Indian and Western clothes No bindi and glass bangles with western clothes-only bracelets No low cuts in the front\back of clothes
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Personal Etiquette Guest Etiquette Whether you are invited to dine in a friends home or a restaurant bringing your best table manners along is a good idea. Practicing at home makes this an easier and enjoyable experience. 1. Gifts - When you are invited to someones home, bring along a token of your appreciation. It can be as simple as a jar of homemade jam or as elaborate as a fine bottle of wine. The host/hostess will be grateful that you care about them. 2. Clothing - When you receive an invitation, ask about the style of dress. Of course, if it is an outdoor barbecue, this is not necessary. Consider the purpose or type of party and the time of day when choosing the appropriate outfit. Never wear a hat at the table or a casual sleeveless shirt. 3. Napkin - Always place the napkin in your lap when you first sit down. Fold it so that a quarter is folded over at the top. This provides you with double protection from spills. 4. Posture - Relax and enjoy time with others. Do not rock back in the dining chair and do not prop yourself up with your elbows on the table. Placing the forearm on the table edge is okay. When cutting the food, keep your elbows close to your body. They should rest comfortably near your side. 5. Grace - Wait for the host/hostess to pick up their fork before you start to eat. If it is their custom to say a prayer before eating, dont be embarrassed. 6. Noises - Turn off your beeper and cell phone until the dinner is over. Do not slurp soup or blow on hot foods and beverages. Do not speak with food in your mouth. If you must blow your nose, excuse yourself from the table. 7. Leaving - After the dinner or party, keep the host/hostess in mind, and leave at an appropriate time. Do not ask for a take-home bag of food. 8. Follow-up - Always send a "thank you" note the next day. If you just cannot find the time for this, call the next day and express your appreciation. 9. Restaurants - 15% of the bill total is the usual tip, however, for excellent service 20% or more is the norm. Gratuity Etiquette It is informally known as tipping. According to legend, the word "tip" is from an innkeepers sign "To Insure Promptness". If patrons gave a few extra coins, they received their drinks faster. Tips are supposed to be rewarded for services performed as well as a supplement to an employees income (gratitude). How you tip is just as important as how much. An appropriate tip, accompanied by a few words of thanks and a compliment, is much more meaningful and polished than dollar bills given in a rude manner. Tipping at a Restaurant Customs vary from city to city, depending on the elegance of the establishment. In countries outside of the U.S., a service tax is automatically added to your bill. Its a service charge.
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22. INDUCTION AND SELF SUSTENANCE SKILLS

