INTRODUCTION

Library is an important agency of informal education and it takes its clients from the agencies of formal education. A library promotes self education which makes a person capable enough to conduct himself properly in the society and to participate in its various activities confidently. In academic library system, especially a college library plays a vital role in providing the reading materials to the students as well as teaching personnel. In view of good services offered to the students, it makes collection of good and costly books to provide better and timely services. It can be said that the library is essentially a repository of books and other reading materials to be used by the users. The total collection of library materials is stored and preserved as longs as the library exists. Books and other paper based materials are the major constituents of the library. It is the social responsibility of the librarian to keep all the books and other library materials physically fit to be used by the reader. We know the basic material used in books and other materials are mostly organic and these are susceptible to natural decay and deterioration. A large number of environmental hazards are always ready to damage the soul and physic of the books. It is a problem for the librarian through the centuries to preserve the library materials against the enemies and to take measures against all types of decay and deterioration. The books are intellectual content usually recorded by impression of type with the help of ink. The main constituent of a book is paper of any kind and other constituents may be art paper for printing illustrations, board for hard binding, cloth pieces for binding, cotton thread for sewing, glue for pasting and other materials used for physical construction of a book. Each substance used for the physical composition has its own constituents and these are affected by natural condition or otherwise in course of time, while kept on the shelves.

In a modern library there are many printed or non-printed nonbook materials which are paper based such as journals, newspapers, thesis, conference and seminar papers. Special materials are also there in the libraries such as maps, graphic materials and electronic materials. Due to its characteristics of the substance used, it poses different kinds of preservation and conservation problems. Preservation and conservation are often used the process of keeping an object safe from damage, destruction or decay and maintaining it in a reasonably sound condition for present and future use. Preservation and conservation are two words which has the separate meaning. Preservation is concerned with maintenance aspect whereas conservation with the remedial treatment and restoration of the already damaged specimen. Problems of Preservation The reading materials have a variety of physical formats made of different substances and ingredients. So the different kinds of preservation problems arise under adverse environmental conditions. These problems are faced by the librarians ever since recorded documents were created. Various substances were used in the ancient world to create the record documents. There were attempts to preserve them depending on the kind of materials. Except stone and metals, other materials are vulnerable. Clay tablets were affected by worms and atmospheric condition, Papyrus by humidity and insects, birch bark, wood and palm leaf by moisture and insects, paper by humidity, temperature, air pollution, dust and dirt, smoke, ageing and other adverse conditions. The environmental factors by way of time, cause decay and deterioration of the library materials physically. There is also root cause of chemical and biological factors for total damage. The problems of preservation have reached an alarming stage in the modern period due to various reasons. Due to trade policy adopted by the manufacturers, low quality ingredients are used in the paper making. Peoples are not much serious and conscious about the preservation. Recently some of the western countries come forward against the remedial measure of such

damages and deterioration. Scientific investigations are carried out for the preventive measures. The causes of damages are identified and number of good methods and techniques are developed. Seminar, workshop and symposium are also organised to redress the problems. A.N. SINHA INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL STUDIES, PATNA Our study is rest on a case study of A.N. SINHA INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL STUDIES, Patna. It is a very old College at Patna established in 1886. The library has very colossal collection of social studies books and a wide collection of back volume journals. It has been subscribed more than 250 journals based on Science and Technology including books and non-book materials. It has a collection of more than 3 lakhs on Science and Technology books. But the preventive measure taken by the library is not up to the satisfactory level. However, our endeavour is to bring out the lapses in the way of preservation and conservation methods. A deep and intensive study is also made to preserve the valuable books and other materials for our next generation.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY It is a moral responsibility of a librarian to preserve the books as it is a record of human civilization. The past records constitute a natural resource and are indispensable to the present generation so it is a moral imperative to preserve the legacy. If today librarian fails to pay adequate attention to preserve whatever the documents they possess are answerable to the future generation for having failed in one of the most important responsibilities entrusted to them. However, the significance of our study is to evaluate the present situation of the library collection and the barrier in the way of preservation and conservation.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY Following are the objectives of the study To present briefly the role of college library in the higher education To know the concept of preservation and conservation of books in the present context of digitalization of manuscripts and rare documents To assess the plan steps required for preservation of various library materials To understand the methods used for effective preservation To know the techniques of conservation of book materials To know the nature and character of ancient writing materials To know the history of paper and printing materials To study the storage system used by the libraries To study the preservation of special types of materials To study the conservation and restoration methods To evaluate the different writing materials To get an overview of the writing materials used in India To know in details about hazards to library materials To identify the cause of deterioration and damage To suggest appropriate measures to be taken for the preservation of library materials To bring out the effects of light and other things used during the digitalization of painting and manuscripts To understand the different environmental factors responsible for damaging the documents as physical entities.

METHODOLOGY In order to achieve the objective of the study, all possible research techniques and procedure were used to get the information and data for the study. The primary and secondary documents were consulted to get the required and relevant information relating to the preservation and conservation of reading materials. To achieve better results data were

collected

through

interview

and

questionnaire

method.

detailed

questionnaire was circulated among the libraries of Patna especially the library of NIT. PLAN OF STUDY 1. Introduction 2. Importance of library service in society 3. Concept of preservation and conservation 4. History and characteristics of library materials 5. Digitalization: a way of conservation 6. Hazards to library materials and preventive steps 7. Binding and mending of books 8. Study of NIT library as a case study 9. Findings 10. Conclusion and Suggestion 11. Bibliography 12. Appendices

LIMITATION OF THE STUDY Since the preservation and conservation is important activity of any library to preserve their valuable collections hardly peoples are aware of the facts. A.N. Sinha Institute Of Social Studies library is a very old library at Patna and it has colossal collections in its holding so it needs special attention to preserve the valuable reading materials. So our study was limited to libraries of Patna specifically A.N. Sinha Institute Of Social Studies.

IMPORTANCE OF LIBRARY SERVICE IN SOCIETY

Library is a social institution. It is an institution which is established and maintained by the public for its better progress. It plays a key role in the way of development of modern society. It is established with a view to meet the educational, recreational and information needs of the society. With this view much attention was given to establish the public library in the European countries after several revolution and Renaissance. It created urge for knowledge and learning. With the invention of paper and printing machine in early sixteenth century, led to availability of many copies of a publication. This paved the way for development of public library where printed copies were available for the use of people. With the end of feudalism, the people realized the necessity for education. The spread of education created urge for reading which become the reason of establishment of library to provide the facilities of reading and learning. Demand for universal education was raised in different countries of the world. It was time which ultimately led the growth of public libraries. It was considered as an essential social Institution for retention and expansion of acquired education informal institution. With the spread of education, urge for knowledge and information developed in men and women for following reasons: (a) To get themselves acquainted with the fast changing environment of society; (b) To face the competitive world and to survive in the struggle for existence; (c) For socio-economic and cultural development of an individual and society To meet these urge for knowledge and information, common people rushed to the public library to exploit its resources and services. The UNESCO Public Library Manifesto, 1994 prepared in association with IFLA describes the public library as the local centre of information. It is also described as the local gateway to knowledge providing for lifelong learning, independent decision making and cultural development of
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individual and social groups. The manifesto proclaims UNESCOs belief in the public library as a living force of education, culture and information. The public library movement has a long history in our country. Prior to independence, statesmen, social workers, stalwarts, philosophers and library enthusiasts spearheaded public library movement. Libraries today are a widespread vital service institution. The new attitude of the Public library is to carry its message out to people who still unaware of it, and to serve the people who visit it in their pursuit of knowledge. The services of public are provided on the basis of quality of access for all, regardless of age, race, sex, religion, nationality, language or social status. According to Dr. S.R. Ranganathan a library is a Public institution or establishment, charged with the care of collection of books, the duty if making them accessible to those who require the use of them and task converting every person in its neighbourhood into a habitual library goer. Library acts as spiritual guide and saviours of human soul. It has established itself as a vital organ for human education for human education. Impact of libraries in our social life needs no education. A well organised network library system can supply the most efficient and effective information and it is the key for national development and change of socio-economic life of the society. The major objective of the library is the provision information. For socio-economic development, information is an indispensable resource. The supply of correct and precise information in time helps the policy makers in making maximum use of the available resources as also in avoiding duplication of work. Similarly a research and development programme can be accomplished successfully only if required information becomes available as and when it is needed. Without proper and complete information, no worthwhile decision can be taken. In fact no progress is possible without the support of information. The progress of every type is linked with the availability of right information at right time.

CONCEPT OF PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION

Preservation and conservation are generally used synonymously for the sake of preservation of library materials. Technically speaking these two words have different cannotations though they are related to each other. Preservation generally means keeping an object from harmful effects such as loss, damage, destruction and the like. On the other hand conservation focuses on three basic aspects namely: (a) Examination (b) Preservation (c) Restoration In other words Conservation is a broader concept of an activity of which Preservation indicates one particular fact. In ancient times, preservation was primarily consisted of protecting the items from all kinds of human and natural enemies by placing them in some safe containers. Preservation has always been one of the primary aspects of librarianship. It has become a recognised especially within the library profession in recent times. This naturally led to the growth of certain principles which guided the discipline. The validity and application of these principles to different situations require an in-depth understanding of these principles in the context of life cycle of information which consists of three stages: Creation, life and disposals. Those who specialise prevention are to be concerned with all these three aspects. In the light of rapid technological advancement in the creation, storage and dissemination of information it is necessary that preservation specialists must reevaluate the broad principles which have been guiding this field till now. With the electronic formats of books on the increase these give in future impetus to reexamine. Preservation principles especially in the present day context of electronic forms of preservation.

Conservation has three aspects: (a) Examination: To determine the nature / properties of materials and cause of deterioration and alteration. (b) Preservation: Adoption of appropriate prophylactic and prospective measure to maintain the specimen in as good a condition as possible, and to prolong its life to whatever extent possible. (c) Restoration: Appropriate remedial treatment of an already affected specimen. Thus, conservation is an activity of which preservation is one aspect. In common practice Preservation deals with the maintenance aspects and conservation with the remedial treatment and restoration of the already damaged specimen. Generally, the writing materials composed of organic substances have the tendency to deteriorate at a pace much faster than those made of inorganic substances. Broadly speaking, specimens composed of inorganic media, created centuries ago, and which are required to be conserved for centuries to come, fall within the ambit of Archaeology and Museology. The identification, preservation and restoration of such specimens composed of organic substances are shared responsible of the Archivist and the librarian, depending on the requirement of specific situation. Most of the libraries, even big one have not a well equipped preservation section to keep care and conservation of documents. Nor it is under the consideration. If in such a library there is a rare volume, which is damaged to an extent beyond the scope of routine in house treatment. The librarian should not venture to assume the responsibility of the Archivist at the risk of causing irreversible damage to the volume by improper or inadequate treatment.

CHARACTERISTIC OF LIBRARY MATERIALS

1. Palm and Birch-Bark: Birch tree is Himalayan origin. Birch-bark sheets usually consist of a number of layers, collected from the inner side of the bark. These are thin and delicate sheets, containing some natural preservative chemicals (salt of salicylic acid), which are insect-repellent until this natural preservative dries up. Palm-leaf, on the other hand, is of two varieties: tala (Palmyra) and Srilata (talipot). Leaves of tala are thick and coarse and are difficult to handle. These do not absorb ink, and as such characters have to be inscribed on them with a stylus on the surface and the grooves filled with ink. The leaves of srilata, on the other hand, are thin, flexible and can be handled or written on like paper. Birch-bark and palm-leaf are natural organic materials. These inherent strength to withstand normal environmental effects for many years, even many centuries, if stored properly. But a normal and congenial environmental condition is difficult to maintain for these materials. Over a long period of time, the layers of birch-bark tend to separate and the edges of birch-bark and palm-leaf show a tendency of curling up, if exposed to prolonged dryness. Prolonged dampness also causes their gradual

deterioration. The hand-written texts on palm-leaf and birch-bark generally used black carbon ink or pigment, which have the quality of retaining legibility for centuries, if kept away from acidic contaminations. 2. Paper Manuscripts and mostly printed records on paper constitute by far the largest bulk of the collection of any library today. The futuristic view, forcefully propounded by some modern scholars that the paperless society is just round the corner, no doubt sound exciting. Yet, we cannot visualize a stage when the number of paper-made items will stop growing in our library collections. In fact, the situation today is just the other way round. The rate of

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growth of paper-made documents all over the world has been accelerating at a tremendous pace. The small part of it that enters into our library collections everyday, for preservation and use, itself constitutes a hug bulk. The Libraries cannot lay major emphasis on preservation of this category of items. Paper is composed of organic fibres, chemically processed. These fibres lose their strength and deteriorate gradually through even the normal ageing process. Paper produced before mid-nineteenth century was of handmade variety, using alkaline chemicals for processing. The alkalinity of the paper and also the natural strength of long cotton fibres, which were commonly used, contributed toward greater strength and longevity of the hand-made paper. But the mass-produced machine-made variety of paper marketed since mid-nineteenth century use mechanical wood pulp and acidic (instead of alkaline) chemicals for processing, for the sake of economy and speed of production. The wood fibres, produced by grinding, are much shorter and weaker, and all impurities and acid substances, such as lignin, are retained in the finished product. These bear the seed of the papers disintegration at a much faster rate. Owing to its acidic content, the paper loss flexibility, splits, turns yellow and brittle in a much shorter time as compared to hand-made paper. It is this acidic content again, which gradually affects the legibility of the image also. 3. Binding Another important component of the artifact is it binding. Materials used for binding, such as wooden boards wrapped in cloth for palm-leaf and birch-bark manuscripts, which is the traditionally used method, straw board and leather, rexine, thread and adhesive used for books are all organic materials, susceptible to ageing and deterioration. In Library binding it is the leather that gives to it the major strength and durability. Leather, which is the middle layer of the animal skin, is of fibrous structure of collagen. This skin is converted into leather by the tanning process.

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Good quality vegetable tanned leather is ordinarily a very stable substance, but in adverse circumstances it is to be attacked by insects and fungi. It contains waxy and greasy constituents which gradually volatilize in hot climate, and the leather often loss its flexibility in course of time. The leather and rexine used for binding are not always of any prescribed standard. This is one aspect; the other aspect is concerned with poor or substandard workmanship. A loosely bound book fails more rapidly in use as pages separate from the binding. On the other hand, too tight binding encourages the reader or the photocopier to damage the book spine by ruthless handling. If the binding thread is weak, it is likely to break. 4. Other Products The collection of documents in the form of film, film strip, microfilm and microfiche is growing in many our Libraries. Film material produced about half a century ago had cellulose nitrate as the ingredient. This material decomposed fast even in normal atmospheric conditions; and in the process of decomposition, if tightly stored, these had the tendency to burst into flames. Cellulose acetate films, which replaced nitrate films in the late 1930s also deteriorate, shrink and gradually get separated from the emulsion coating on the surface on which the image is printed. But this process of deterioration is slow. The polyester films, now available since 1960s appear to have better prospect for longevity. But it is too early to say anything in this respect quite conclusively at this stage. As regards the emulsion, the silver gelatin coatings of well tested standard last for a long time, but are susceptible to scratches. There are varieties of non-sliver films which have been found considerably more durable under frequent use than silver films, but the images on such films fade from prolonged exposures to heat and light. This basic idea about the physical composition of the film material in the collection will enable the Librarian to take appropriate steps for their proper storing and preservation.

