Homework 2

April 17, 2007

Exercise 6. Proposition. (2.1) If l and m are distinct lines that are not parallel, then l and m have a unique point in common. Proof. Since l and m are not parallel, they have at least one point in common. Suppose l and m have at least two points in common. Let us call two of these points P and Q. By I-1, since P = Q, there exists a unique line r incident with P and Q. Since r is unique, we must have l = r and m = r, which implies l = m. This contradicts the hypothesis that l and m are distinct. We conclude that l and m have a unique point in common. Proposition. (2.2) There exist at least three distinct lines that are not concurrent. Proof. By I-3, there exist 3 distinct noncollinear points. Let these 3 points be denoted P, Q, and R. Since P, Q, and R are noncollinear, none is incident with the line determined by the other two (the existence of which is due to I-1). Therefore, lines {P, Q}, {Q, R}, and {P, R} are distinct. Further, these three lines are not parallel, since there exists at least one point common to each pair chosen among the three lines. Thus, by the preceding proposition, each pair has a unique point in common: P is common to {P, Q} and {P, R}, Q is common to {P, Q} and {Q, R}, and R is common to {Q, R} and {P, R}. Since these are distinct points, the lines are not concurrent. Proposition. (2.3) For every line, there is at least one point not lying on it. Proof. By I-3, there exist three noncollinear points. Let us call these P, Q, and R. Let l be a line. Then at least one of P, Q, R is not incident with l, since P, Q, and R all coincident with l contradicts the fact that they are noncollinear. Proposition. (2.4) For every point, there is at least one line not passing through it. Proof. Let P be any point. By Proposition 2.2, there exist three distinct lines that are not concurrent. P is incident with at most two of these (in the case where P is their unique common point). Therefore, at least one of these three lines does not pass through P .

Proposition. (2.5) For every point P , there exist at least two lines through P . Proof. By I-3, there exist three distinct, noncollinear points. Let these be denoted A, B, and C. Consider the line l incident with A and B. Suppose P is incident with l. By I-1, there exists a unique line m incident with P and C. Since C is not incident with l, we have l = m; thus, l and m are distinct lines through P . Now, suppose P is not incident with l. By I-1, there exists a unique line m incident with both P and A, and there exists a unique line n incident with P and B. Suppose m = n. Then m = n is incident with A and with B; i.e., m = n = l. This contradicts our assumption that P is not incident with l. Therefore, m and n are distinct lines; both are incident with P.

Exercise 7.
An interpretation satisfying I-1, I-2: This is a two-point interpretation. Consider {A, B}, the set of points in the model. Let a line be a subset of the points containing exactly two points. We have just one line: l = {A, B}. The points A and B satisfy I-1. The line l satises I-2. I-3 is not satised, since there do not exist three points. An interpretation satisfying I-2, I-3: Consider a set {A, B, C, D}; let lines be given by the elements of the set. Let points be given by subsets of the lines containing exactly two elements. Then the points in the model are: {A, B} {C, D} {B, C} {A, C} {A, D} {B, D}

Thus, each line is incident with at least three points, so I-2 is satised. Additionally, if we consider the points {A, B}, {B, C}, and {C, D}, we see that no line is incident with all three of them, so I-3 is satised. However, since {A, B} and {C, D} have no line incident with both points, I-1 does not hold. An interpretation satisfying I-1, I-3. Let {A, B, C} be the set of points, and let lines be given by the subsets of points {A, B}, {B, C}, {C, A}, and {C}. Then the following are true. I-1 holds, since every pair of points gives a line. I-3 holds, since A, B, and C are noncollinear. However, I-1 does not hold, since the line given by the subset {C} is incident with only one point. 2