Induction training is a type of training given as an initial preparation upon taking up a post. Its goal is to help new employees reach the level of performance expected from an experienced worker. It often contains information dealing with the layout of the firm's operating facility, health and safety measures and security systems. An attempt may also be made to introduce the individual to key employees and give an impression of the culture of the organization; it is a critical time for the employer to gain commitment from the employee, and the latter to understand the expectations, targets and so on. The induction provides a really good opportunity to socialize and brief the new comer on the company's overall strategy, performance standards, etc. Induction training should include development of theoretical and practical skills, but also meet interaction needs that exist among the new employees. To help start up This training is done systematically and is often the responsibility of the immediate supervisor to make sure that its done smoothly. If carefully done, it will save time and cost(in terms of faulty products or poor services, etc). It is imperative that managers place their authority and power to make sure that the new employee is carefully helped to adjust to the new work surroundings and culture Just as in schools, sometimes the work place may have "bullies", who may give the new employee the wrong impression of the company or organization at first. These programs can play a critical role under the socialization to the organization in terms of performance, attitudes and organizational commitment. Induction training is training given to new employees. The purpose of the induction period (which may be a few hours or a few days) is to help a new employee settle down quickly into the job by becoming familiar with the people, the surroundings, the job and the business. It is important to give a new employee a good impression on the first day of work. However, the induction programme should not end there. It is also important to have a systematic induction programme, spread out over several days, to cover all the ground in the shortest effective time. Devising an effective induction training programme The induction programme should be drawn up in consultation with all those involved. Depending on the size and complexity of the business this may include: Senior management (including directors) Supervisors or line managers Personnel officers
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Health and Safety managers Employee or trade union representatives What induction training involves Usually induction involves the new employee meeting and listening to different people talk about aspects of the business. Other methods include written information, audio visual aids and group discussion. The following items should be covered in an effective induction programme: Introduction to the business/department and its personnel/management structure Layout of the buildings (factory / offices) Terms and conditions of employment (explaining the contract of employment) Relevant personnel policies, such as training, promotion and health and safety Business rules and procedures Arrangements for employee involvement and communication Welfare and employee benefits or facilities
Feeling undervalued No wonder then that many new starters leave, feeling undervalued, disillusioned, bored or downright scared off. As well as the contract that has been signed all new starters have a psychological contract with their employer (and vice versa). This is made up of an internal set of expectations, hopes and fears for the new employment relationship. We may not know what is in this psychological contract, but if it is breached it can result in a significant decrease in loyalty, commitment and engagement.
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Good induction is critical With staff churn in our industry at its highest for the fifth consecutive year and the rate of attrition accelerating(1), good induction is critical to holding onto new recruits and cementing loyalty to your organisation. Furthermore, a study(2) found that organisations with higher levels of employee engagement outperformed their peer group by 17 per cent on operating margin. This would suggest that each employee has an amount of discretionary effort that they will choose whether to apply or not and if they choose to give that extra effort the organisation benefits significantly. It is therefore always worthwhile to analyse the effectiveness of your induction training regularly (via analysing the performance and retention of new starters through induction and beyond), and even if it seems quite satisfactory, how could it be further improved? 1. How long should it be? Analyse the length of the induction, it should be short enough so that new starters can feel that they are being productive but long enough that they dont do damage to your customers, products, services or reputation. Giving a guideline without knowing your business is tricky for example new recruits into a heavily regulated industry will require extra time to make sure all legalities are met. However, a good rule of thumb is about 2-4 weeks full-time learning and a further 4-6 weeks part-time learning and supported live call taking before integrating into the standard training programme after 3 months service. 2. Avoid Death by PowerPoint Examine how the induction is being delivered: how is it designed and what delivery style is it in? Swap chalk and talk, death by PowerPoint and screen shots for practical, brain-friendly activities and interactions. 3. Review training and corporate materials Give them only the necessary information so that they understand the basic cultural facts about their new employer and are effective with 80 per cent of calls; the rest they will learn later. 4. Manager to greet the new employee Ensure their manager greets them on their first day and welcomes them with a personalised induction pack. (We have observed managers not meeting their new starters until they graduate from the induction programme!) It doesnt take much to print someones name on the front of a folder (little Dymo labellers are great) and it makes such a difference to the new starter; it gives a sense of belonging to a team and shows you have prepared for their arrival. 5. The induction pack Ensure the induction pack contains only useful or interesting information, condense company history into a one-page timeline, include coloured site maps with relevant buildings/rooms/routes already highlighted for them.
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6. An airy training room Have a bright, airy training room that can never be commandeered from induction training for another purpose, such as a last-minute senior meeting, etc. Usurping the room from under the training sends the message that the training is not that important and therefore leaves trainees wondering how important they are. 7. Involve senior managers and directors in the induction This might be through welcome speeches, Q&A sessions or joining the group for lunch. This is another opportunity to send the message that you value these people. 8. Engage part-time staff Part-time staff, out-of-hours staff, homeworkers and hot-deskers are groups that may feel less engaged with their employer, so their induction is particularly important. The induction process can often require them to work different hours or in different locations to what they will ultimately be doing make sure the hours, duration and location of the induction is explicitly clear at the interview stage and not a horrible surprise. Make sure you stick to the promises made failure to do so will affect their psychological contract. Where possible try to induct them in as close to their contracted hours as possible and ensure they meet the people they will be handing over from/to, etc we have found teams that have never actually met face to face! 9. Be careful what you call your new starters Be careful what you call your new starters and the induction training room, especially if you have a bank of desks designated for new starters. We have come across slightly degrading terms such as the nursery, rookie corner and newbie bank consider the status these labels give from the start. 10. Use buddies Coaching is an invaluable part of integrating new starters and the identification of the right buddies and mentors is critical. Make sure these are people who are inspired and motivated (and especially trained!) to coach effectively. Having a level of coaches takes some pressure off team managers and provides a structure for skills development and succession planning another tool in the war against attrition.