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STORAGE
Damage to a book is cumulative. The repeated incorrect handling and storage of a book can quickly transform a new book into a worn or even an unusable one. Proper handling and storage in a stable, cool, clean, nonhumid environment can prolong its life. The environment around the book is a major concern because unacceptable levels of temperature and humidity will accelerate deterioration. For example, the high humidity in an attic or basement can promote mold growth, cockle pages, and attract insects. Extremely low humidity, as found above hot radiators, can dry out leather bindings. Direct sun-light, with a large ultraviolet (UV) component, will fade leather and cloth. Blue leather fades to dull green and red leather to brown, especially along the spine of the book. Dust, dirt and grime from handling can adversely affect books as well. Many people shelve their books in closed glass cases away from brightly lit windows or damp exterior walls to minimize the amount of dust and grime that will accumulate. How we handle and use a book contributes to its longevity. If a book will not lie flat, do not use force to open further. The covers should always be supported when the book is open. Many books are damaged by the habit of pulling the books off the shelf with the head cap or the top of the spine. It is a much better practice to push the two adjoining books inward and remove the book by grasping the spine. Place similar sized books, next to each other on the shelf vertically, packing them neither too loosely nor tightly. This will help to prevent warping of a tall book next to a short book. The use of paper clips and marking pens to make notations should be discouraged since clips will rust or crimp the pages and pens often bleed through the pages, obscuring text. The folding down of page corners is also damaging as it will often cause the page corner to break off over time.

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The practice of using rubber bands or string to tie-up a book should be avoided because both will cut into brittle pages and damage fragile covers. A flat, soft ribbon (such as cotton twill tape), can be used to tie up the books as an immediate and temporary solution. An excellent way to protect fragile books is with a box that is custom made to the dimensions of the book. Books with dry flaking leather covers can be wrapped in paper or polyester jackets to keep the fragments and dirt from transferring to hands, adjoining books and the rest of the pages. In the past, leather books were treated with a leather dressing; however the application of oil or leather dressing can have an adverse effect and is, therefore, not recommended. Preservation in Original form Some books and documents must be preserved in original form because they have scholarly value as objects as well as for the information they contain. The challenge of preserving these materials, called artifacts, requires an understanding of the scholarly value of artifacts and the development of an effective and efficient strategy for their preservation. Research libraries and archives collect information recorded on paper, film, and, more recently, analog or digital tape and disks, all of which have finite life spans. When the original paper, film, and other information media or "formats" deteriorate sufficiently to threaten loss of the information recorded on them, a major preservation decision needs to be made: If the information is to be preserved, what is the most effective and economical preservation technology to use? The decision can be difficult because no preservation technology is perfect; some information is lost in order to save other information, and decisions are made to save what is regarded at the time as information most likely to be of enduring scholarly value. Libraries and archives are filled with examples of compromises made to preserve some information at the expense of information considered to be of less importance. Microfilms and photocopies capture text but commonly lose much of the detail and tonal

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range of illustrations. Repairs and restorations alter original books and documents, no matter how carefully they are done. Even library bindings change forever the appearance of books as published by replacing original, sometimes illustrated, covers with serviceable, if unappealing, buckram. For books and documents whose scholarly value lies entirely in a reasonably faithful representation of text and illustrations, the choice of an appropriate preservation technology can be made on the bases of technical fidelity of various reformatting technologies, the kind of access needed to the preserved information, and relative costs. For many materials of scholarly value at risk of loss from deterioration, microfilm is the preservation technology of choice because microfilm "captures" text well, and the text is of greatest scholarly value. For materials valued for detailed, continuous-tone or multicolored illustrations, microfilm has not proven to be a good preservation technology. Moreover, materials made less useful by reformatting from paper to microfilm because the mode of access is less satisfactory are not considered good candidates for this preservation technology.

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HISTORY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LIBRARY MATERIALS

The history of writing and the history of human civilization are inseparable entities. Writing and for that matter printing, notwithstanding our modern technologies is till by far the most potent and effective tool used in communication, and communication is the foundation of all progress. Scholars believed that our ancestors in the hoary past, millions of years ago, started written communications by using some signs and symbols, pictographic and ideographic characters on sand. Sand does not hold written impressions on it for long, nor can the messaged on it be transported from one place to another. So began the human endeavour to search for suitable writing material on the one hand, and to devise suitable writing scripts on the other, each one, however, influencing the other to a great extent. This journey down the ages constitutes the history of writing materials from sand to paper, and writing scripts from prehistoric pictograms to our present day phonetic characters. Archaeological evidence shows that the Greeks and the Romans used wax wooden tablets, the Chinese used wooden tablets, bamboo strips, silk and cotton fabric as writing material very early in history but very few of the specimen have survived. According to our study, we are restricted on these materials which were widespread use for a fairly long period of time, and of which specimens are still exist: 1. Stone and Metal Writings on stone are the oldest examples of writing which have survived the vagaries of nature through centuries. Other fragile materials, which might have been used for writing at various times, being destructible, have not survived, and our knowledge about them is mainly through literary references, and is not always quite conclusive. Writing on stone had to be done painstakingly with the help of chisels or some sharp tools. Once written, the message acquired a very long life. Inscriptions on stone slabs, on the

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sides of Rocky Mountains or on stone pillars, still exist in many parts of the world. The Rosetta stone of Egypt which is more than 5000 years old is one such typical and valuable example. Use of metal plats for writing purposes appears to have been introduced at a later date, but that too, quite early in history. Inscriptions on stone mostly bear text of special value, royal annals, religious codes of conduct and some such things, and the metal plates were generally used as documents of a more mundane nature like land grants, legal codes, interstate agreements and the like. These are available in a large number in various museums of the world. But the fact remain that neither stone slabs, nor metal plates could ever achieve the status of books for disseminating knowledge and information, as books do. 2. Clay Tablets In the river plains of Mesopotamia, where writing first develops, clay is an easily available commodity. It becomes the writing material of the temple scribes. The implement is a piece of reed cut to form a rectangular end. These two ingredients define the wedge-shaped marks which a corner of the reed makes when pressed into the damp clay a style of writing known as cuneiform. Something which is akin to the present day book was created by our ancestors the Sumerians, the Babylonians, the Assyrians and the Hittites. They used tablets made of Water-cleaned clay. While the clay was still soft, the writer used to inscribe his writing on it with the help of a stylus. After t he writing was done, the clay tablet was either dried in the sun or for better durability, burnt in kilns. The tablets, which looked like bricks, were of different shapes and dimensions about five inches long. These burnt tablets were quite hard and almost indestructible. Buried for thousands of years in the mounds of long-forgotten cities, these have been recovered intact in the archaeological excavations in

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the 19th century A.D. The oldest tablets recovered so far were of Babylonian origin dating back to the fifth millennium B.C. From Babylonia, it appears that the use of clay tablets spread to Assyria and other areas to the West up to Egypt through commercial intercourse and conquests. By writing on all the surfaces in small characters a writer could accommodate a substantial amount of text on a single tablet. For longer texts he used several tablets linking them together by numbers and catchwords as is done in modern books. Archaeological excavations have so far unearthed of these tablets. The Babylonians and Assyrians kept huge collections of such clay tablets in their libraries. In 1833 a British Archaeologist Sir Henry Layard discovered a great public library about 10,000 clay tablets at Nineveh, near what is now Mosul in Iraq. This Library is believed to have been created by Ashurbanipal, an Assyrian King in about 600s B.C. Other ancient cities as Ur, Nippur, Kish, and Tellow are also created with libraries of clay tablets. These collections of books on clay tablets contain history, mythology, mathematics, legal and commercial records. The nature of surviving records indicates a heavy emphasis on the preservative function of writing and the book. The volumes of such records indicate that reading and writing were taught in schools connected with temples and the practice of copying was very much prevalent. Clay tablets bear a style of writing known as cuneiform writing. In fact, clay tablets and cuneiform writing on soft clay invariably produced wedge-shaped marks, and these wedge-shaped characters became the typical style of cuneiform writing. But when in the 6th Century B.C. the Aramaic language and alphabet arose, the use of clay declined because clay was not so adaptable to Aramaic characters as papyrus (on which writing was done by quill pen or brush) was not adaptable to the cuneiform characters as clay (using wage-shaped stylus) was. If the clay-tablet was to some extent akin to our modern book, the papyrus roll is more nearly its direct ancestor. The papyrus roll is of equal

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antiquity as clay tablet. About the time the Babylonians were producing claytablets with cuneiform writing, the Egyptians learned to make beautiful writing material from papyrus plant. Papyrus, from which our paper derived its name, is a reed-like plant. In ancient Egypt it grew abundantly in the shallows of the Nile delta. The stem of the plant is 3 feet in length, triangular and tapering in form. 3. Papyrus (3000 BC) After the clay tablets, the discovery of an easily portable substance as a writing materials was Papyrus around 3000 BC, in Egypt, people begin making a flexible smooth surface, which will accept and retain ink without blur. It is known by the names of the aquatic plant which provides the structure papyrus. It will remain in regular use longer than any other material in the history of writing materials. The papyrus is a form of rush which grows by the Nile. To make a scroll strips are cut down the length of the plant. The broader ones are laid side by side to form a rectangle, and other are than laid across at right angles. The Egyptians used the stem of the plant for various purposes, such as, basket-making, weaving mats and sails of boats etc. But the most significant use for which papyrus has found its enviable place in history was its use as a writing a material. Because of its various uses the growing of the plant was not entirely left to nature. The Egyptians in fact cultivated it in a big way to meet the growing demand for it, especially as writing material. For preparation of writing material, the stem cut into longitudinal strips, and the strips lay side by side, edges slightly overlapping. Across the layer another layer of shorter strips was laid at right angles. The two layers thus woven formed a sheet. After soaking in water and applying some glue or paste, the sheet was hammered and dried in the sun. Any roughness was leveled by polishing the surface with a smooth shell. To form a roll, several sheets were joined together with a paste. The sheets varied in size, ordinary ones measuring about 5"-6" wide, and generally not more than 20 sheets to a roll. The Egyptians usually

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used long papyrus rolls for books. A scroll in the British Museum, the Harris Papyrus, is 133' long. The Roman word for such a scroll was volumen, the origin of our word volume. Papyrus rolls are represented in ancient Egyptian wall paintings, and many examples of the rolls themselves are available even today. It has been stated how cuneiform writing was created by wedge-shaped stylus on soft clay. Similarly, papyrus affected the style of writing, creating what is known as hieroglyphic style. Scribes wrote on papyrus with reed pens and ink on different colours. The result was a very decorative style of hieroglyphic writing. Compared to clay-tablets, papyrus is fragile; yet specimens of Egyptian papyrus dating back to 2500 BC, still exist. The amazing survival is partly due to the dry climate of Egypt. Another reason for the preservation of Egyptian papyrus rolls was the ancient Egyptian funeral custom. They entombed papyrus rolls on which magical formulae were written, along with the dead body. Safely deposited in the graves, these have survived. These mortuary texts are now described collectively as the Book of the Dead. Besides magical texts on papyrus in the coffins of the dead, Egyptians papyrus rolls were used for other religious and ritual texts, hieratic, civil and literary documents. For writing, the Egyptian scribe used both black and coloured inks. These inks were very much like the inks we use today. The black ink was made from soot and vegetable gum. The coloured ink was made from special coloured powders. The use of papyrus as writing material spread from Egypt to Assyria, Greece, and Italy, and gradually became the standard writing material in all the lands around the Mediterranean Sea. The widespread use of papyrus as writing material throughout the ancient world is attested by early writers and by documents and scriptures. Cited evidences indicate that papyrus was continuously used as early as 900 B.C. by the Greeks, who passed it on to the Romans. The Greeks set up libraries of papyrus books in all the cities they founded from Sicily to the Black Sea. Alexander the Great

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is credited with the establishment of the famous library of papyrus books at Alexandria, a city built by him in 332 BC. Under his successors the library at Alexandria was the glory of the Hellenistic World. Scholars believe that this library contained more than 5,00,000 papyrus scrolls, representing the literature of the entire known world, as far as India. Today the largest collection papyri (plural form of papyrus) are that of the Archduke Rainer in Vienna, well over 100,000 pieces, half of them bearing Arabic writing. Probably second in size is that of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, followed by the Berlin Museum, the British Museum and the Universities of Oxford and Michigan, following in that order. The papyrus rolls, now in various museums, presented special problems of cleaning. These were mostly found dirty, crumpled stuck together with broken corners, and full of holes. The rolls had to be dehumidified, separated, and sorted between sheets of blotting paper, glass or cellophane. Reading is done with magnifying glass and a mirror to concentrate light upon the text, and is often aided by infrared photography. The reading and interpretation of the hieroglyphic writing on Egyptian papyri, their care and maintenance, constitute the Science of papyrology. 4. Bamboo Books: An indigenous plant in China, the bamboo, proves as convenient a writing material as papyrus in Egypt. Chinese characters at this early period are written in vertical columns, so a thin strip of bamboo is ideal for a single column. To create a longer document, two lines of thread link each bamboo strip to its neighbour. The modern Chinese character for a book evolves from a pictogram of bamboo strips threaded together. Bamboo books survive from as early as about 400 BC. The records indicate that they were in use at least 1000 years earlier, in the Shang dynasty.

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Wax, leaves and wood: from the 5th century BC In many parts of the ancient world people carry renewable notebooks. They are small tablets with a waxed surface. After being written on, the wax can be warmed and smoothed over for use on another occasion. Scribes, in all civilizations, are adept at making use of local materials. Palm trees provide the leaves of documents in parts of India. The earliest known Buddhist texts are on strips of birch bark. When the Romans are in Britain, far from their usual supplies of papyrus, they make thin veneerlike tablets from English trees for their correspondence. Many have been found in the region of Hadrian's Wall, including a birthday invitation from a woman to her sister. 5. Animal Skin Skin of certain animals has been used as writing material centuries ago. The animals whose skins found appropriate were chiefly sheep, goats and calves. Parchment Parchment is the generic term representing animal skins used for writing purposes. It is made by removing the hair or wool from the skin of the animal, and placing the skin in lime to get rid of its fat. The skin is then stretched on a frame and shaved with knives and scrappers. Powdered chalk is rubbed on with pumice stone to smoothen and soften the skin. The use of parchment as writing material has this history: The successors of Alexander the Great developed the city of Pergamum near Constantinople in Asian Minor, as a centre of learning. When the library at Pergamum threatened to become more important than the one at Alexandria, the Pharaoh cut off the supply of papyrus to Pergamum. This was in about 190 B.C. when the supply of papyrus from Egypt dried up, that at the command of Eumenes II, the ruler of Pergamum, experiments with animal skin started to replace papyrus. The new material was known as pergamemtum, which is the origin of the word parchment.