Exercise 9.
(a) Points are dots on a sheet of paper, lines are circles drawn on the paper, and incidence means that the dot lies on the circle. I-1 is not satised, because two dots/points do not determine a unique circle/line. I-2 is satised, since any non-degenerate circle drawn on the paper includes at least two dots. I-3 is satised, since three dots marked on the paper with a straightedgeone at each end, and one near the middle of the straightedgedo not lie on a circle; i.e., these points are not incident with a single line. In the absence of more formalized notions of sheet of paper and circles drawn on the paper, this interpretation has the hyperbolic parallel property. Here, it reads as: For every circle l and every dot P not on l, there exist at least two circles through P that do not intersect l. The only objection that arises is of this type: if P is the dot exactly in the corner of, for example, a rectangular sheet of paper, then no circle drawn on the paper contains P . However, since the interpretation is not formalized enough for analysis-style arguments, we take it that the hyperbolic parallel property holds. (b) Points are lines in 3-space, lines are planes in 3-space, and incidence is the usual notion of a line lying in a plane. I-1 does not hold, since, if points P and Q are modeled by lines in 3-space that are skew, then there is no line (i.e., plane in 3-space) that is incident with both P and Q. I-2 holds trivially: every plane contains an innite number of lines. I-3 holds, as in the case of two coplanar lines (here, points) and a third, non-coplanar line that intersects these two in exactly one point (representing a third point that is not collinear with the rst two). None of the three parallel postulates hold, since, if a line (=point) does not intersect a given plane (is not incident with a given line), then there exists a unique parallel plane through that line; but in the case where the intersection of the plane and the line is a point, every plane containing the line intersects the given plane in a line. (c) Same as (b), but all lines and planes pass through a xed ordinary point O. I-1 holds, since any two distinct planes that share a point intersect in a line. I-2 holds, as in (b). I-3 holds. An example of three noncollinear points is given by the pairwise intersections of any three distinct planes that meet in the single point O. The elliptic parallel property holds, since, given a plane (=line), the only points not lying on it (i.e., lines not lying in it) are those lines that intersect the plane at O; any second plane containing such a line must intersect the given plane in a line (=point).

(d) Points are points inside a circle; lines are chords; incidence means a point lies on the chord in the usual sense. I-1 holds: the unique line incident with any two points is a segment of the ordinary unique line containing the two points, with the endpoints of the segment being the lines intersection with the circle. I-2 holds, as any chord contains an innite number of interior points of the circle. I-3 holds, since we can choose any two points on a chord, and a third not lying on the chord. The hyperbolic parallel property holds. If l is a chord, and P is a point not lying on l (even if P is very close to l), there exist an innite number of chords containing P that do not intersect l. (e) Points are pairs of antipodal points on a sphere; lines are great circles; incidence means the pair of points lies on the great circle. I-1 holds, since two distinct pairs of antipodal points determine a unique great circle. I-2 holds: any great circle contains an innite number of pairs of antipodal points. I-3 holds. Given any two points and the line they determine, there exists a point not on the line; thus, the three points mentioned are noncollinear. The elliptic parallel property holds. Given any great circle l and a pair of antipodal points P, P not lying on l, any great circle m containing P and P intersects l: there are no parallel great circles.

Exercise 12.
For the rst part of this problem, see Exmaple 6 on page 60.

For the second part of the problem, consider following argument: By A-3, we know there are 3 non-colinear pionts, call them A, B, and C. {A,B} determines a unique line, which by our assumption contains another point (this point can not be C), call this point D. {B,C} determines a unique line, which by our assumption contains another point (this point can not be A, and can not be D), call the point E. {A,C} determines a unique line, which by our assumption contains another point (this point can not be B, D, or E), call this point F. Now we have lines {A,B,D}, {B,C,E}, and {A,C,F}. C is a point outside {A,B,D}, by the Euclidean parallel property, there is a line passing C that is parallel to {A,B,D}. This line contains two points other than C, and these two points can not be A, B, C, D, E, F (why?), thus must be two new points, call them G,H. B is a point outside of {A,C,F}, there is a line passing B that is parallet to {A,C,F}. This line contains two points other than B, and these two points can not be A-F, and can not be G and H simultanously, so there must be a new point, call it I, and the new line can be choosen as {B,G,I}. A is not a point in {B,C,E}, there is a line passing A that is parallet to {B,C,E}, this line can be choosen as {A,H,I}.

Finally, By A-1, for any pair of points there is a line passing them. We add lines {E,F,I}, {D,F,G}, {D,E,H}, {A,E,G}, {B,F,H} and {C,D,I}. Above we found a model of 9 points and 12 lines. By construction, these points and lines are all neccessory, thus it is the smallest model.