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23. EMPLOYABILITY SKILLS Most job-seekers wish they could unlock the secret formula to winning the hearts and minds of employers. What, they wonder, is that unique combination of skills and values that make employers salivate with excitement? Every employer is looking for a specific set of skills from job-seekers that match the skills necessary to perform a particular job. But beyond these job-specific technical skills, certain skills are nearly universally sought by employers. The good news is that most job-seekers possess these skills to some extent. The better news is that job-seekers with weaknesses in these areas can improve their skills through training, professional development, or obtaining coaching/mentoring from someone who understands these skills. The best news is that once you understand the skills and characteristics that most employer seek, you can tailor your job-search communication -- your resume, cover letter, and interview language -- to showcase how well your background aligns with common employer requirements. Numerous studies have identified these critical employability skills, sometimes referred to as "soft skills." We've distilled the skills from these many studies into this list of skills most frequently mentioned. We've also included sample verbiage describing each skill; job-seekers can adapt this verbiage to their own resumes, cover letters, and interview talking points.
Employability Skills Fig: 1
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Skills Most Sought After by Employers So, what are these critical employability skills that employers demand of job-seekers? Communications Skills (listening, verbal, written). By far, the one skill mentioned most often by employers is the ability to listen, write, and speak effectively. Successful communication is critical in business.
Exceptional listener and communicator who effectively conveys information verbally and in writing.
Analytical/Research Skills. Deals with your ability to assess a situation, seek multiple perspectives, gather more information if necessary, and identify key issues that need to be addressed.
Highly analytical thinking with demonstrated talent for identifying, scrutinizing, improving, and streamlining complex work processes.
Computer/Technical Literacy. Almost all jobs now require some basic understanding of computer hardware and software, especially word processing, spreadsheets, and email.
Computer-literate performer with extensive software proficiency covering wide variety of applications.
Flexibility/Adaptability/Managing Multiple Priorities. Deals with your ability to manage multiple assignments and tasks, set priorities, and adapt to changing conditions and work assignments.
Flexible team player who thrives in environments requiring ability to effectively prioritize and juggle multiple concurrent projects.
Interpersonal Abilities. The ability to relate to your co-workers, inspire others to participate, and mitigate conflict with co-workers is essential given the amount of time spent at work each day.
Proven relationship-builder with unsurpassed interpersonal skills.
Leadership/Management Skills. While there is some debate about whether leadership is something people are born with, these skills deal with your ability to take charge and manage your co-workers.
Goal-driven leader who maintains a productive climate and confidently motivates, mobilizes, and coaches employees to meet high performance standards.
Multicultural Sensitivity/Awareness. There is possibly no bigger issue in the workplace than diversity, and job-seekers must demonstrate a sensitivity and awareness to other people and cultures.
Personable professional whose strengths include cultural sensitivity and an ability to build rapport with a diverse workforce in multicultural settings.
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Planning/Organizing. Deals with your ability to design, plan, organize, and implement projects and tasks within an allotted timeframe. Also involves goal-setting.
Results-driven achiever with exemplary planning and organizational skills, along with a high degree of detail orientation.
Problem-Solving/Reasoning/Creativity. Involves the ability to find solutions to problems using your creativity, reasoning, and past experiences along with the available information and resources.
Innovative problem-solver who can generate workable solutions and resolve complaints.
Teamwork. Because so many jobs involve working in one or more work-groups, you must have the ability to work with others in a professional manner while attempting to achieve a common goal.
Resourceful team player who excels at building trusting relationships with customers and colleagues.
Personal Values Employers Seek in Employees Of equal importance to skills are the values, personality traits, and personal characteristics that employers seek. Look for ways to weave examples of these characteristics into your resume, cover letters, and answers to interview questions. Here is our list of the 10 most important categories of values. Honesty/Integrity/Morality. Employers probably respect personal integrity more than any other value, especially in light of the many recent corporate scandals.
Seasoned professional whose honesty and integrity provide for effective leadership and optimal business relationships.
Adaptability/Flexibility. Deals with openness to new ideas and concepts, to working independently or as part of a team, and to carrying out multiple tasks or projects.
Highly adaptable, mobile, positive, resilient, patient risk-taker who is open to new ideas.
Dedication/Hard-Working/Work Ethic/Tenacity. Employers seek job-seekers who love what they do and will keep at it until they solve the problem and get the job done.
Productive worker with solid work ethic who exerts optimal effort in successfully completing tasks.
Dependability/Reliability/Responsibility. There's no question that all employers desire employees who will arrive to work every day - on time - and ready to work, and who will take responsibility for their actions.
Dependable, responsible contributor with committed to excellence and success.
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Loyalty. Employers want employees who will have a strong devotion to the company -- even at times when the company is not necessarily loyal to its employees.
Loyal and dedicated manager with an excellent work record.
Positive Attitude/Motivation/Energy/Passion. The job-seekers who get hired and the employees who get promoted are the ones with drive and passion -- and who demonstrate this enthusiasm through their words and actions.
Energetic performer consistently cited for unbridled passion for work, sunny disposition, and upbeat, positive attitude.
Professionalism. Deals with acting in a responsible and fair manner in all your personal and work activities, which is seen as a sign of maturity and self-confidence; avoid being petty.
Conscientious go-getter who is highly organized, dedicated, and committed to professionalism.
Self-Confidence. Look at it this way: if you don't believe in yourself, in your unique mix of skills, education, and abilities, why should a prospective employer? Be confident in yourself and what you can offer employers.
Confident, hard-working employee who is committed to achieving excellence.
Self-Motivated/Ability to Work With Little or No Supervision. While teamwork is always mentioned as an important skill, so is the ability to work independently, with minimal supervision.
Highly motivated self-starter who takes initiative with minimal supervision.
Willingness to Learn. No matter what your age, no matter how much experience you have, you should always be willing to learn a new skill or technique. Jobs are constantly changing and evolving, and you must show an openness to grow and learn with that change.
Enthusiastic, knowledge-hungry learner, eager to meet challenges and quickly assimilate new concepts.
Final Thoughts Employability skills and personal values are the critical tools and traits you need to succeed in the workplace -- and they are all elements that you can learn, cultivate, develop, and maintain over your lifetime. Once you have identified the sought-after skills and values and assessed the degree to which you possess, them remember to document them and market them (in your resume, cover letter, and interview answers) for job-search success.
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COMPANY EXPECTATIONS The key attribute of a successful company employee is being results-oriented. A valuable employee is able to act according to the circumstances, pursue the results, neither postponing the solution of issues nor multiplying bureaucracy. Other corporate standards include:
Professionalism to possess unique and up-to-date knowledge and have the capability to apply this knowledge; one's own competent vision and opinion; as well as the capability to achieve results. Initiative to make proposals on new projects, optimize functions and business processes; show desire to participate in project and work groups; and contribute to performance improvement. Responsibility to achieve results within the set timeframe; to be ready to bear responsibility for failure to fulfill duties; to effectively balance personal objectives/results and the objectives/results of the company. Resourcefulness and capability to find non-routine solutions to be internal entrepreneurs of the Company, generating new solutions and projects outside the range of standard duties, job functions or business based on either a new combination of traditional approaches and processes or their non-standard application. Loyalty involvement in the activities of the company and its brand; avoidance of destructive negative criticism and readiness to participate in solution of company problems. All employees and managers are obliged to use company assets only for improvement and development of Ilim Group's business and not for self-profit or individual career promotion. Focus on cooperation with fellow employees readiness to participate in cross-functional teams and projects; giving positive and effective response to the requests of co-workers from other company divisions; readiness to share information. Efforts to establish barriers between divisions, competition for information and status, influence on functional divisions, sabotage of requests and appeals shall be considered destructive activity.
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25. TRANSFORMATIONAL SKILLS Transformational is defined as a leadership approach that engenders change in individuals and social systems. In its ideal form, it creates valuable and positive change in the followers with the end goal of developing followers into leaders. Enacted in its authentic form, transformational leadership enhances the motivation, morale and performance of his followers through a variety of mechanisms. These include connecting the follower's sense of identity and self to the mission and the collective identity of the organization; being a role model for followers that inspires them; challenging followers to take greater ownership for their work, and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers, so the leader can align followers with tasks that optimize their performance. Development of concept The extent, to which a leader is transformational, is measured first, in terms of his influence on the followers. The followers of such a leader feel trust, admiration, loyalty and respect for the leader and because of the qualities of the transformational leader are willing to work harder than originally expected. These outcomes occur because the transformational leader offers followers something more than just working for self gain; they provide followers with an inspiring mission and vision and give them an identity. The leader transforms and motivates followers through his or her idealized influence (earlier referred to as charisma), intellectual stimulation and individual consideration. In addition, this leader encourages followers to come up with new and unique ways to challenge the status quo and to alter the environment to support being successful. Finally, in contrast to Burns, Bass suggested that leadership can simultaneously display both transformational and transactional leadership. The full range of leadership introduces four elements of transformational leadership:
1. Individualized Consideration the degree to which the leader attends to each follower's
needs, acts as a mentor or coach to the follower and listens to the follower's concerns and needs. The leader gives empathy and support, keeps communication open and places challenges before the followers. This also encompasses the need for respect and celebrates the individual contribution that each follower can make to the team. The followers have a will and aspirations for self development and have intrinsic motivation for their tasks.
2. Intellectual Stimulation the degree to which the leader challenges assumptions, takes
risks and solicits followers' ideas. Leaders with this style stimulate and encourage creativity in their followers. They nurture and develop people who think independently. For such a leader, learning is a value and unexpected situations are seen as opportunities to learn. The
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followers ask questions, think deeply about things and figure out better ways to execute their tasks.
3. Inspirational Motivation the degree to which the leader articulates a vision that is
appealing and inspiring to followers. Leaders with inspirational motivation challenge followers with high standards, communicate optimism about future goals, and provide meaning for the task at hand. Followers need to have a strong sense of purpose if they are to be motivated to act. Purpose and meaning provide the energy that drives a group forward. The visionary aspects of leadership are supported by communication skills that make the vision understandable, precise, powerful and engaging. The followers are willing to invest more effort in their tasks, they are encouraged and optimistic about the future and believe in their abilities.
4. Idealized Influence Provides a role model for high ethical behavior, instills pride, gains
respect and trust.
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26. TIME MANAGEMENT Time management is the art of arranging, organizing, scheduling, and budgeting ones time for the purpose of generating more effective work and productivity. There are an abundance of books, classes, workshops, day-planners, and seminars on time management, which teach individuals and corporations how to be more organized and more productive. Time management has become crucial in recent years thanks to the 24/7, busy world in which we live. Developing time management skills is a journey that may begin with this Guide, but needs practice and other guidance along the way. One goal is to help yourself become aware of how you use your time as one resource in organizing, prioritizing, and succeeding in your studies in the context of competing activities of friends, work, family, etc. How do you spend your time each day? Strategies on using time: These applications of time management have proven to be effective as good study habits. As we go through each strategy, jot down an idea of what each will look like for you:
Blocks of study time and breaks As your school term begins and your course schedule is set, develop and plan for, blocks of study time in a typical week. Blocks ideally are around 50 minutes, but perhaps you become restless after only 30 minutes? Some difficult material may require more frequent breaks. Shorten your study blocks if necessarybut dont forget to return to the task at hand! What you do during your break should give you an opportunity to have a snack, relax, or otherwise refresh or re-energize yourself. For example, place blocks of time when you are most productive: are you a morning person or a night owl?
Jot down one best time block you can study. How long is it? What makes for a
good break for you? Can you control the activity and return to your studies?
Dedicated study spaces Determine a place free from distraction (no cell phone or text
messaging!) where you can maximize your concentration and be free of the distractions that friends or hobbies can bring! You should also have a back-up space that you can escape to, like the library, departmental study center, even a coffee shop where you can be anonymous. A change of venue may also bring extra resources. What is the best study space you can think of? What is another?
Weekly review Weekly reviews and updates are also an important strategy. Each week,
like a Sunday night, review your assignments, your notes, your calendar. Be mindful that as deadlines and exams approach, your weekly routine must adapt to them! What is the best time in a week you can review?
Prioritize your assignments When studying, get in the habit of beginning with the most
difficult subject or task. Youll be fresh, and have more energy to take them on when you are at your best. For more difficult courses of study, try to be flexible: for example, build in reaction time when you can get feedback on assignments before they are due.
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What subject has always caused you problems? Achieve stage one--get something done! The Chinese adage of the longest journey
starting with a single step has a couple of meanings: First, you launch the project! Second, by starting, you may realize that there are some things you have not planned for in your process. Details of an assignment are not always evident until you begin the assignment. Another adage is that perfection is the enemy of good, especially when it prevents you from starting! Given that you build in review, roughly draft your idea and get going! You will have time to edit and develop later. What is a first step you can identify for an assignment to get yourself started?
Postpone unnecessary activities until the work is done! Postpone tasks or routines that