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From Asia Minor, the use of parchment quickly spread to the West, and in no time it started being used extensively by the Greeks and the Romans. The comparatively large number of ancient and medieval manuscripts that have survived enables us to gather some knowledge of the varieties of the material in different periods and in different countries. The older method was to treat only one side (the flesh side). It was sufficient because the manuscript was in the roll form, where the writings were on the inside only. Later, dressing of both sides was adopted, making the skin suitable for writing on both sides. Parchment with two surfaces ensured the development of a form of book called Codex, where the sheets written on both sides were stitched together to form a book. This new form replaced the roll form, which was hitherto in use. But there was always a difference in colour between the surface of the skin from which hair had been removed and the other surface, next to the flesh. The latter was white, more soft and tender than the former. This difference in the codex form of manuscripts is clearly visible in the older examples. To obviate this contrast, it was customary to lay hair side next to hair side, and flesh side to flesh side, while making up the quires for a volume. In the second century AD when parchment entered into competition with papyrus, it was not so skillfully prepared so as to be a dangerous rival. But the surviving specimens of the 3rd and 4th centuries show a vast improvement with the introduction of a finer quality of parchment, particularly (i) Vellum (ii) Uterine. (i) Vellum: -It is made from the more delicate skins of calves, kids, and lambs. As a rule, the vellum of early manuscripts, down to and including the 6th century, is of very good quality, of thin and delicate texture, firm and crisp, smooth and glossy. It was very well prepared (ii) Uterine (Vellum): -This thin, soft, tender, and extremely white variety of vellum was prepared from the skin of still-born or newly born calves, kids, and lambs. A remarkable instance of a codex composed of this extremely

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delicate substance is a manuscript in the British Museum, which is made up of as many as 579 leaves, without being a volume of abnormal bulk. The art of dyeing vellum with rich purple colour was practiced both in Constantinople and in Rome at least as far back as the 3rd century. Manuscripts were written in silver and gold, adding great splendor to the codices (plural form of codex). A certain number of early examples of such magnificent manuscripts in uterine vellum still survive in a more or less perfect condition.

WRITING MATERIALS IN INDIA

1. General As it had been almost everywhere, the earliest writing materials, which have survived in India too were stone and metal plates. Stone, whether as a rough block or as a smoothened pillar (Silastambha) was used extensively for writing inscriptions. Metal plates, usually of copper (tamra) were used for engraving sacred scriptures, deeds of gift and so on. A large number of archaeological evidences of stone inscriptions and copperplate engravings are in existence, spread all over the country. Literacy evidences also show that boards of wood (phalaka Sampata) inscribed with chalk also served for writing records. In the 11th and 12th centuries A.D., cotton fabrics impregnated with tamarisk resin (pata), even fabrics of silk were also often used for writing. Unlike stone and metal-plates, the specimens of all such writing materials have disintegrated over the past centuries, and are practically non-existent except in literary references. The typical Indian materials were birch-bark and palm-leaf. Compared to the other materials of which mention has been made in the above paragraph, birch-barks and palm-leaves are of lesser antiquity. Yet, because of their very extensive use for several centuries replaced only by paper, these have acquired special significance, requiring special attention. 2. Birch-bark It is not exactly known when the use of birch-bark (bhurja) writing material started in India (Illustration 3). But it has been mentioned in O.

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Curtius as the predominant writing material of India at the time of Alexander the Great. From its extensive use at the time it is obvious that it had been introduced much before the time of Alexanders invasion of India. Birch-tree is of Himalayan origin. Its use, therefore, was generally restricted to the Northern India, especially in Kashmir and its adjoining areas. Birch-bark sheets consist of a number of layers, collected from the inner side of the bark. These are thin delicate sheets but quite strong and durable in texture. The sheets are peeled off and dried before writing on them, generally with black carbon ink or vegetable pigment. After writing, several sheets are collected in between two thin wooden boards for preservation. The use of birch-bark continued for a long time until eventually it yielded its place of pride to paper brought to India by the Arabs in the early part of the 13th century AD. In various museum collections in Northern India, particularly the state Museum in Kashmir, birch-bark manuscripts in a large number are well preserved. 3. Palm-leaf Palm-trees grow abundantly in various parts of India, particularly in South India, Bihar, Orissa and Bengal. Its leaves have therefore, been more widely used as writing material than birch-bark. Rajasekhara mentions two kinds of palm leaves; one is tadipatra for writing with pen and ink, which is the practice in northern India, the other is taladala for incising with metal stylus, the common mode in Southern India. In common parlance, the former variety is called sritala and the latter, tala. Sritala leaf is thin, flexible and beautiful and can be handled like paper. It absorbs ink and can, therefore, be written on with pen and ink, manufactured from powdered charcoal (masi, meta). On the other hand, tala leaf is thick and coarse and is difficult to handle. It does not absorb written ink, and therefore, characters have to be inscribed with a stylus (Sanskrit: Salaka or lekani) on the surface and then blackened with soot or charcoal, or alternatively (as for example in Madras) by rubbing them over with a dark, juicy leaf.

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Palm-leaf manuscripts are pierced in the middle (as for example in Orissa) or in two places. Through the holes, threads (Sutra) are dawn to hold a collection of individual leaves together, between two thin wooden boards. A large number of palm leaf manuscripts are in the custody of various organisation and individuals throughout the country. Most of the palmleaf collections date back to the 11th or 12th century AD. Manuscripts written as early as the 7th century AD are reported to be available in Nepal. The oldest palm-leaf manuscript preserved is that Horuizi MS, and is dated the 6th century AD. Interestingly, this material continued to be used even up to the early part of the present country in certain parts of India, because of the age old tradition of religious sanctity attached to it. Paper Paper is often called the handmaiden of civilisation. Today, per capita consumption of paper is often considered as a reliable index to the cultural level of a nation and a measure of its natural wealth. Paper is composed of cellulose fibres, a substance found in all plants. The plants which are specially used for paper making include trees like fir, poplar, pine etc., cotton plants, rice and wheat straws, grasses, hemp, jute etc. A large proportion of paper is produced these days from wood by extracting cellulose, though for manufacturing writing paper of a very high grade, cotton rags are still used. Process For hundreds of years rags were the principal raw material for paper. However, these days most of the varieties of paper are made from wood pulp. Rag papers, which are very durable, are used chiefly for documents, required for many years and for preservation. Whatever be the raw materials used for making paper, its manufacturing process involves various stages like removal of undesirable constituents, reduction to fibrous state, bleaching, beating to pulp and converting the pulp into paper. Cellulose fibres which are the basic constituent

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of any type of paper need to be separated from non-cellulose ingredients and the various steps involved in the process are: (a) Preparation of Pulp Wood: The Cellulose is separated from the materials, which hold it, through a mechanical or chemical process. In the mechanical process bark free logs of wood are treated against a grind-stone by using an appropriate quantity of water to control the heat produced by friction. But use of little effort in this process results in least desirable noncellulose associates still remaining with the cellulose and giving us paper of poor strength and colour. Consequently, mechanical wood pulp is seldom used alone in manufacturing paper. It is, therefore, mixed with about 20% to 30% of chemical wood to set up paper. However, the paper that we get through this process is of a poor quality and its use is restricted to cheaper periodicals and newspapers. In the chemical process, as it name indicates, solutions are used to dissolve non-cellulosic materials in wood, bamboo, grass rags, etc. under controlled high temperature and pressure. The concentration of chemicals used in the process is also regulated so that the cellulose is not adversely affected. Special care is taken while using wood, as it is the hardest of all the said materials. Here, bark is removed first and then wood is cut into small piece before they are subjected to a chemical treatment. The chemical process is further sub-divided into three categories according to the variety of chemicals used for digestion: (i) Soda Process In this process, raw materials like rags and grasses are treated with a solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate. But when straw is used as raw materials, calcium hydroxide is also added to the solution. (ii) Sulphate Processes In

this case, bamboo and wood is treated in a chemical solution

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consisting of a mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulphate for getting pulp. The process is mostly used for manufacturing craft paper required for wrapping purposes. (iii) Bisulphate Process this process, the digesting chemicals are In magnesium

bisulphate or calcium bisulphate or a mixture these two chemicals is used in the presence of a free flow of sulphur dioxide gas. The process is generally used for treating wood chips. (b) The wood pulp is than washed to free it from chemicals used in any of the above chemical processes. (c) It is followed by passing the pulp through a series of screens to remove all impurities. (d) Water is then drained off to form a thick mass. (e) The pulp is then bleached in a solution of chlorine and hypochlorite and washed again thoroughly to remove traces of chlorine. (f) The pulp is then beaten in a Beater (large oval shaped vat) to rub and press the cellulose. (g) It is then passed through Jordan Machine to brush the fibres and cut them to proper length. (h) It is then passed through Fourdinier Machine. The bed of this machine is very long; the first part, called the wet end; is made up of a wire-cloth belt on which the fibres are allowed to mat, or felt, into the form of a sheet. The sheet is then dried in the second part, i.e. the dry land by being passed over a number of suction boxes which drain out most of the water. (i) The sheet is then squeezed between heavy press rolls and then passed over a number of steam-heated drier cylinders. (j) Finally, the paper passes through Calendar presses where a smooth surface is put on the sheet by using sizing materials, such as clay,

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resin, starch, alum etc., which provide different types of surface finish to the paper. (k) The paper is then wound into a large roll or cut into sheet and packed in reams (480 sheets or 500 sheets). Varieties of Paper By blending different kinds of pulp, by using different kinds of sizing material, and by applying different types of manufacturing techniques, a large variety of paper suitable for different kinds of use, can be produced. Some of the broad varieties are listed below: (i) Newsprint is made by using a blend of one part sulphite pulp and three parts of mechanical or groundwood pulp. (ii) Durable writing paper: uses rags or sulphite pulp or a mixture of the two. (iii) Bond paper is a superior quality paper, generally used for business letter-heads. A heavy quality of bond paper is called ledger paper which is used for keeping records. Heavy quality of bond paper contains water-mark, produced by wire-mesh design which is pressed against the wet pulp sheet before it is fully formed on the Fourdrinier Machine. (iv) Laid paper and Wove paper: A paper having a gridiron appreciate is called laid paper; and the one with plain surface is called wove surface. Among the papers in this group are drawing papers, onion skin paper, bank-cheque paper etc. (v) Art paper: Smooth, glossy paper, also known as coated paper. The base paper is coated on both sides with china clay and casein glue and then glazed under pressure between rollers. (vi) Imitation Art paper: Unlike Art paper, which is coated Imitation Art Paper is loaded by adding clay and glue to the pulp itself. (vii) Parchment Paper: This has nothing to do with skin. Also known as vegetable parchment this variety of paper is made by dipping unsized (i.e., without using sizing material) into a cooled mixture

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of Sulphuric acid and water, and then washing and drying it under pressure. This process makes the paper partly transparent and much stronger than ordinary paper. It is used for legal documents, and maps etc.

HISTORY OF PAPER
As has been stated above, paper gets its name from Egyptian papyrus. Paper, as we know, was invented in China in about AD 105. The Chinese art of paper-making spread to other parts of the world, after several Chinese paper makers were captured in battles fought between the Arabs and the Chinese in Russian Turkestan. The Moors at Samarkand learnt the technique from them. Paper industry was established in Baghdad in AD 795. Subsequently, as a result of the Crusades and Moorish conquest of Northern Africa and Spain, the knowledge of paper making spread to Europe. Paper was introduced in India by the Mohammedans the oldest Indian paper manuscript is said to date from 1223-24 AD. It first replaced birch-bark and later palm-leaf. For several hundred years all paper was made by hand from the rag pulp. The paper was very strong, by the process was very slow. In 1750 a machine was invented in Holland which reduced the time necessary to break down the rags to fibres. In 1798 a machine to make paper in a continuous roll was invented in France. It was improved by Fourdrinier brothers in 1803. In 1840 a German invented a process of grinding logs into a fibrous pulp and in 1867 an American invented the chemical process of separating the fibre from the wood by dissolving it in a solution of sulphurous acid. This process was rapidly improved upon in Europe, so that by 1882 wood pulp was made by processes similar to those in modern paper mills.

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DIGITALIZATION: A WAY OF CONSERVATION

Preservation is not just for the world of paper. We know that digital imaging technology, in and of itself, provide no easy answers to the preservation question. Indeed, simply defining what preservation means in the digital imaging environment is a challenge; responding to the insight that such a definition might provide is harder still. The digital world poses significant challenges to, but does not eliminate the need for responsible, effective preservation activity. When a library, archives, historical society, museum, or any other cultural institution with a preservation mandate stops experimenting with digital technology and decides to use it to improve services or transform operations, then that institution has embarked down the preservation path. Digital imaging technologies entail a tremendous investment of resources in an environment of flat budgets. The risk of loss is high far higher than in most other preservation functions. The nearly constant swirl of product development that fuels our perceptions of change raises the stakes yet higher. Understanding where the risk lies and making an institutional commitment to lessen it is precisely what preservation in a digital world is all about. Transforming the Purpose of Preservation The term "preservation" is an umbrella under which most librarians and archivists cluster all of the policies and options for action, including conservation treatments. It has long been the responsibility of librarians and archivists--and the clerks and scribes who went before them--to assemble and organize documentation of human activity in places where it can be protected and used. The ethic of preservation as coordinated and conscious action to increase the likelihood that evidence about how we live, how we think, and what we have accomplished will survive, however, is a recent phenomenon. Traditional preservation as "responsible custody" is successful when the value of the evidence exceeds the cost of keeping it, when this evidence has a physical form, and when the roles of evidence creators, evidence keepers, and evidence users are mutually reinforcing.
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The essence of preservation management is resource allocation. People, money, and materials must be acquired, organized, and put to work to prevent deterioration or renew the usability of selected groups of materials. Preservation is concerned largely with the evidence embedded in a nearly endless variety of forms and formats. Things are preserved so that they can be used for all kinds of purposes, scholarly and otherwise. People with the responsibility to do so have determined that some small portion of the vast sea of information, structured as collections of documents, books, collections, and other "things," has research value as evidence well beyond the time and the intentions of those who created or published it. This distinction between the value of the content (usually text and illustration) and the value of the evidence embedded in the object is at the heart of a decision-making process that is itself central to effective management of traditional and digital library materials. It is possible to distinguish among three distinct but not mutually exclusive preservation applications of digital technologies, defined in part by the possible purposes that the product may serve for end users. Protect Originals The most common application of digital technologies in an archive or library is to create digital copies of sufficient quality that they can be used for ready reference in lieu of casual browsing through the original sources. Preservation goals are met because the original documents can be protected by limiting access to them. Examples include image reference files of photograph, clipping, or vertical files which permit the identification of individual items requiring closer study. The original order of the collection, or a book, is "frozen" much like microfilm sets images in a linear array. This preservation use of the technology has become a compelling force motivating archives and libraries to experiment with hardware and software capabilities. Represent Originals A digital system could be built that represents the information content of the original sources in such detail that the system can be used to

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fulfill most, if not all, of the research and learning potential of the original documents. High-resolution systems that strive for comprehensive and complete content and seek to obtain "full information capture" based on emerging standards and best practices, fit this definition. Systems of this intermediate level of quality open new avenues of research and use and have the capability to have a transformative effect on the service missions of those who create the products. Transcend Originals In a very small number of applications, digital imaging promises to generate a product that can be used for purposes that are impossible to achieve with the original sources. This category includes imaging that uses special lighting to draw out details obscured by aging, use, and environmental damage; imaging that makes use of specialized photographic intermediates; or imaging of such high resolution that the study of artifactual characteristics is possible. Each of these applications places separate, but increasingly rigorous, demands on digital technologies. In each case, the use of an intermediate film or paper copy to facilitate the scanning process may or may not be necessary or advisable. Finally, the disposition of original sources (including undertaking preservation treatments before or after conversion) is a matter quite separate from the decision to undertake digital conversion. Ultimately, the purpose of the digital image product is driven by the uses to which it will be put, while preservation of original source documents should be determined by the preservation needs of the original sources. Leadership in Transforming Preservation Preservation in the digital world is one of the central leadership issues of our day. Some librarians and archivists seem to think that leadership on technological issues is a matter of establishing control through the application of standards and procedural guidelines. Others have argued that the rapid pace of technological change and the sheer complexity of the

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technology render librarians and archivists helpless in influencing the technological developments. Both perspectives are misleading. Those who hope to exercise control over the use of digital imaging technology in libraries and archives assume that moral persuasion can prevail in the absence of a significant market share. Those who prefer to "wait and see" how digital imaging technology shakes out, before making the administrative

commitments necessary to ensure long-term preservation, shirk their responsibility to define the terms of the debate. Preservation in the digital world must be the shared goal that leaders and followers elicit together. It is the responsibility of many people in many institutions fulfilling many roles. An understanding of the impact of this role differentiation on digital preservation action is crucial to identifying which of the many facets of digital technology we can control, which trends we may only influence, and which aspects we must relinquish any vain expectation for either control or influence. In the past two decades, a consensus has emerged within a community of practitioners about a set of fundamental preservation principles that should govern the management of available resources in a mature preservation program. The fundamental principles of preservation in the digital world are the same as those of the analog world and, in essence, define the priorities for extending the useful life of information resources. These fundamental concepts are longevity, choice, quality, integrity, and access. The Transformation of Longevity The central concern in traditional preservation practice is the media upon which information is stored. The top priority is extending the life of paper, film, and magnetic tape by stabilizing their structures and limiting the ability of internal and external factors to cause deterioration. The focus on external factors led to specifications for proper environmental controls, care and handling guidelines, and disaster recovery procedures. Progress on efforts to control or mitigate the internal factors of deterioration has resulted in alkaline paper standards, archival quality microfilm, mass deacidification, and

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more rugged magnetic media. And yet, now that archivists and librarians have defined the issues surrounding the life expectancy of media, the very concept of longevity itself is fading as a meaningful intellectual construct for preservation. Digital preservation has little concern for the longevity of optical disks and newer, more fragile storage media. The viability of digital image files is much more dependent on the life expectancy of the access system a chain only as strong as its weakest component. Today's optical media most likely will far outlast the capability of systems to retrieve and interpret the data stored on them. Since we can never know for certain when a system cannot be maintained or supported by a vendor, libraries must be prepared to migrate valuable image data, indexes, and software to future generations of the technology. Librarians can exercise control over the longevity of digital image data through the careful selection, handling, and storage of rugged, welltested storage media. They can influence the life expectancy of the information by making sure that local budgetary commitments are made consistently at an appropriate level. Ultimately, we have no control over the evolution of the imaging marketplace, especially corporate research and development activities that have a tremendous impact on the life expectancy of the digital files we are creating today. The Transformation of Choice Preservation adds value through selection. Selection is choice and choice involves defining value, recognizing it in something, and then deciding to address its preservation needs in the way most appropriate to that value. Over decades the act of preservation has evolved from saving material from oblivion and assembling it in secure buildings to more sophisticated condition and value assessments on the already-collected. Preservation selection in libraries has largely been dictated by the need to stretch limited resources in as wise a fashion as possible, resulting in the dictum that "no item shall be preserved twice." The net result is a growing "virtual" special

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collection of items preserved with a variety of techniques, most notably by reformatting on microfilm. Selection is perhaps the most difficult of undertakings precisely because it is static and conceived by practitioners as either completely divorced from present use or completely driven by demand. Selection in the digital world is not a choice made "once and for all" near the end of an item's life cycle, but rather is an ongoing process intimately connected to the active use of the digital files. The value judgments applied when making a decision to convert documents from paper or film to digital images are valid only within the context of the original system. It is a rare collection of digital files, indeed, that can justify the cost of a comprehensive migration strategy. Without factoring in the larger intellectual context of related digital files stored elsewhere and their combined uses for teaching and learning, preservation decision making cannot take place. Even while recognizing that selection decisions cannot be made in a vacuum, librarians and archivists CAN choose which books, articles, photographs, film, and other materials are converted from paper or film into digital image form. Influence over the continuing value of digital image files is largely vested in the right to decide, in close coordination with the many parties interested in the decision, when it is time to migrate image data to future storage and access systems and when a digital file has outlived its usefulness to the institution charged with preserving it. What we cannot control is the impact of these ongoing value judgments on the abilities of our patrons to find and use information in digital form. The Transformation of Quality Maximizing the quality of all work performed is such an important maxim in the preservation field that few people state this fundamental principle directly. Instead, the preservation literature dictates high quality outcomes by specifying standards for treatment options, reformatting processes, and preventive measures. The commitment to quality standards do it once, do it right permeates all preservation activity, including library binding standards, archival microfilm creation guidelines, conservation treatment procedures, the

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choice of supplies and materials, and a low tolerance for error. The evolution of preservation microfilming as a central strategy for the bulk of brittle library materials has placed the quality of the medium and the quality of the visual image on an equal plane. In the pursuit of quality microfilm, compromise on visual truth and archival stability is dictated only by the characteristics of the item chosen for preservation. Quality in the digital world is conditioned significantly by the limitations of capture-and-display technology. Digital conversion places less emphasis on obtaining a faithful reproduction in favor of finding the best representation of the original in digital form. Mechanisms and techniques for judging quality of digital reproductions are different and more sophisticated than those for assessing microfilm or photocopy reproductions. Additionally, the primary goal of preservation quality is to capture as much intellectual and visual content as is technically possible and then present that content to readers in ways most appropriate to their needs. The image market has transformed the principle of maintaining the highest possible quality over time to one of finding the minimal level of quality acceptable to today's system users. We must reclaim image quality as the heart and soul of digital preservation. This means maximizing the amount of data captured in the digital scanning process, documenting image enhancement techniques, and specifying file compression routines that do not result in the loss of data during telecommunication. We can control standards of digital quality, just as we have done for microfilm. We can only influence the development of standards for data compression, communication, display, and output. Out of our hands are improvements in the technical capabilities of image conversion hardware and software. We risk hastening obsolescence by prematurely setting overly rigorous equipment specifications. The Transformation of Integrity The concept of integrity has two dimensions in the traditional preservation context--physical and intellectual both of which concern the nature of the evidence. Physical integrity largely concerns the item as artifact

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and plays out most directly in the conservation studio, where skilled bench staffs use water-soluble glues, age-old hand-binding techniques, and high quality materials to protect historical evidence of use, past conservation treatments, and intended or unintended changes to the structure of the item. The preservation of intellectual integrity is also based upon concern for evidence of a different sort. The authenticity, or truthfulness, of the information content of an item, maintained through documentation of both provenances the chain of ownership and treatment, where appropriate, is at the heart of intellectual integrity. Beyond the history of an item is concern for protecting and documenting the relationships among items in a collection. In traditional preservation practice, the concepts of quality and integrity reinforce each other. In the digital world, a commitment to maintaining the physical integrity of a digital image file has far less to do with the media upon which the data are stored than with the loss of information when a file is created originally and then compressed mathematically or sent across a network. In the domain of intellectual integrity, structural indexes and data descriptions traditionally published with an item as tables of contents or prepared as discrete finding aids or bibliographic records must be inextricably linked and preserved along with the digital image files themselves. Preserving intellectual integrity also involves authentication procedures, like audit trails, to make sure files are not altered intentionally or accidentally. Ultimately, the digital world transforms traditional preservation principles from guaranteeing the physical integrity of the object to specifying the creation of the object whose intellectual integrity is its primary characteristic. Librarians and archivists can control the integrity of digital image files by authenticating access procedures and documenting successive modifications to a given digital record. We can also create and maintain structural indexes and bibliographic linkages within well developed and well understood database standards. We also have a role to play in influencing the development of metadata interchange standards including the tools and

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techniques that will allow structured, documented, and standardized information about data files and databases to be shared across platforms, systems, and international boundaries. It is vain to think, however, that librarians and archivists are anything but bystanders observing the rapid development of network protocols, bandwidth, or data security techniques. The Transformation of Access In spite of decades of claims to the contrary, increased access is largely a coincidental byproduct of traditional preservation practice, not its central focus. Indeed, the preservation and access responsibilities of an archive or library are more often in constant tension. "While preservation is a primary goal or responsibility, an equally compelling mandate access and use sets up a classic conflict that must be arbitrated by the custodians and caretakers of archival records," states the fundamental textbook in the field. The mechanism for ensuring access to a preserved item or collection is a bibliographic record located in local online catalogs or national bibliographic databases. In traditional preservation, access mechanisms, such as bibliographic records and archival finding aids, simply provide a notice of availability and are not an integral part of the object. In the fifty years that preservation has been emerging as a professional specialist in libraries and archives, the intimate relationship between the concepts of preservation and access has undergone a sequence of transformations that mirror the changes in the technological environment in which cultural institutions have functioned. In the digital world, access is transformed from a convenient byproduct of the preservation process to its central motif. Control over the access requirements of digital preservation, especially, the capability to migrate digital image files to future generations of the technology, can be exercised in part through prudent purchases of only non-proprietary hardware and software components. In the present

environment, true "plug-and-play" components are becoming more widely available and our (limited) checkbooks provide the only incentive we can

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provide to vendors to adopt open system architectures or at least provide better documentation on the inner workings of their systems. Additionally, librarians and archivists can influence vendors and manufacturers to provide new equipment that is "backwardly compatible" with existing systems. This capability assists image file system migration in the same way that today's word processing software allows access to documents created with earlier versions. Much as we might wish otherwise, the life expectancy of a given digital image system and the requirement to abandon that system are profoundly important matters over which we have little or no control. Perversely, it seems the commitment of a vendor to support and maintain an old system is inversely related to that vendor's ability to market a new system. A New Mandate for Digital Technology It is impossible to come to terms with the responsibilities inherent in digital preservation without distinguishing between "acquiring" digital imaging technology to solve a particular problem and "adopting" it as an information management option. Acquiring an imaging system to enhance access to library and archive materials is now almost as simple as choosing the combination of off-the-shelf scanners, computers, and monitors that meets immediate specifications. Hundreds of libraries and archives have already invested in or are planning to purchase digital image conversion systems and experiment with their capabilities. Innumerable pilot projects demonstrate how much more challenging it is to digitize scholarly resources than the modern office correspondence and case files that drove the technology a decade ago. In time, most of these small-scale, stand -alone applications will fade away quietly--and the initial investment will be lost as the costs of maintaining these systems become apparent, as vendors go out of business, and as patrons become more accustomed to remote-access image databases and the latest bells and whistles. The process of converting library materials to an electronic form a process which in many aspects is similar to the one used to create preservation microfilm is distinct from any particular medium upon which

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the images may be stored at a particular point in time. This distinction allows for a continuing commitment to creating and maintaining digitized information while entertaining the possibility that other, more advanced storage media may render optical media obsolete.
Administrators who have responsibility for selecting systems for converting materials with long-term value also bear responsibility for providing long-term access. This commitment is a continuing one - decisions about digital preservation cannot be deferred in the hope that technological solutions will emerge like a medieval knight in shining armor. An appraisal of the present value of books, manuscript collections, or a series of photographs in their original format is the necessary point of departure for judging the preservation of the digital image version. The mere potential of increased access to a digitized collection does not add value to an underused collection. Similarly, the powerful capabilities of a relational index cannot compensate for a collection of documents whose structure, relationships, and intellectual content are poorly understood. Random access is not a magic potion for effective collection management.

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HAZARDS TO LIBRARY MATERIAL AND PREVENTIVE STEPS

Essentially the Library is a repository of books and other materials to be used by the users. The total collection of library materials is stored and preserved with a view to provide, write and accurate documentary evidence to the coming generation. It is stored as long as the library exists. Books and other reading materials are generally paper-based materials and performed the major constituents of the Library. It is the responsibility of the Librarian to pressure it as it is and keep all the books and other materials physically fit to be used by the users. We know that the basic materials and constituents of the physical entity are mostly organic and are susceptible to natural decay and deterioration. If the environmental condition is adverse, the process of decay and deterioration is started. The environmental hazards to the Library materials are most important factors of decay. These environmental factors are mainly temperature, humidity, water, light, air pollution, dust and such other damaging agents. All these factors exceeding the optimum value

continuously, affect the physical composition of the Library materials. It has been problem for the libraries through the centuries to preserve the library materials against these enemies and to take measures against all types of decay and deterioration. The books are the intellectual content and these contents are usually recorded on the paper by impression with help of ink. It is a physically entity having certain physical properties. The main constituent of a book is paper of any kind. The other factors are printing, illustrations, binding, cloth pieces for binding, cotton thread for sewing, glue or gum for pasting and other materials used for physical construction of a book. Each substance used for the physical composition has its own constituents and these are affected by natural conditions. The environmental factors create the primary conditions for the well-being of the physical entities of the documents and other Library materials.