can be put off until your school work is finished! This can be the most difficult challenge of time management. As learners we always meet unexpected opportunities that look appealing, then result in poor performance on a test, on a paper, or in preparation for a task. Distracting activities will be more enjoyable later without the pressure of the test, assignment, etc. hanging over your head. Think in terms of pride of accomplishment. Instead of saying no learn to say later. What is one distraction that causes you to stop studying?
Identify resources to help you Are there tutors? An expert friend? Have you tried a
keyword search on the Internet to get better explanations? Are there specialists in the library that can point you to resources? What about professionals and professional organizations. Using outside resources can save you time and energy, and solve problems. Write down three examples for that difficult subject above? Be as specific as possible.
Use your free time wisely Think of times when you can study "bits" as when walking,
riding the bus, etc. Perhaps youve got music to listen to for your course in music appreciation, or drills in language learning? If you are walking or biking to school, when best to listen? Perhaps you are in a line waiting? Perfect for routine tasks like flash cards, or if you can concentrate, to read or review a chapter. The bottom line is to put your time to good use. What is one example of applying free time to your studies?
Review notes and readings just before class This may prompt a question or two about
something you dont quite understand, to ask about in class, or after. It also demonstrates to your teacher that you are interested and have prepared. How would you make time to review? Is there free time you can use?
Review lecture notes just after class
Then review lecture material immediately after class. The first 24 hours are critical. Forgetting is greatest within 24 hours without review! How would you do this? Is there free time you can use? Effective aids:
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Create a simple "To Do" list This simple program will help you identify a few items, the reason for doing them, a timeline for getting them done, and then printing this simple list and posting it for reminders. Daily/weekly planner Write down appointments, classes, and meetings on a chronological log book or chart. If you are more visual, sketch out your schedule First thing in the morning, check what's ahead for the day always go to sleep knowing you're prepared for tomorrow Long term planner Use a monthly chart so that you can plan ahead. Long term planners will also serve as a reminder to constructively plan time for yourself
What Exactly Is Time Management? Time management is a set of principles, practices, skills, tools, and systems working together to help you get more value out of your time with the aim of improving the quality of your life. The important point is that time management is not necessarily about getting lots of stuff done, because much more important than that is making sure that you are working on the right things, the things that truly need to be done. Smart time managers know that there is much more to do than anyone could possibly accomplish. So instead of trying to do it all, smart time managers are very picky about how they spend their time. They choose to focus and spend their time doing a few vital projects that will really make a difference, rather than spending all their time doing many trivial things that don't really matter all that much. If you become a good time manager, youll not only get a lot more done in less time, but youll feel more relaxed, focused and in control of your life. Youll be able to use your time in a much more balanced and effective way, and youll be able to make time for the people and activities that you love. When you get to the end of a busy day, youll feel a strong sense of accomplishment from everything that you actually got done. Improving your time management skills can even help you get better results by doing less work, because you're focusing on the things that really matter rather than all the low-priority busywork that just keeps you busy. If you dont learn how to manage your time well, youll be far less productive than you could be and youll get a lot less done. Youll also feel much more stressed and overwhelmed, and youll struggle to find time to spend with the people you care about and to do the things you enjoy. 15 Time Management Tips In the meantime, here are 15 practical time management tips to help you get started...
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1. Write things down A common time management mistake is to try to use your memory to keep track of too many details leading to information overload. Using a to-do list to write things down is a great way to take control of your projects and tasks and keep yourself organized. 2. Prioritize your list Prioritizing your to-do list helps you focus and spend more of your time on the things that really matter to you. Rate your tasks into categories using the ABCD prioritization system described in the time management course. 3. Plan your week Spend some time at the beginning of each week to plan your schedule. Taking the extra time to do this will help increase your productivity and balance your important long-term projects with your more urgent tasks. All you need is fifteen to thirty minutes each week for your planning session. 4. Carry a notebook You never know when you are going to have a great idea or brilliant insight. Carry a small notebook with you wherever you go so you can capture your thoughts. If you wait too long to write them down you could forget. Another option is to use a digital recorder. 5. Learn to say no Many people become overloaded with too much work because they overcommit; they say yes when they really should be saying no. Learn to say no to low priority requests and you will free up time to spend on things that are more important. 6. Think before acting How many times have you said yes to something you later regretted? Before committing to a new task, stop to think about it before you give your answer. This will prevent you from taking on too much work. 7. Continuously improve yourself Make time in your schedule to learn new things and develop your natural talents and abilities. For example, you could take a class, attend a training program, or read a book. Continuously improving your knowledge and skills increases your marketability, can help boost your career, and is the most reliable path to financial independence. 8. Think about what you are giving up to do your regular activities It is a good idea to evaluate regularly how you are spending your time. In some cases, the best thing you can do is to stop doing an activity that is no longer serving you so you can spend the time doing something more valuable. Consider what you are giving up in order to maintain your current activities.
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9. Use a time management system Using a time management system can help you keep track of everything that you need to do, organize and prioritize your work, and develop sound plans to complete it. An integrated system is like glue that holds all the best time management practices together. 10. Identify bad habits Make a list of bad habits that are stealing your time, sabotaging your goals, and blocking your success. After you do, work on them one at a time and systematically eliminate them from your life. Remember that the easiest way to eliminate a bad habit, it to replace it with a better habit. 11. Dont do other peoples work Are you in the habit of doing other peoples work because or a hero mentality? Doing this takes up time that you may not have. Instead, focus on your own projects and goals, learn to delegate effectively, and teach others how to do their own work. 12. Keep a goal journal Schedule time to set and evaluate your goals. Start a journal and write down your progress for each goal. Go through your goal journal each week to make sure you are on the right track. Keeping a journal on your computer has never been easier! 13. Dont be a perfectionist Some tasks dont require your best effort. Sending a short email to a colleague, for example, shouldnt take any more than a few minutes. Learn to distinguish between tasks that deserve to be done excellently and tasks that just need to be done. 14. Beware of filler tasks When you have a to-do list filled with important tasks, be careful not to get distracted by filler tasks. Things such as organizing your bookcase or filing papers can wait until you tackle the items that have the highest priority. 15. Avoid efficiency traps Being efficient doesnt necessarily mean that you are being productive. Avoid taking on tasks that you can do with efficiency that dont need to be done at all. Just because you are busy and getting things done doesnt mean you are actually accomplishing anything significant.