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In a modern library there are many printed or non-printed nonbook materials which are paper based such as, journals, newspapers, theses, conference and seminar papers, pamphlets, reports, and the like. Special materials are also there in the libraries such as, maps, graphic materials, audio materials, audio-visual materials and various other types. The different types of materials and the characteristics of the substances used for the physical composition of such library materials pose different kinds of preservation problems. All these materials are acquired and kept in the library for a long time. Although, the climatic condition is not the same in all the regions, our country is basically a tropical country. A tropical country has its own climatic problems particularly the humidity. Industrialisation, specially heavy industries, growth of urban areas, combustion of natural oil for transport, cooking elements in urban areas, and such other situations are continuously affecting the atmospheric condition. These atmospheric and climatic conditions have great impact over the physical condition of the library materials which are kept in the libraries for a long period. Such conditions are hazardous to library materials. These are the major environmental factors which are harmful to the library materials. The ideal environmental conditions required to preserve the library materials and the preventive measures to be taken against such harmful and damaging environmental factors.
PROBLEMS OF PRESERVATION

There is a vast variety of material in various physical formats made of different substances and ingredient. Depending upon the nature and characteristics of a particular type of substance and the mixture of ingredients, different kinds of preservation problems arise under adverse environmental conditions. The problems of preservation were faced by the librarians ever since recorded documents were created. The art of preservation is as old as human culture. Various substances were used in the ancient world to create the recorded documents. There were attempts to preserve them depending on

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the kind of materials. Except stone and metals, other materials are vulnerable. Clay tablets were affected by worms and atmospheric condition, papyrus by humidity and insect, birch bark, wood and palm leaf by moisture and insects, paper by humidity, temperature, air pollution, dust and dirt, smoke, ageing and other adverse conditions. It has been found that deterioration of library materials start by the environmental factors. The environmental factors, by way of time, cause decay and deterioration of the library materials and adverse environmental factors cause damage and destruction. An even more dangerous situation is that adverse environmental conditions not only damage the library materials physically, they also accelerate the damage and destruction being the root cause of chemical factors and biological factors for total damage and destruction. During the middle ages use of good and durable quality of constituent materials, controlled and amount of harmful measures ingredients taken in

manufacturing,

preventive

preservative

during

processing of materials, the care and craftsmanship associated with manufacture of materials prevented their decay and deterioration and also built up their resistance against adverse environmental factors. In the premodern period adequate preventive measures were taken for the preservation of library materials. During the modern period while paper became the major constituent of the library collection all over the world the problem of preservation became more acute. Paper is non-durable because of two conditions. Firstly because the basic constituents of paper are organic in nature they are inherently perishable, and secondly the process of paper making inherits the possibility of self destruction and the decaying process gets accelerated under adverse environmental conditions. The problems of preservation have reached an alarming stage in the modern period due to various reasons, the principal being the basic ingredients used for paper making as well as for the manufacturing processes. The main parts of the library collection are paper and audio-visual materials. The raw materials used for the manufacture of these materials and the

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processes of manufacture are very important. But unfortunately, in the modern period, low quality ingredients are used and the manufacturing processes are not faultless because of the demand for mass production. But the situation did not draw the attention of the people at large. Even libraries, as a community, were not aware and conscious about all these problems. Previously, it was the affair of some individuals, who were interested in preservation and invented indigenous methods. By the end of the 19th century people became aware of the problems of preservation and restoration of library materials and as such, attempts were made to cope with the problems. During the first three decades of the present century many individuals and institutions came forward to identify the causes of damage and deterioration of library materials of various kinds. Attempts were made to take remedial measures against such damage and deterioration as well as restoration of affected materials. Scientific investigations were carried out and notable works were done on causes of deterioration and damage, preventive measures to be taken and curative measures to be applied in USA, UK, Italy, France, Germany, USSR, Sweden and India. Laboratories for research in preservation processes and methods were established in the national libraries, archives and large libraries. Independent research institutions were also established like W.J. Barrow Research Laboratory in USA. The causes and conditions of deterioration and damage to library materials were identified and a good number of methods and techniques for preservation and restoration of library materials were developed. The physical properties arising from the base materials and the compositions in construction of the physical entity of book and other library materials create the problems of preservation. It is fact that these are inherent. The physical entity of a book is composed of various types of paper, board, cloth, leather, ink, adhesive, etc. Each of these materials is susceptible to natural decay due to ageing as well as the decay and deterioration which are caused by various physical, chemical and biological factors, mostly created by atmospheric condition and environmental factors.

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NATURE OF THE LIBRARY MATERIALS The largest single constituent of a library collection is book. There are also various types of printed non-book materials which are paper based. All these reading materials both in book form and non-book form and are composed of paper. Paper itself and other constituents of the book create perpetual problems in preservation. Primarily these problems are caused by environmental factors. 1. Paper: Physical Characteristics The main constituent of paper is cellulose fibre. Various types of different origin are used to collect the cellulose fibre. The quality of paper depends very much on the particular type of raw materials. The raw materials used for manufacture of paper are usually cotton, flax, hemp alpha grass, straw, bamboo, rag, linen, chemical wood pulp, mechanical wood pulp and the like. The mechanical strength of paper depends on the length and integration of cellulose fibres. Raw cellulose fibres contain fats, waxes, rosin, lignin and many other impurities causing the deterioration of paper. Some substances and reagents are used to remove the impurities of paper pulp, but the processes taken to do so cause the degradation of cellulose fiber. Paper is manufactured by grounding of raw materials and digestion of the whole pulp after removal of impurities. While the raw materials are processed under pressure and heat to prepare paper pulp, chemicals like calcium bisulphate, caustic soda and sodium sulphide are added which is required for proper processing. But the residues of the undissolved chemicals or impurities of raw materials cause the deterioration afterwards, particularly under adverse environmental conditions. The bleaching of pulp is done be chlorine. The disproportionate use of chlorine and its residue affect the durability of paper. The beating processes are important in preparation of the pulp. If these are not done properly paper will deteriorate. Sizing materials such as glue, gum, rosin, starch, etc. are used to bind the cellulose fibres. Usually this consists of a diluted solution of rosin with an addition of alum. The chlorine used for bleaching and the excess alum combination increase the

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acidity of paper and decreases the longevity of paper particularly under adverse environmental conditions. The loading materials such as clay chalk, talcum, gypsum etc. are added to the paper pulp for increasing the smoothness of paper. These materials also contribute to the deterioration of paper due to environmental factors. Much water is needed for paper manufacture. If the water is not free from iron and other mineral impurities the paper will deteriorate shortly. The defects at the time of paper manufacture and the inherent causes of deterioration of paper in this process cannot be detected by seeing a book. It can only be detected after the damage has been done to some extent. 2. Other Constituents of Books Board: Boards are used for making the hard cover binding. Boards are used for both new book binding and old book binding. Now a days, the board for book binding is made by machine boards or straw boards. Machine boards are made of wood pulp, waste chips, etc. Straw boards are made of straw and other raw vegetable products. When these boards are exposed to atmospheric conditions they deteriorate quickly. Those particularly with starch glue, are used as food hideouts and breeding places by insects. Cloth: Cloth for bookbinding is usually made of cotton silk. The cellulose content in cotton is more than 90%. The cellulose fibres are easily affected by acid and strong oxidizing agents. The fibres become disintegrated under humid condition and moisture. Starch filled cloth cover is tough but it is extremely vulnerable to insects and moulds. Silk is also vulnerable to atmospheric condition. Leather: Leather is good covering material. But the quality of leather depends on the tanning process and substances used. Low quality substances and improper methods make the leather vulnerable. Badly tanned leather becomes decomposed under humidity and moisture. Thread: Cotton threads are mostly used as sewing material for book binding. Whatever may be the method of bookbinding, the life of a book depends on the thread and other sewing materials apart from the paper. The gatherings of

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pages in formats are sewn to each other ands then to tapes or cords. The tapes and cords holds the gatherings together and these are fastened with the boards on both sides of the book. Low quality sewing materials with starch paste are affected by moisture and weaken the book. Ink: Ink, dyes and colours play an important role in book making. Ink makes the permanent impression on paper. Dyes and colours make the illustration on various types of paper, particularly coated paper. In humid condition the pigments of ink and colours become wet and behave like adhesive. The pages of the book thus stick together. In case of coated paper us the upper layer of paper sometimes sticks to the facing paper causing damage to the colour and illustration. Humidity and moisture affect the ink, dyes and colours. Adhesive: The widely used adhesives for book binding are glue and starch paste. Glue and gelatin are animal matter. Starch and dextrine are vegetable matter. These are less expensive and widely used. The insecticides added in preparing the starch paste lose their properties after some time and the paste becomes the food of worms and insects. Both glue and starch are vulnerable to moisture and continued condition. The binding force thus loosens and damage is caused to books. Binding is a very important factor for the durability of a book. The environmental factors make the book binding weak and affect the durability of the book. On the whole, the physical properties of the book depend on the constituent materials and their composition in the construction of book. The problems of preservation have two aspects. First, the physical conditions of books are vulnerable to deterioration because of inherent physical properties unknown to the libraries. Secondly, books are susceptible to adverse environmental conditions for physical deterioration which also accelerate both chemical deterioration and biological damages. 3. Audio-Visual Tapes and Discs The sound recording systems are usually of three patterns, magnetic pattern, photographic pattern and grooved pattern. The audio-video

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tapes are of magnetic pattern, motion picture sound tracks are of photographic pattern and phonograph discs are of grooved pattern. The base materials of Magnetic tapes are polyvinyl chloride, cellulose acetate, Mylar, and the like. The sound tracks of motion picture films are on the same base as the pictures. The plastic substances which are used as base materials are high molecular weight organic compounds capable of bearing heat, pressure, the evaporation of a solvent or to the use of plasticizers. All the materials are thermoplastics and repeatedly soften when heated and harden when chilled. All the substances are soluble in certain liquids. Phonograph records are made of cellulose nitrate or acetate, polyvinyl chloride, styrene or wax. Sound is recorded by making matrix of grooves. Since these are made for playing purpose only, emphasis is given on low manufacturing cost. The life span is rather short and cannot be preserved for a long time in high quality sound condition. Because of the groove pattern excessive playing can cause degradation in sound quality. The quality of audio-video tapes and discs varies greatly according to the substances used as base materials and the quality of raw materials. It also depends on the quality control in manufacturing the basic materials. A number of factors such as variation in formula, low grade raw material, contamination of elements, variation in heat and pressure, duration of time in processing, manufacturing techniques, etc. have their impact over the finished product and its quality and durability. Obviously low quality materials have shorter storage life and least resistance to degeneration. 4. Films and Photographs Any kind of film, motion picture, film strips and still film consist of thin transparent flexible sheets of cellulose acetate, cellulose nitrate and such other material coated with light-sensitive chemicals in gelatin which after controlled exposure and subsequent processing can retain the image. All kinds of films are very sensitive to extremes of heat, cold, moisture and dryness. All the environmental factors affect the film. It can also be damaged

49

by improper storage and handling. Environmental control can increase their longevity. Photographic papers are high grade paper coated with emulsions which are either dispersions of finely divided silver halide particles in gelatin or colour sensitive chemicals in gelatin. Photographs, if processed properly, are free of active chemicals. If these are stored in tight dust-proof containers in an environment of ideal temperature and humidity they may last for a long time. When the photographs are not processed properly and the active chemicals are present, the images turn faint due to continuing chemical action in the gelatin coating in course of time.

PHYSICAL DETERIORATION Environmental factors are major factors responsible for decay of library materials. If the environmental factors are kept under proper condition and the extreme conditions are controlled by good housekeeping and proper care, all kinds of deterioration and damage can be controlled and the library materials can be preserved for long time. There are various causes of deterioration of library materials as well as various conditions for this. Various agents are there by which the decay and deterioration are accelerated. Broadly speaking, the environmental pollution, the effect of acid and other chemical impurities on paper and other materials. The result is discolouring and brittleness of paper due to internal and external causes, fading and decolourisation of films and visual materials and degradation of sound of audio materials. All these are caused by excessive heat, light, humidity and moisture, air pollution and environmental condition detrimental to library materials. There are various other causes working at the same time. So, the causes are more complex and complicated. In such varying situations the causes of decay and deterioration are to be identified and adequate measures should be taken to counteract such conditions.

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These situations are responsible for the decay: 1. Natural ageing of paper is an inevitable phenomenon since the major constituents are organic nature. 2. In the manufacturing of paper, sometimes fibres are used with low cellulose content or sometimes non-cellulose content of the lignin type by which paper degenerates very soon. 3. Mineral and chemical compounds used for sizing of paper affect the durability of paper. 4. Impurities in the ingredients used as basic constituents of paper cause inevitable deterioration. 5. Presence of excess acidic sizing materials such as alum, rosin, etc. cause the acidic affect. 6. Oxidizing agents present in the constituents of paper make the paper weak by diminishing the mechanical strength as well as by discolouring and disintegrating the paper. Presence of metallic traces accelerates oxidization. 7. Alkalies used in manufacture of paper affect the paper used in a higher quantity. Fungi grow very easily on such paper. 8. Films are very sensitive because of the ingredient used for physical composition and the processes of manufacturing as finished products. 9. Chemicals present in audio-visual materials, ingredients of base elements and processes of production cannot withstand any adverse condition because these are very delicate. 10. Because of the nature and characteristics of basic elements, physical and chemical change may occur within the material under adverse environmental conditions.
The physical factors causing the physical deterioration are given as:

1. Temperature Being a tropical country, India is in the high temperature zone and the relative humidity is also very high. Except for a few months in winter, the longer period of the year experiences high temperature almost all over the

51

country. Extreme variation in temperature such as 50C in winter and 450C in summer is experienced in many places in India. Such fluctuation of temperature affects the physical condition of the library materials. Increase in temperature causes an increase in the rate of deterioration. Temperature is always considered along with relative humidity. High temperature or heat with low humidity causes dehydration of cellulose fibres and the paper becomes brittle land yellowish. On the other hand, high temperature with high humidity, if continued for a considerable time makes the paper soggy and creates the condition for the growth of moulds. In both the conditions paper loses its mechanical strength and the cellulose fibres disintegrate and degenerate. Temperature over 250C causes brittleness and dryness of paper. It also causes physical deterioration of paper, cloth, linen and leather. The adhesives also lose their binding strength. High temperature or heat accelerates photolysis, hydrolysis and oxidation. It also causes buckling of edges on films and tapes, as well as their embrittlement and curling. If these are kept in such a condition for a long time it will be difficult to use such materials. Usually the source of heat is the high atmospheric temperature. If electric bulbs are used for lighting purpose they increase the room temperature abnormally. High powerful bulbs generate more heat. The natural deterioration of ageing is accelerated by heat and increase of temperature in strong areas. 2. Light and Darkness Light may be natural or artificial. Natural light is the sun light and artificial light may be fluorescent tube light or electric bulbs. In the natural light several kinds of rays are present. These are visible rays of light, Cosmic rays, gama rays, X-Rays, far ultra-violet rays, near ultra-violet rays and infra-red rays. All rays are not harmful to library materials. The ultra-violet rays coming directly from the sun are harmful to library materials. The ultra-violet rays coming directly from the sun are harmful to library materials. Therefore, library materials should never be exposed to direct sun rays. The cellulose of fibres

52

of paper loses their mechanical strength and paper becomes brittle and yellowish under direct sun rays. Both the natural and artificial light cause deterioration to bleaching ink, dyes and colour in illustration and maps. Ordinarily light does not affect cellulose molecules of paper but reacts photochemically on the other ingredients and impurities in paper content such as lignin, acid, resins, glue, starch, dyes, etc. The effects of these reactions then attack the cellulose by breaking the molecular chain and weakening the paper. Cellulose fibres are bleached by light but lignin and other non-cellulose ingredients in paper become yellowish. Prolonged exposure to light results in photosensitized oxidation of paper which is vulnerable to other forms of deterioration. The presence of rosin, glue, lignin, iron, alum and other sizing and loading substances which have a strong bearing on deterioration by light. Like sunlight, artificial light also contains ultra violet rays. The florescent tube light radiates a high percentage of ultra-violet rays but the light is rather cool. The electric bulbs radiate minimum ultra-violet rays but are source of much heat. They cause deterioration by yellowing the paper and embrittlement. Heat and light cause deterioration simultaneously, and long exposure to both natural and artificial light is destructive to library materials. Although excessive light has certain deteriorating affects on library materials, light is required in the storage area. Direct sun rays should not be allowed in storage areas but natural light should come in a restricted way. Fluorescent tubes should be used in storage areas because they radiate a lower percentage of ultra-violet rays than natural light and also radiate low heat. Darkness or absence of light in storage areas is also very harmful and damaging. Light, because of its heat element, absorbs moisture to some extent. It also hinders the growth of fungi and mould and keeps worms and insects out their hiding corners. Darkness creates a condition for breeding of biological enemies and makes place for their hide outs. They cause much damage to library materials protected under cover or darkness. Humidity and moisture are increased in dark areas causing physical, chemical and

53

biological deterioration. Therefore, it is desirable that every nook and corner of a library, particularly the storage areas should get the required light. 3. Humidity and Moisture Like heat and light, humidity acts both in favour of and against the preservation of library materials. A certain amount of humidity is necessary for keeping the flexibility of paper. But in prolonged humid condition where humidity is very high, particularly at the period of summer and monsoon, moisture is caused by high humidity. Such climatic conditions with moisture is a most dangerous and destructive factor for all kinds of library materials. Moisture itself causes physical deterioration but the worst situation is that it is the root cause for various types of chemical deterioration and biological damage and destruction. Moisture makes the paper soggy and thus weakens the tissues of paper. The cellulose fibres lose their strength, become disintegrated and make the document unworthy for handling. Moisture weakens the adhesives and makes the book binding loose. It also weakens the sizing elements and loading materials of paper. It causes spreading of ink. It causes stickiness in art paper, glazed paper with the help of sticky ink, dyes, colours and pigments. Moisturised pages of book often stick together particularly with illustration which may not be restored to their original condition. Moisture causes softening of gelatin on film and sound tape. Rolled films, tapes and microfiches can stick together while they are in contact under conditions of moisture. Moisture accelerates various types of chemical deterioration. Because of chemical reaction paper becomes yellow and stained with coloured spots. The impurities in the ingredients of paper, the contaminants, usually the oxides of carbon, nitrogen and particularly of sulpher, the acidic residue in paper, under condition of moisture cause deterioration to documents. Moisture promotes the growth of micro-organisms like mildew and fungus which cause deterioration and damage to paper and book binding materials. Spores of micro-organisms which are present in the atmosphere in

54

dormant stage starts growing under favourable conditions of high humidity. They cause enormous damage by destroying the sizing elements, cellulose fibres, adhesives and other binding materials and make the documents unreadable. Dust in contact with moisture causes physical and chemical degradation. 4. Water Water causes destruction to library materials may come from various sources. These may be due to human negligence, accidents or a natural calamity. Water may get into storage areas from leaking roofs, defective plumbing and clogged drains. If the rainwater is broken, water may come in through open windows. If the windows are not closed rain water may come into rooms freely in the rainy season. Water running on the walls, over the floors, spilling in the shelf ranges, book cases or other furniture and equipment can cause enormous damage to the library materials, furniture, equipment, and even the library building. All these may be caused by human negligence. Water may come by accident if proper caution is not taken in time. It may also come by water-logging of roads under heavy rain and overflowing of water into the basement or ground floor of the library building. Natural calamities may be in the nature of floods, cyclones and atmospheric depressions for a long time. 5. Smoke Smoke is another destructive enemy to library materials. Visible or invisible, smoke exists in the air suspended in the lower strata of the atmosphere particularly in urban areas, densely populated habitations and industrial locations. Smoke contains unburnt particles of burning coal, carbon particles of burnt fuel, industrial coal smoke, fibre particles, and any other particles suspended in the air. All these suspended particles make the air heavy, so smoke settles at the lower part of the air. When such particles are diffused and distributed in the air, smoke may no be visible, but traces of smoke are there. Atmospheric smoke is visible particularly in the mornings

55

and evenings in winter when smoke mixed with mist or fog hinders even the visibility and looks like a solid object. Smoke is responsible particularly for chemical degradation and damage to library materials. A large amount of smoke is released in the air in our country by combustion of coal and fuel of oil gas. These things are used in urban areas, slum areas and densely populated areas for cooking purposes. A large amount of natural gas particularly diesel is burnt everyday for cooking purposes. A large amount of natural gas particularly diesel is burnt everyday for vehicular transport. The exhausts of transports produce enormous quantities of smoke. Industrial furnaces produce an alarming amount of coal and other types of smoke with chemical impurities. The chemical contents of smoke, as a whole, contain various oxides of carbon nitrogen and particularly sulphur. Sulphur dioxide is absorbed by porous elements of library materials. Sulphur dioxide, a by-product of the combustion of coal and fuel oil, is not in itself harmful to library materials. But in under high humidity and moisture it reacts with metallic impurities in paper, particularly iron and copper, and forms sulphuric acid which is highly destructive to paper. The metallic impurities are found in all kinds of cellulose molecules by causing oxidation. The physical deterioration is caused also by smoke while the suspended smoke particles of the air settle down on the surfaces of library materials as dust. 6. Dust and Dirt Dust is a mass of suspended particles carried over by air coming from any source. It settles down on any surface of library materials which is exposed to air. Since this is airborne it can settle down even in closed files and boxes and closed areas where air can flow freely. Ordinarily dust cannot be seen but one can see it when it has settled down as a mass usually by discolouring the surface. When dust which is hygroscopic in nature is mixed with high humidity and moisture, it is transformed into dirt, a sticky substance over the surface which cannot be eliminated completely. Dust and dirt substances aggravate the harmful action of sulphur compounds. These are sources of both chemical and physical deterioration.

56

Dust hastens atmospheric acid reaction by attracting moisture to cause chemical degradation. Dust and dirt discolour the pages of books and help to grow micro organisms. Dust and moisture combined loosen the cellulose fibres of paper. The deterioration caused by dust and dirt is visible on the exposed part of the books. Dust is very harmful to audio-visual materials. It is particularly responsible for sound degradation of tapes and discs. Dust and dirt also damage the equipment meant for using the audio-visual materials. 7. Air Pollution Clean and pure air is essential for any living being, so also for any organic material. Air is a mixture of Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, Water vapour and Carbon Dioxide along with small quantities of Neon, Krypton, Xenon, and Hydrogen. Some impurities like oxides of sulpher, carbon, etc. and suspended particulates in the form of soot, smoke and dust also exist in the air. When any of these impurities exceed the permissible level, it results in air pollution. But it is a fact that even clean air causes deterioration to some extent to organic materials kept in the library. The oxygen mixed with water vapour existing in the air causes hydrolysis and auto oxidation. Library materials cannot be preserved in the Library for a longer time without clean air. The real enemy of the library materials is the impurities present in the air and the contamination of the air. All these create air pollution which is more or less a permanent affair in this modern age particularly for urbanisation, industrialisation, increase of slum areas, deforestation etc. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS: INSECTS 1. Micro-organisms A group of fungi or moulds include Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicillium. Mucor, Fusarium etc. grow in paper. These organisms are present in the environment in every habitant. They remain in a dormant state for long periods. But they appear as brown/black vegetative growth on paper, textiles and leather in favourable conditions of climate. High relative humidity (above 65 per cent) and high temperature (in the range of 270-350 C) are conducive for their growth and propagation. Besides, other conditions which favour their

57

growth are rugged dusty surfaces, stagnant air, damp materials and availability of food for sustaining their life. The common fungus consists of a reproductive mycelium and a vegetative mycelium. The former extends into the air and is responsible for spore production, while the latter burrows into the substrate digesting and absorbing it. 2. Insects Common insects that are responsible for attacking and damaging paper and other book components are Silver Fish, Book lice (Psocid), Cockroach, Termite, Book Worm (Gastrallus Indicus). These insects are recognised by their characteristics appearance. Silver Fish It is a wingless, silvery or pearly grey, carrot shaped insect measuring 8 to 10 mm in length. It has two hairy antennae, and its body tapers like a fish from head to tail. The mouth part of this insect is adapted for biting. This insect makes damp walls, dingy corners of a room as its habitat. The female lays 10-50 eggs at a time and these hatches in 6-10 days. The young ones closely resemble the adult. A temperature of 180-250C and relative humidity above 55 per cent is ideal for their growth. This insect is a surface feeder having an affinity for glue, gelatine, starch and other materials, pastes and other adhesives of vegetable origin. Cockroach It is a brown or blackish brown, shing flat bodied, foul smelling insect. It has two protruding antennae which help it feel objects. This insect is nocturnal, lives and hides in corners which are damp and dingy, crevices and cleavages in walls and floors, behind and beneath almirahs and shelves in wooden cupboards. It is very common household insect breeding in kitchen drains and garbage. It is an omnivorous insect feeding on paper, board, binding textiles, leather, especially attracted by binding glues. The female lays eggs in pouch (cocoon) containing 6 to 10 eggs, mostly in April-May to October. The young ones hatching out from eggs are

58

called nymphs and these mature as fully winged insect adult. Moist air, warmth and darkness form most favourably condition for their breeding and growth. Book-Lice The insect is grayish white to brown in colour as long as the width of a pinhead (1mm to 2.5mm). It is almost transparent with thread like antennae and mouth part. Its occurrence is noticed in dust laden and fungua infected materials. Dampness and warmth are the essential requirements for its rapid growth. White-ant This insect is most destructive of the wood or cellulose feeding insects. It is a social insect living in a community which includes male, reproductive female (queen) and sterile workers. The workers are soft bodied, white or grey, wingless forms, and devote their energy to nest building and feeding the community. Broadly speaking this insect is of two groups: i) Subterranean termites, so called because they must maintain their contact with the soil. ii) Non-subterranean termites require no contact with the soil. They can exist in the wood they infest. These are also known as dry wood borers and are found in a tropical climate. Subterranean termites travel in mud, covered runways, bore into poor masonary structure with bad quality of bricks and cement, reaching their food. They damage paper, board, wooden furniture, textiles and leather.

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BINDING AND MENDING OF BOOKS

Binding is the process of collecting printed pages of a book or any other document, together in correct sequence and putting them between covers. Binding of Library materials helps in protecting them from wear and tear and make their use easy. It is proved that binding is the best way of preservation of reading materials. Binding of library books comprises different types of binding used for different types of material having different physical forms and intrinsic value. But, library Binding is a specific type of binding which adopts typical binding process, using materials of specified standard. The various types of materials which are acquired by the Library i.e. journals, books, periodicals and some such materials needs binding. Most of the library materials purchased in the library covering binding by their respective publishers. The books and other reading materials are in frequent use by the users and it needs re-binding. To preserve the reading materials as it is, for the posterity and to keep it in a usable state for todays users it need proper binding. It is an art of attaching stout cover to the book by means of cords or tapes cared to the sewn sections of the books for protection of the pages and convenience of handling. Binding and re-binding of library book poses certain constant problems, which the librarian has to tackle satisfactorily. The problems arise because of the varied nature of the reading materials, their physical structure and condition, and also the nature, extent and intensity of their use. In the technological advancement age, the library book binding has got specific attention and various sophisticated methods of machine binding have been used by the publisher. On the other hand the process of hand-binding has its own importance. Most of the books are now published with machine made casings. The process of binding has been greatly improved, particularly during the past few decades. Automatic machines have made possible mass production of books with casings at a very rapid rate.

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The first step of any binding process involves folding, gathering and sewing. Printing is done on large sheets of paper, several pages of the book printed on both sides of each sheet. After printing, the sheets are folded (folding). Each folded sheet comprising, usually 8 or 16 pages of the book is called a frame or a section. For the convenience of binder in arranging these sections in the correct sequence, the first page of each section is marked at the bottom left corner with consecutive numbers or letters of the alphabet, known as signatures. These forms, or sections or signature are then arranged (gathering), ready for stitching, (sewing), and after stitching, provided with appropriate covering. 1. Form of Binding The form of binding in which publications come to the Library ranges from wire-stitched pamphlets having soft paper cover to elaborate leather binding (even with elaborate decorations). The different types of binding can be broadly categorised as follows: 2. Stitching Process Wire-stitched Binding: The pamphlet-type publications are generally released by their publishers in wire-stitched form, with a paper cover. If the numbers of pages are small, the printing is so done as to allow centre-stitching with staple to attach the pages to the outer cover. But in case of pamphlets having more number of pages, comprising several sections, side-stitching becomes necessary. The staples / wires, generally used, are galvanised or copperplated steel wires. Though this is a convenient, less expensive and fast process, it is an ill-conceived method of securing the sections. Wire-stitched books, unless centre-stitched, do not open easily; the staple-wires rust in due course, causing paper to disintegrate. This necessitates rebinding the volume sooner or later in a proper way. Adhesive Applied Binding: In this process the backs of all the folded sheets (the sections) are cut, converting each page as a single leaf. A flexible adhesive is then applied to the freshly cut edges of the sheets. Each

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single sheet is thus secured and the pages have the freedom of movement in opening and closing. Adhesive bound books using stable polymer glues are published these days in a very large number. These comprise not only fictions, or pocket editions, but also non-fiction books of long lasting value. This process has no doubt made mass-production of books cheap and rapid, but it is considered as a necessary evil. The pages of the books so bound come apart after a very little use, requiring re-binding for long-term use and preservation. Inspite of this drawback, curiously enough this type of binding is known as perfect binding, which is far from being perfect. Section-stitched Binding: In this process, also called signature stitching, the folded signatures are gathered together in correct sequence. These are subsequently sewn with thread and needle, the stitches fastening one signature to the other. If the publication is to be given a soft or a hard-cover casing the sewn sections are pasted down with hinges and endpapers with the cover. But if stronger binding with hard-cover is required, the sewn signatures are also sewn on to pieces of cord or strips of white linen fixed or pasted across the spine. The projected parts of the cord or the tape in their turn are pasted down or laced into the covering boards later in the process. This process of stitching is a part of binding in the real sense of the term, as opposed to wire-stitching or adhesive binding discussed above. Soft Cover Binding: Pamphlets are generally published with soft covers made to thick paper or thin card sheets. The cover is stapled on to the folded sections. Now-a-days more and more publications in soft covers by the publishers. These include pamphlets fictions and even non-fiction books, pocket-book editions and student-editions of standard books for being sold at affordable price. In this process single card-sheet are printed and cut to size to cover both the sides of the book. It is then creased to accommodate the spine of the volume. The spine is guarded with thick paper and a strip of white line,

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all of which are then sewn together with the sections of the book. The whole is then pasted on to the card-sheet cover with the help of end-papers. The linen reinforcement is also pasted down. Books with this type of soft-cover binding are weak in physical get-up and require regular binding in due course, if long term use and preservation is required. Hard-cover Binding: Hard-bound editions of books use heavy boards, such as: 1. Casing It is also known as publishers binding or case binding or edition binding, as distinct from hand binding or extra binding or simply binding. In the casing process the covers or cases are made as separate units and to them the sewn signatures (sections) are joined, usually without tapes or cords, by pasting down hinges and papers. It is a cheap, massproduction process and is called publishers bind because with the help of machinery or even without much of it, a large number of identical volumes are produced by the publishers at a very low production cost. Casing, however, lacks durability. After some use the case gets separated from the book, and requires rebinding. 2. Binding Materials Pamphlet Binding: As has been stated above, pamphlets are very thin volumes. These are generally issued by their publishers with paper covers, centre-stitched or side-stitched with staples, attaching the pages and the covers together. Those pamphlets which are considered worthy of preservation can be sewn after guarding the spine with two sheets of white cover and a strip of white linen. All these are then sewn together by strong thread and needle through the fold of a single section (Section stitching). The cover is separately made by using light boards and is joined by pasting quarter cloth along the spine end. The pamphlet is then placed in this covercase and the end papers and reinforcements pasted down. The original paper

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cover is cut and pasted on the board, giving the same outer look as that of the original pamphlet. Book Binding: Except for a selected few reference publications, books are by and large issued by publishers, either with soft cover or with hard-cover casings. Some are stitched in the conventional way. But most of the publishers, especially the foreign one, issue their publications with adhesive pasting of the spine. All these type of publishers binding disintegrates after some use and the Librarian has to get such volume rebound in the proper manner. This involves section stitching, (or stitching of a few pages together as a section in the case of adhesive-pasted books), using cords or tapes affixed to the spine, which are in turn laced into the hard-board covers. There upon the boards are given appropriate coverings, using leather, cloth, rexine or even paper (full, half or quarter) depending on the intrinsic value of the book. Binding of Journals, Periodicals and Serials: As has been seen above, books are got rebound by the Librarian; but the journals / periodicals and serials are got bound by him in the correct sense of the term. In doing so, he has to apply his discretion judiciously to avoid wasteful expenditure. Some of the salient guidelines are given below:
Type of Journal Material i) Materials likely to be sparingly used; having less intrinsic value. Single issue of a volume, if borrowing of journal is allowed for individual use or for interlibrary loan. ii) Volumes moderately used Moderately heavy board; full cloth or linen, or buckram cover. ii) Heavily used volumes; volumes for long term Heavy board leather or full rexine Stitching Section Stitching in all cases Stabstitching (i.e., stitching from the sides of the spine) should be avoided. Covering Moderately thick board, cotton or linen, buckram or strong paper pasted on sides.