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27. KEYS TO BETTER CUSTOMER INTERACTION SKILLS What has the greatest influence on our customers overall satisfaction with our services, Fixed Right the First Time or customer interaction? If we were to have that discussion ten years ago Fixed Right the First Time would have won hands down. Is that still true today? The answer is maybe, it all depends on your source for data. My belief is that customer interaction has in fact over taken Fixed Right as the leader in customer satisfaction. We have many dealerships with just average Fixed Right scores but very high overall CSI scores. They do this by focusing the on the customers desire for timely and effective interaction. What that means may be different to every customer so we must have adaptable processes and nimble employees. We can all agree that customer interaction is critical in todays market, but what does that mean? According to Verchelle Dehn, CSI Manager for Ivan Gandrud Chevrolet in Green Bay, WI, We fundamentally believe that our customers want three things in any of the departments; tell them the truth, do what you say you are going to do and keep them informed. She continued, When we decided to improve our CSI in Service, the first step we took was to focus on our interaction with the customer during Progress Checking. The results were immediate, CSI went up significantly. OK, that makes sense but have our customers desires changed and how does technology figure in the equation? The term customer interaction may have several definitions. For this article lets define it as communication between one of our staff members and the customer. At the risk of losing readers so early in the article, my experience is that we still need to improve at the basics; smile, make eye contact, slow down, be sincere, focus on your customer, tell the truth now, make promises and keep them, ask good questions then shut up and listen. Do not take these for granted. We all tend to get wrapped up in our busy days and we slip a little further away from what we know is right without intention. Watch your people execute these fundamentals daily. That being said, there are many existing options for training on the basics so using our time for other issues makes sense. Responsive vs. Anticipatory Ask the customer what they want and give it to them has long been our premise for doing business but that is no longer enough. Interaction for its own sake falls short, it must fit our customers desires. We must now learn our customers as individuals and anticipate their wants and needs. This includes how they wish to interact with us on a personal level, how often, in how much detail and method.
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Personal Interaction This topic covers the personal side of our relationship with the customer. There are a variety of instruments on the market that allow us to measure and understand behavior. The simplest format assumes fours basic behavior types; Dominant, Influential, Steady and Cautious. All of us are a mix of these to varying degrees. Our responsibility is to learn about ourselves and then learn how to identify our customers behavior so that we may adapt to a style that is effective. I can hear some of you now, Look, I am who I am and if that is not good enough than too bad. I suggest that, as professional communicators, our responsibility is to the customer. If we wish to survive let alone grow our business we had better learn how to retain more of our customers for longer periods of time. Adaptive behavior is not manipulative it is effective. Our job is to ensure that the customer feels cared for, important and understood. Have you ever met someone you immediately liked or immediately disliked? That is what happens if we just stay in our core behavior. The population is evenly split between the four behaviors. By nature we click with 25% and another 25% likes us and 25% can takes us or leave us and 25% dislike us. So the question becomes, can we risk poor interaction with 25% of our customers and below average interaction with another 25%? The fact is, new vehicle dealerships retain just 24% of the customer pay work after the vehicles warranty expires. What we have been doing for so many years has proven ineffective. One way to change this is to adapt our personal interaction with the customer. Technology Personal interaction is no longer the only method of interaction. Technology is playing a larger role every year. We now exchange email and IMs (Instant Messaging) through PCs, laptops and hand held computers. Perhaps the easiest method of interacting is text messaging, it is simple and fast and all you need is your cell phone. We have three diverse generations of customers that own our vehicles; Baby Boomers, Gen X and Gen Y. Most Boomers use email regularly at home and at work. X and Y grew up on email (I wonder how many have never hand written a letter) and regularly interact with text messaging. Both methods of interaction are effective and they consume less time than a phone call. How effective would it be for the Service Consultant to text message the work status of the customers vehicle during the day or to email a copy of the Repair Order to the customer as part of the Delivery process? Start gathering email addresses from every customer you can, this data will be needed sooner than you may think. If you are not currently using at least email to interact with your customers you are missing a key customer interaction opportunity
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Training Who should be trained in the skills of adaptive behavior and technology? The list includes every one that comes in contact with your customers; Reservationists, Greeters, Service Consultants, Porters, Estimators, Cashiers and Managers. The behavioral training requires a professional to train your staff and the management team. Technology training can be handled by your current staff, or even better, bring in your ten year old kid. before your staff becomes proficient. Measuring Success If the project is worth doing you must have a concrete method of measuring improvement. For customer interaction try these approaches: Review your CSI scores for were you kept informed satisfactorily during the repair and satisfaction with the explanation of services at delivery. Have an independent third party ask your customers a few key questions about your staff members interaction with them. The manager should call at least five customers per day to evaluate interaction success. Ask questions such as: o Did we offer you email or text messaging as communication options? o o o Did our staff communicate with you in a friendly and effective way? Was your time well spent? Did our staff handle you in a caring way? I spoke with the customers during the As with any new skill, continual practice and reinforcement is needed to ensure that we improve. The behavioral skills will take some time
The manager should speak to customers during the process The thing that had the greatest influence on our CSI was an exit interview. Cashiering process and simply asked them how we did and how we could get better. I was surprise at how positive the customers were to have someone just ask them if they were happy. Jim Blow Service and Parts Director of Butte GM and Subaru Auto Center, Butte, MT
In the end, how we interact with our customers will dictate their loyalty. If the traffic in the drive is falling, if CSI is just average, if parts sales are flat then perhaps your customers are telling you something. Listen to them and help your team improve their skills for the 21st century client.
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How well do you and your employees: Establish a personal bond with customers? Ask thoughtful, open-ended questions to uncover in-depth, high-quality information about customer situations, problems or needs? Explore different ways to meet customer needs? This includes offering a candid evaluation of the benefits and drawbacks of available choices. Describe your product or service in a convincing manner and relate it to your customers needs? Handle objections in a positive, constructive manner that doesnt ignore real Managing Customer Interactions - The Hidden Benefits Generally, most people would accept that Customer Skills Training is effective in providing Support Technicians with skills that make the customer feel good about the support experience. Clearly, these skills are advantageous and typically require the Support Technician to be polite, cordial, caring, and helpful. There is no question these skills are necessary in creating a positive support experience for the customer which is often more important than a quick resolution. But is that really enough? Most Support Technicians pride themselves in being technically competent. For years, they have studied the subject and have valuable experience in practical learning, working with, and troubleshooting problems in their chosen field. Often, though, the Support Technician believes that technical competence is the most valuable attribute. Look at any resume and see what has been emphasized. In reality, the Technician who can manage the interaction with the customer will be the most successful. Remember, it is the customers perception of the service event that truly matters in the long run when measuring satisfaction or loyalty. It is all too common for a Technician to solve a technical problem and yet leave an unsatisfied customer. A typical example would be when a customer starts the call by going on and on about how bad the situation is, how they are effected, how frustrated and angry they are, the repeated error message (or hang up, etc.) and how they are going to contact management to complain. After the Technician listens to this whining and bellyaching, he or she asks the deadly question, What is the error message? This is the kiss of death for the success of this customer contact. Although it wasnt overtly said, the message to the customer is, I really dont care about all your troubles, I have a lot of troubles of my own, and your whining is preventing me from solving this technical problem which I am most highly qualified to solve, so let me get right to the technical issue. problems?