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preservation iv) Immensely valuable, and heavy volumes

cover. Heavy boards, Full leather covering.

Binding of journals / periodicals should be such that the pages of the volume open fully and can lie flat for photocopying purposes. The binding should be strong enough to beat the continuous strain in use. If all the issues of a volume, collected together, turn out to be a volume thicker than 4 or so, it would be wiser to split the volume into parts so as to make each part easy to handle, and thus reduce the extent of strain on it on use. Binding of Manuscripts: The essential prerequisite of binding manuscripts is strengthening. This falls within the purview of the Archivist. Earlier, the process consisted of fastening a piece of fine silk-net over the surface by means of carefully prepared chemical-free paste made of cornflour. But now-a-days this process of strengthening of manuscripts has been totally replaced by the lamination process, using cellulose acetate film. After strengthening, the edges of the manuscripts are guarded by pasting strips of fine cloth, on which stitching is done. Thereafter the manuscripts are provided with laced-on paper-board covers and the boards given a suitable covering, as in the case reinforced binging of books and journals. Binding of Maps: In the real sense, maps are not bound; these are rather mounted and protected. Mounting is done be the use of linen or strong muslin, and often laminated with cellulose acetate film or simply varnished. Large, mounted map sheets, for convenient consultation are often folded and pasted on to a board cover cut into a convenient size. The process of Binding has been generally divided into two groups. (i) (ii) Machine Bindings, and Handmade Bindings

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Inspite of revolutionary developments hand binding is still popular as it is a simple method. It needs the following materials. 1. Sewing Materials 2. Reinforcement Materials 3. Pasting Materials 4. Covering Materials 5. Materials for Ornamentation 1. Sewing Material: Thread The durability of binding greatly depends on the quality of the thread used in sewing. The thread should not be too thick or too thin. The thickness of the thread must be related to the thickness of the paper used in the book as well as the number of section (i.e. the thickness of the spine) to be stitched together. If the thread is too thick for a thin volume, it may cause damage to the book itself. On the other hand, if it is too thin for a thick volume, it may cause damage to the book itself. On the other hand, if it is too thin for a thick volume, there is the risk of its breaking, which will turn the binding useless in no time. It is not the thickness alone that lends strength to the thread. The thread should be made of unbleached linen of good quality cotton. It should be unsized and of not less than three plies. It should be strong enough to withstand a breaking load of 2.5 Kgs. for ordinary books and of not less than 5.0 Kgs. for heavy reference volumes as well as for journal volumes of moderate thickness. The thread should be soft and without any manufacturing defect in the form of unevenness and knots; otherwise it may injure the paper at turns and even while stitching. Apart from cotton or linen thread, or silk thread which also is sometimes used, thread made of synthetic fibre is now being used quite extensively. It is stronger than cotton or linen thread for the same thickness; more uniform and smooth; and less affected by dampness or atmospheric pollution.

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2. Reinforcement Materials (a) Thread Gauge and Buckram: To provide strength to the connecting cardboards and to increase the longevity of the binding, a closely woven cotton-mesh is pasted along the spine of the volume by means of glue. This material is known as thread gauge. The fabric used for providing strength to the connecting boards, as well as for reinforcement of the folds of end-papers or spine etc. should be of unsized cotton, which is free from manufacturing defects and loose threads. The fabric should be soft and pliable. The primary characteristics, as recommended by the National Archives of India are:
Type of Cloth Long Cloth Malmal Gauge Thread Count 160 160 40 Thickness (average) 0.15 mm 0.10 mm 0.15 mm

In the case of reinforced library binding of rare volumes, however, a strip of buckram, instead of thread gauge is placed between the edge of the pages and the binding, to hold the pages together firmly. (b) Tapes and Cords: The tapes and cords to be laced into the cardboard should be made of unbleached linen or cotton of good quality, unsized and free from loose threads or other manufacturing defects. If cords are used (this is done only in rare cases of extra heavy volumes), their thickness should be very judiciously selected. The thread gauge, and tapes and cords made of synthetic fibres are now-a-days available in large variety, and are being used instead of those made of cotton, linen or silk. These synthetic products, though more expensive, have been found to be much superior to the traditionally used materials prepared from natural fibres. 3. Adhesives Adhesives play a very vital role in the process of binding. The adhesive should, apart from its binding capacity, be such that it has a smooth and homogenous consistency; should be soft at the raw state to allow free manipulation, and should dry quickly after its application.
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The common varieties of adhesives used in book-binding works are: (a) Starch Paste: Starch paste has been traditionally used by binders. It is cheap, easy to prepare and is excellently suited to and compatible with paper, cloth, various cloth-based products like rexine and buckram, or leather. It is not easy to substitute well-prepared starch paste by better product because of its cheapness and efficacy. Needless, however, to say that the paste should be acid free and have insect-repellant content. To achieve this, 2-3 percent Formalin and 1-3 percent glycerin is mixed with the paste, instead of copper sulphate, which the binders traditionally use. According to Indian Standard: IS 3050(1965), the binders paste should be made from best quality starch, mixed with insecticide conforming to Indian Standard: IS 562(1962), not harmful to man. (b) Dextrine Paste: For repair work, this paste, instead of simple starch paste, can better be used conveniently. Its formulation is as follows:
Dextrine Water Oil of Cloves Saffron Barium Carbonate 2.5 Kg 5.0 Kg 40 Gms 40 Gms 80 Gms

(c) Glues and Gelatines: Glues and gelatines are animal products.

A very satisfactory glue for bookbinder has high gelatine content. A little phenol (Carbolic Acid) to ensure preservation and to render insect-repellant property is added to it. This product is costly and is very sparingly used by binders for typical binding jobs only. Other glues, such as, gum strip and rubber adhesives etc. are used for some miscellaneous binding jobs. (d) Synthetic Adhesives: Although its long-term efficacy is yet to be properly established, it is now considered by many as a very satisfactory substitute for starch or dextrine paste. But it is still being used only for repair and mending jobs in archives and libraries mostly because of its higher cost.

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Covering Materials 1. Paper for Outer Cover: Books issued in publishers casings as well as in other cheaper editions are with paper coverings pasted on boards. Papers used for this purpose are strong and with pleasant finish, on which titles of the books and also other decorative designs are printed. The paper cover is often laminated to give a bright, pleasant and glazy appearance. While the need for rebinding of such a book arises, efforts are made to retain this outer paper cover if it is in a good condition, by providing the volume with a cloth spine, keeping the existing paper covered board intact; otherwise a fresh paper cover or cloth or rexine cover is provided to it. Linson is one of the most commonly and widely used products. It is made of strong fibre as uncalendered paper is manufactured. An appropriate filler is squeezed into it. It is then calendered to create suitable grainings on the surface. It looks like cloth-based product, but is weaker than that. 2. Cloth and Other Fabric-based Products: Cloth and clothbased products, such as rexine and what is known as imitation leather, are now-a-days considered as the most useful and widely used covering material. These products are now coming up as strong competitors to leather. But these are more expensive albeit more durable than these products. Binding cloth and other cloth-based products are now available in large washable, waterproof, oil resistant, and in various colours, grains, thickness and strength. The quality of cloth and cloth-based products is dependent on the strength and finish of the fabric. The fabric-base should be of unsized, evenly woven cloth, but free from any manufacturing defects. It should be soft and pliable. In preparing the cloth-based products like rexine the fabric is first dyed in desired colour and then filled or coated, as the case may be. Filling is done by providing a starch-base. For appropriate coating a mixture of nitrocellulose and castor oil was used earlier, but now-a-days, various kinds of synthetic rexine are used for the purpose. After coating and drying the product

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should be free from stickiness when folded upon itself. It should allow satisfactory finishing and tooling by hand or with embossing machine. 3. Leather: Leather is considered, even today, as an ideal covering material for binding. It is pliable, and suitable for proper finishing, tooling and lettering purposes. It has the quality of being readily moulded to the shape of the book while wet, and by its toughness and flexibility it strengthens the spine of the book without impending its opening. Inspite of all our technological progress, this material used in book-binding is yet to be fully replaced. The leather should, of course, be of good quality, free from surface defects, of uniform thickness and have natural grains on its surface. It should be vegetable tanned, chrome tanned or a combination of both, and should be acid free. Leather made of goats skin is known as morocco leather. This, as well as sheeps skin is commonly used in bookbinding. Morocco leather has long fibres and prominent grains on the surface. The sheep skin also is a quality product, soft, durable and of attractive colour. These two varieties, if properly tanned, are found to be most suitable for bookbinding purpose. The quality and finish should, however, conform to Indian Standard: IS 2960(1964). Specifications for bookbinding leather Apart from Goats skin and sheep skin, calf leather, pig skin, and even seal skin had been used by bookbinders in the past. Calf skin is beautiful and delicate in appearance, but has not been found to be so durable. On the other hand, pig skin or hog skin, though attractive in appearance, is thick and flexible. Seal skin, which was used in certain countries in the past, is very costly because of its scarcity and its too tough to be given proper finish. These products are, therefore, very rarely used in bookbinding now-a-days. 4. Boards and its Varieties: During the early days thin wooden boards were used to give protection to books, especially manuscripts. But

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now-a-days such wooden boards are very rarely used for the purpose, and have been completely replaced by paper-boards. Paper-boards in a large variety are now available to suit all bookbinding needs. Among them the following varieties are most common: Millboards: Millboards are made of jute or hemp wastes or cotton rags. These are highly calendered to make them tough. This type of boards is generally used for standard books and journal volumes. Strawboards: Strawboards, as the name implies is made of straw and is cheaper than millboard. This variety is generally used for binding smaller and cheaper books. The selection of the right kind of millboard and strawboard, according to actual requirement, can be made by keeping in view the following specifications prescribed by the National Archives of India:
Thickness
i) Millboard: Less ii) Strawboard: than 1.55mm 3.55mm 4.5mm

Level of Compression (Substance)

1500 3500 4500 GSM (gm. per. sq. mts)

1.5mm 3.5mm 4.5mm

1000 2000 3000

Splitboards: This is a costly product and is used only for reinforced library binding of very precious volumes. It is made by gluing together two millboard sheets one thick and the other thin, one above the other.

Process
1. Preparation of Material for Binding I. Folding: As has been stated in the earlier Unit, in machine binding the sheets of the printed pages are folded by the folding machine in signatures (Sections) of 16 pages, which is very common, or of 8.12 and 32 pages, depending on the measurement of the board sheet used in printing and on the desired format of the book. In the process of hand binding of a freshly printed book,

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folding is done by hand. In rebinding of an already folded and bound volume, which has to be done by hand only, the process of folding actually means refolding of the existing folding of certain pages had not been done correctly. This is necessary to avoid flaws in the rebound volume. II. Gathering: The signatures (sections) of the folded or refolded sheets, as the case may be, are gathered together, one section below the other is in correct sequence. In the case all superflow pages, such as advertisements etc. are to be discarded, and all wire-stitching, if any, removed at this stage before gathering. III. Collation: To prepare a volume for binding it is important that it is collated properly to ensure correct sequence of pagination, and that no page is either defective or missing. Collation of journal volumes demand additional care, because the pagination of issues of a volume of some journals run in issue-wise separate sequences. In the case of a journal volume it is, therefore, important, not only to be sure that one of the pages are damaged, missing or mutilated, but also to ensure that all the issues of the volume are intact and arranged in correct sequence. It is also important to ensure that each volume has the title-page and the index, the former to be included in the beginning of the volume, and the latter at the end. For those journals which do not publish volume-wise index, the content-page and the index, the former to be included in the beginning of the volume, and the latter at the end. For those journals which do not publish volume-wise index, the content-page of each issue is to be collected, arranged sequentially and included in the volume. IV. Repairing: If any defect is noticed in the collation process, it has to be rectified. The process of repairing may involve: Flattening of Wrinkles: This can be achieved by moistening the wrinkled page with a wet sponge and flattening with a moderately heated iron.

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Guarding: This is to strengthen the folds or the edges of the damaged leaves by pasting thin tissue paper on linen strips. This should, however, be done very judiciously because excessive guarding will produce a much swollen spine, which in turn will produce a weak binding, susceptible to damage in handling. Sizing, washing, and mending: If the surface of paper of an old volume for rebinding appears to be weak, wooly texture, it should be given a sizing; if there are stains, the paper should be washed in an appropriate chemical solution; and if certain leaves are torn, these should be mended. There are prescribed archival techniques to take care of such jobs. Except for routine mending, all such jobs involving precious should be got undertaken under the supervision of a qualified Archivist. 2. Sewing After proper collation and necessary repairing, the collected signatures are then placed on a sewing frame with sheets of end-papers on the top and the bottom. The back of the collected sections are then marked by pencil lines to guide as to the location of each band. This process is called marking up. Instead of simple making up process, sometimes, saw-in method is adopted. In this process saw-cuts area made on the back to accommodate the bands, the sewing thread and its knots. This method is generally avoided now-a-days because saw-cuts weaken the back to an extent, and what is more important, saw-cut stitching hampers opening of the volume right up to the back. Generally, for a book of normal thickness and spine length, five bands are used at equal distance. For sewing, the marked-up sections are placed on the platform of the Sewing Frame. The Sewing Frame consists of a bed with two reprights and a cro-bar, which can be raised and lowered as required. These are all made of wood. To set up for sewing, as many loops of cards, called lay cords as these are to be bands, are threaded to the crosspiece and fastened to form the brands.