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The fact is this customer, who has been treated as if their feelings and concerns do not matter, will be a very difficult, non-cooperative customer all throughout the support event. The customer is in an emotional state and therefore is NOT in a rational state. The rational state is where the customer thinks, remembers details, and works with the Technician to solve the problem. When the customer is in a rational state, they both have a common goal. When the customer feels unappreciated or offended, they can strike back and insult the Technician or the company and easily bring the Technician into the emotional state. What a mess! Technicians perform well with customers who are not emotional, i.e. angry, frustrated, disappointed, distressed, etc. However, when the customer is emotional there is a tendency for the Technician to become emotional too (Im mad at you because you are mad at me) or they become exceptionally cold and remote. Either of these responses will further alienate the customer and dramatically reduce the customers desire to cooperate. The customer is in Flight or Flee and the Technician goes into Flight or Flee. This is a formula for disaster. There is nothing good happening here. Herein lies one of the hidden benefits Productivity. Productivity for the customer and for the Technician - everybody wins. Technicians who manage the interaction effectively will spend far less time on the call. The Technician recognizes the customers dilemma and makes statements that indicate he or she can relate to (empathize) the customers plight. The customer stops complaining because it appears that someone actually cares and begins to work with the Technician to solve the problem. The second hidden benefit of possessing and using effective customer interaction skills - Job Satisfaction. The Technician who has a number of contentious encounters with customers can not feel very good about their work. Just as success breeds success, failure seems to breed more failure. The Technician who has a very bad customer encounter will likely let emotions spill over into subsequent calls, thus polluting other customer service events, even alienating customers who were not upset upon initial contact with the Technician. In addition, they taint co-workers with negative stories about customers who are jerks. In reality, the jerks are just people the Technician couldnt handle. However, the Technician who can manage the interaction with the customer, and to some extent, manage the customers emotions, will reap the rewards of having customers who shift into the rational mode, actually think about their problem, work with the Technician, and cooperate. The Technician then has a high sense of self achievement and success. Consider how that feeling will flow into subsequent calls and what it feels like at the end of the day when there was far less conflict and the conflict that did occur was minimized quickly and effectively. To be effective in the position, a Technicians customer interaction skills must be equal to, or even greater than, his or her technical skills. Giving the right technical answer is clearly not enough for most customers. Technicians who are successful in helping a customer settle down and reduce the emotion will feel more successful and will let that success spill over into subsequent calls. Theyll go home feeling more self-satisfaction and have a brighter outlook about their job.
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28. AWARENESS OF THE PROGRAM Communicators are face to face with an important challenge: In an information-overloaded society, how do you command attention in a way that creates and anchors awareness? Much of the advertising industry's success has been guided by these seven principles. 1. Without research, you're only guessing. Alice's Cheshire cat said, "If you don't know where you're going, any road will do." The success or failure of awareness campaigns depends on the skill of the strategist to clearly understand the audience-who they are, what they think and how to influence their perceptions. Brand gurus call this "finding a window into the mind." Enter audience research, Although there is much controversy about the validity of research and different methods, so far no one has come up with a better idea. How do you know what the audience thinks? You ask. How do you know what will influence choice? You study. How do you know whether the message is meaningful and memorable? You test. 2. Answer the question "What's in it for me?" Competing for audience attention is not for the faint of heart. People come in all shapes and sizes, with pre-conceived ideas and opinions that influence your ability to deliver a message. The human mind operates like a computer, with one important difference: A computer accepts whatever you key into it. The mind does not. The human mind rejects information that doesn't match prior knowledge or experience. The easiest way to create awareness is to build on something that is already familiar. Make it relevant. Make it real. Make it personal. Effective communication answers "What's in it for me?" or "Why should I care?" 3. People respond to emotion. Forget the logic. Find the emotional hot buttons. Make the audience feel something. Logic-based communication presents the facts but does not engage the audience. Ideas that create an emotional experience build a personal connection with each individual. Awareness is more easily gained if you can touch the audience with a memory. Effective communication first speaks to the heart. The head and hands will follow. 4. Keep the creative focus on strategy. Develop a creative brief to keep you focused. A creative brief links the strategy to the creative execution of the messages. It is here that all the analytical thinking is transformed into razor-sharp direction that becomes a foundation for the creative idea that will drive the message home. Completing a creative brief is easy, providing you've done your homework:
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* Why are you communicating? * What is the strategy trying to achieve? * Who are you talking to? * What do you know about them? * What do they think? * What do you want them to think? 5. Less is more. Keep the idea simple and the execution free of clutter and verbosity. The reading vocabulary of the average person is about 8,000 words. The speaking vocabulary is less. Add limited time and competing agendas to the mix and there is no doubt that only the strong survive. Cutting through the clutter depends heavily on the writer's ability to serve up a sharply focused message that gets right to the point. 6. Align the media with the audience. Use a rifle, not a shotgun. With all the noise in the environment, getting the right message to the right audience has never been as challenging. The strategy? Be selective in the choice of media vehicles and channels. Segment the market, define the audience and find out where they live. What are their media habits-favourite magazines, television programs, radio preferences? Are they likely to be online? Would you find your audience at a football game, in a coffee shop or both? 7. Once is never enough. Frequency builds top-of-mind awareness. Audiences must receive the same message a minimum of four times before it starts to sink in. Combining above-and below-the-line tactics, use a variety of vehicles to deliver the message. A multimedia campaign anchored by television might be supported by outdoor and print. But don't stop there. Reinforce the program with media relations and special events. Visible, consistent messages delivered over an extended period of time are more likely to be noticed and remembered. That is why people choose Heinz[R] over other ketchup or Kleenex[R] over other brands of tissue. The audience is constantly reminded to think of the brand name first. The same principle holds true for awareness initiatives.

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R.S.K Technologies Content Computer Fundamentals 1. Computer Fundamentals 2. Computer Typing Practice 3. What is an Operating System of Computer ? 2.

2. COMPUTER TYPING PRACTICE

3. What is an Operating System?

In the mid-'70s, MVS, a descendant of

implementation of using RAM as a transparent cache for data.

The standard user interface of Mac OS X

Ubuntu, common GNOME desktop Linux distribution

a Kubuntu, a common KDE desktop Linux distribution

Print Magnifier One Page

Properties button Important! Refer below.

Print what: Document Document Properties

Desk Top Publishing (D.T.P)

Right hand middle K

Lesson 2: Home Row, Right Hand

Lesson 3: Home Row, Extended Index Fingers

Lesson 13: Numbers Row: 67890

Click on the OK.

Currency Percent Comma

8. ADOPE PAGE MAKER

Text Basics Entering Text

Click anywhere on the page within the margin guides.

Placing Text Click on Edit Menu. Select Edit Story.

Changing Typeface Styles

Changing Character Specifications

pair in a selected range of text.

Click the Window menu.

Select Show Control Palette.

Click on the Tracking pop-up menu.

Click on the Type menu.

Click the OK button to close the Properties window.

In the Printers window, double-click Add Printer.

The next step is choosing your printer's manufacturer and model.

Windows will take a few moments to copy your driver.

R.S.K Technologies 9. Adobe Photoshop

Color Palette Expanded

Color Palette Partially Collapsed

And don't forget these which we learned in the last lesson:

Screen Mode and Display:

10. COREL DRAW

R.S.K Technologies 11. Practice Forms Data Entry

How to Practice Data Entry Skills

6. LOCAL AREA NETWORK

COLORS blue red yellow green black

FRUITS banana apple orange grape lemon

DRINKS milk water soda beer coffee

LANGUAGES Spanish Arabic Japanese English Korean

2nd person You, yours, yourself

is a word that combines with a noun to indicate the type of

SUBJECT + VERB = SENTENCE Sentence Structure Vocabulary

Here are the steps in detail:

Step 3: Explore the Alternatives

Informal / Less Conservative

Business separates Light Tweed or subtle paid Loosely woven

Solid or pinstripe Firmly woven worsted

Button -down Pastel / Light Pinstripe or small print

22. INDUCTION AND SELF SUSTENANCE SKILLS

Employability Skills Fig: 1

Proven relationship-builder with unsurpassed interpersonal skills.

Dependable, responsible contributor with committed to excellence and success.

Loyal and dedicated manager with an excellent work record.

Conscientious go-getter who is highly organized, dedicated, and committed to professionalism.

Confident, hard-working employee who is committed to achieving excellence.

Highly motivated self-starter who takes initiative with minimal supervision.

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Computer Fundamentals, MS Office, D.T.P., Internet & Soft Skills

Computer Fundamentals, MS Office, D.T.P., Internet & Soft Skills