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On the platform of the Sewing Frame, the first section is so placed that its spine presses against the vertically set records, each of which must coincide with each pencil marking on the spine. The needle carrying the stitching thread is carried in and out of the section, starting with a kettle stitch and passing round each upright cord. The second section is then placed on the first (which has already been stitched), and stitched the same way, tying it with the loose end of the beginning of the first section with a kettle stitch. The third and all the subsequent sections are stitched in the same way, one after another. Thus, all the sewn sections of the volume pile up on the platform of the Sewing Frame. After stitching of each section, it is knocked down by a loaded stick so that even tension may be had al through the sewing and kettle stitched at the ends. 3. Forwarding: Cutting and Trimming When all the signatures are sewn, as above, the cords are cut, so that short lengths extend at each side. These are to be placed into the boards later. These short lengths of cords extending at each side are called slips. The volume is then placed on, what is called, a laying or cutting press. Keeping the volume properly clamped and under pressure, its edges are neatly trimmed. 4. Rounding and Backing After trimming of the edges, the volume is clamped in such a way that the spine projects over the edge of the press. It is then hammered to give the spine a smooth round shape. This backing process is to create a groove on both sides of the back. The depth of these grooves should be just enough to accommodate the thickness of the covering boards, to be used. This rounding and backing processes are meant to control swelling of the spine of the volume caused by the stitching process. 5. Marbling, Gilding, Colouring of Edges In the earlier days, these processes were applied at this stage, to give a pleasant look to the bound volume.

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Marbling: Edges of the volume were dipped in prepared colours, mixed with gum. After the excess gum was wiped off the colour dried up, the edges were burnished. This process gave a pleasant look to the edges. Gilding: The edges of the volume were sized heavily with a preparation of albumen on which thin sheets of gold-leaf were laid. When dry, it was burnished to give a bright golden look to the edges of the volume. Coloured Edges: Aniline colours mixed with alcohol were applied to the edges of the volume under pressure. When dry the coloured edges were burnished. Today, these processes of decorating the edges of the volume are applied very rarely and if so, only in very special cases. 6. Fixing Head-bands While pulling out a volume from the shelf, the user does so by applying his figures at the top edge of the spine of the volume. This gradually reduced the strength of the top-edge of the spine. It starts sagging and may eventually crack. To protect the volume against this kind of damage to the binding, headbands are affixed at the top and the bottom of the spine. These are generally made of strong cotton, or coloured silk cords. Such headbands were very ornamental in the past, but now-a-days these are not as decorative as before. 7. Cutting and Attaching Boards, Gluing Two pieces of boards of selected quality, one for each side of the volume, are now cut to size. The size of the pieces should be such that there are projected ends at the head (top), foot (bottom), and fore edge. The pieces of board so cut are called squared. The board-pieces are now laid on the book and are marked with pencil according to the position where the slips (vertically ser cords fixed to the spine: see sewing) are to be inserted. Pair of holes is made by the binders bodkin for the purpose, at appropriate locations so that the slip-ends can be inserted (laced) through them. The free ends of the inserted slips are

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then cut to appropriate short lengths and hammered, so that these are riveted into the board. If, instead of cord, tapes are used, it becomes necessary to use split boards. The tape ends are inserted into the layers of the split board, which in turn are glued together, with the tape ends embedded in between the two layers. Gluing up: After attaching the boards, the back alongwith the boards is screwed up on the laying press and hot, but not very thick, glue is applied to the spine in such a way that the glue reaches every section uniformly. 8. Covering After the boards have been fixed to the volume and its spine glued and dried, the boards are covered wholly or partially by leather, cloth, rexine, leather-like plastic or paper, whichever is selected as per requirement. If the back is fully covered along with full, or of the cardboard, the binding, depending on the covering material used, is known as Quarter, half and full leather, cloth, rexine (etc.) bound volume. Even in case of volumes other than full-leather binding (having or leather bindings) the corners of the cardboard are given leather covering for better protection of the corners, which are susceptible to damage. If the covering material is not attached directly to the spine we have a bound volume with a hollow back. Otherwise we have the volume with flexible back. Flexible back is better, because it will make the pages of the two halves of the open volume to lie flat. 9. Finishing: Lettering and Ornamentation This is the last step, where the end-papers are posted on to the cardboards and thereafter the bound book is put under some pressure so that a smooth and curve less binding is ensure. Now-a-days there is another method of lettering by inscribing individual letters by an electric stylus. In this process, the leather is smoothened by a heated polishing iron on its surface and the surface cleaned before lettering.

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STUDY OF A.N. SINHA INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL STUDIES AS A CASE STUDY

The A.N. Sinha Institute Of Social Studies was admitted to the University in 1924 and gives instruction up to the examination for the degree of Social Studies. The college had its humble beginnings in the year 1886 as a Centre for imparting survey training to pleaders. The British Government of the day decided to establish four centres imparting Technical Education in India. Consequent to this policy, the survey school as upgraded to BIHAR SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING along with the opening of Bengal School of Engineering at Shivpur, Madras School of Engineering, Guindy and the Poorkee School of Engineering, Rorkee in about the year 1990. The honourable zamindar of Muzaffarpur, Sri Lutf Ali Khan donated the present building and surrounding for housing the Bihar School of Engineering. In 1924, the school was elevated to the status of a degree level college and come to known as BIHAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PATNA. Initially the college started to impart the degree level courses in Civil Engineering only. Later degree level in Mechanical, Electrical, Electronics, Engineering and Architecture streams were added. Post Graduate curriculum was started by the Patna University from 1976. However, independent P.G. department in Civil, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering were created by the University in 1996. The history of the NIT, Patna is as old as the history of Technical Education in Indian Subcontinent. Apart from its normal teaching function the institute was instructed with important responsibilities by the nation. During the First World War, it was assigned the task of providing trained personnel through the industrial programme. The expertise of BCE, Patna solved many problem faced by the state following the 1934 earthquake during the second world war, the institute shouldered the responsibility of repairs of war equipments and the workshop developed for the purpose, houses the Mechanical Engineering Department today. After independence, the challenge

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of holding the first general elections was shared by the institute in the form of affording repairs and fabrication of ballot boxes. During the last century, the institute has produced many distinguished Engineering personnel and products which are visible in different leading organisation, both within the country and many a developed and developing countries of the world, in position of high status. It is in light of its glorious past and its vibrant present that the college stands elevated the 18th National Institute of Technology of the country. Library Collection The library subscribes more than 250 Learned Journals mainly based on Science and Technology. It has a rich collection of books on Science & Technology including Chemistry, Mathematics, Physics, Chemical

Engineering, Civil Engineering, Textile Engineering, Biochemical and Biomedical Engineering. Total collection of the library is as under: Books Bound Vol. Jls. Standards Technical Reports Thesis Pamphlets Microfilms Video Cassettes Compact Discs Total Membership The library allows the membership to the students, teachers and employees of the institute. The institute library is fully computerised, therefore, the members are issued bar coded patron card. The faculty is entitled to borrow 12 books for a semester period. The students can get 3 books for 14 days. 87,531 20,332 15,340 10,935 12,350 11,375 5,138 1,265 15,131 2,66,928

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Corporate Membership The industrial and corporate houses can become Corporate Members of the Library for availing the services of the central Library on making an annual payment of Rs. 5,000.00 and a onetime security deposit (refundable) of Rs. 5,000.00. The Corporate Members are allowed consultation facilities as well as other library services. Corporate Members may also avail inter-library loan facilities through their libraries to the maximum of two books at a time for a period of 15 days. The Head, Readers services Division and the Head, Library Services reserve the right to extend the borrowing facilities to the corporate members. Individual Membership: The Library has recently launched individual membership for private consultant and professionals who are not affiliated to any corporate organization and thus are not eligible for corporate membership. The individual membership would only be offered to qualified professionals in engineering and technology and academicians after their applications are scrutinizing by the senior Library Officers Committee. The Individual Membership is available against annual payment of Rs. 5,000.00. The Individual Members are allowed consultation facilities. They are also allowed to use other library services. However, individual members will not be offered borrowing facility. Return of Documents Documents checked out from the Library should be returned at the circulation desk, during its working hours, i.e. 9.00 PM on any working day. Books issued through the Text Book section should be returned in the Text Book section only. Duplicate Bar-coded Reserving the Documents A library user can reserve book currently out on loan by requesting staff at the circulation counter. Notifications for availability of reserved books are placed on the Library notice board.

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Loss of Bar-coded patron card The loss of Bar-coded patron card should be reported patron card can be issued, after validity of his lost Bar-coded patron card expires. Borrowers shall be responsible for any loss or misuse of their Bar coded patron card. Loss of Books The borrower is required either to replace the books with a recent edition, if available or pay its cost. Overdue Charges Overdue charges at the rates mentioned below are charged for late return of the books: *Rs. 1.00 per day for the books issued from General section *Rs. 0.50 per hour for the books issued from textbook section. Textbook and Book Bank The Library maintains a separate collection of textbooks which can be consulted within the Library premises on deposition of Identity Card / Textbook Ticket at the Text-book counter for a limited period not exceeding 90 minutes. Text Books can also be issued for overnight loan after 3.00 PM against Text Book ticket which should be returned the next day within two hours of opening of the Library, failing which an overdue charge of Rs. 0.50. per hour per volume will be charged. Textbooks can be reserved for consultation or for overnight issue between 9.00 AM and 12.00 Noon n working days. A database of books available at the text Book section and Book Bank collection is available for consultation at the Text Book section. The Book Bank is housed in the Text Book section of the central Library. The collection consists of prescribed text-books in paperback editions costing not less than Rs.20.00 and not more than Rs. 800.00. The text-books to be included in this collection are recommended by the Heads of the Department / Centre of the Institute. Students whose parents income does not exceed Rs. 2500.00 per month are given preference over others in grant of books from the book Bank. The Borrowers have to pay 10% of the cost of books as rental

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charge per semester. The scheduled caste and scheduled tribes students are given this facility free of charge. The book bank scheme is basically for undergraduates only. Reference Services and General Assistance Readers may approach the reference and Membership Desk for information or any assistance in the use of the Library collections and services. Users may contact computer applications division for computerized services; CD ROMbased search services and web-based electronic journals. For special information requirements, users may also reach incharges of readers service / serials division or the librarian. The library maintains a separate reference collection consisting of encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks technical data, almanacs, atlases, bibliographies, etc. The reference collection is organized in the following subcategories: RL AT Atlases RL BIB Bibliographies RL DY Directories RL DIC Dictionaries RL ENC Encyclopaedias RL HB Hand Books RL TD Technical Data The catalogue for journals is located on the second floor. The classified part of the serials catalogue provides a reference to the class number which is used for shelving the bound volumes of journals. The Libsys currently provides the current journals subscribed in print along with the issue received in the library. Shortly, the library would also provide the holding information about all the journals.

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FINDINGS
Preservation and conservation is an important work of any library because it is primarily related with the protecting of books and other reading materials available in any library. It has always been one of the primary aspects of librarianship. The collection of reading material under the custody of a librarian should be good, healthy and usable conditions. For this he/she may be adequate knowledge of preservation and conservation. The records of past knowledge in the form of books which constitute natural resources need special attention of care and preservation. Preservation involves a great deal of planning even from the beginning of the library of the library foundation. In this age of technological advancement, a number of sophisticated methods of preservation and conservation have been invented and most of the western countries have adopted in their libraries with a view to preserve the collections. In our study all the effective methods of preservation have been discussed exhaustively. We have also discussed restoration of library materials. Books are for use Ranganathans first law of Library Science emphasises on the dissemination of library materials. Paper dissemination of library materials is possible only when the document available in any library will be in a good condition. The demands of proper preservation and conservation of library materials is so high and the library should have to maintain the demands. On the other hand while doing preservation and conservation one must keep the economic aspect and budget of the library in the mind. One should preserve and conserve these materials which are in regular use and having the scholarly value for future use. We have already discussed the nature and characteristics of books and manuscripts kept in the library. We have also discussed the nature of Palm leaves and Birch Barks. These types of writing materials are in use centuries before the advent of paper. There are considerable number of collections of Indological and oriental literature in libraries, museums and archives, spread all over the century. A significant part of these collections
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consist of Palm Leaf and Birch Bark manuscripts. Such manuscripts collections are also held in temples and monasteries and even by individuals as their personal collection. Except in a few established libraries, museums and archives, these manuscripts are mostly lying scattered and uncared for. In some cases these are stored in an unscientific manner which has already caused, or will eventually cause, serious damage to them in the long run. Unless suitable remedial measures are taken and the already damaged manuscripts are properly repaired and stored caused to them will eventually be beyond salvage. And this will be a great loss to one of our most precious cultural heritage. We have discussed that our libraries deals with books and archives collections which are paper-based materials. As per their characteristics these have natural deterioration. Environmental factors i.e. heat, humidity, light, air pollutions and insects are the major enemies of the library materials. Beside the handling and display of materials cause the decay of library materials. Primarily a library constitutes books as well as printed non-books materials which are paper based. Beside these, there are constituents such as audio-visual tapes and discs, films and photographs etc, which need to be preserved. These materials also needs ideal environment to preserve them for long period and the preventive measures that need to be taken against each harmful and damaging environmental factors has been exhaustively discuss in the study. Fungus and book worm are more harmful for books since these species make their nests inside the book where they reproduce and grow, causing damage. The feeders like cockroach or silver fish hide outside the book and cause damage from the surface. In the other side the terminal make tunnels which run parallel with mud covered edges, while bookworm make pin hole galleries deep down into the pages of the lext. These biological infestation and subsequent damage to library collections can be kept in check by providing a clean, neat and tidy storage environment. As soon as any

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manifestation or damage is noticed, which can be easily recognised by a few symptoms, curative steps should be undertaken. We have already discussed that fumigation is necessary when the cause is infested and this is done in an appropriate vault with selective and specific chemicals. The longevity and lasting of books and documents depends to a great extent on the quality of papers and its bindings. In the present day it has been observed that the quality of paper are sub-standard and poor and the quality of ink used in many books and documents are not to the standard and good which causes rapid decay and age has wrought deleterious effect. Beside such damage many books and documents are spoiled and damaged by injudicious use of chemicals for controlling biological pests or ill devised preventive and restorative conservation techniques. Further use of poor grade binding materials, adhesive etc. adds to this damage. During our study, we made contact to the several librarians and discussed the matter especially on preservation and conservation. It was found that no one is serious on this topic and hardly anyone has a future plan. Fumigation is a process which is adopted by the library to kill the biological pests in material. Books having active fungus, book worm need fumigation. But in the course of study we hardly find that any library is using fumigation chamber to protect the books from the biological hazards. For conserving the library materials from the attack of biological pests, a cool and congenial climate is essential. It is desirable to use only airy and well lighted room for library stacks. During the planning of library building these important factors are not considered primarily. Our study is rest on a case study of A.N Sinha Institute of Social Studies an College of Social Science. It possesses more than three lakhs of books and periodicals on science and technology. More than thousands of students are its users who use regularly. But the preventive measures taken by the library is so poor. No regular pest control is used for the save of books to decay and natural deterioration.

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CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

Preservation and conservation of books and other library materials have become the important factor of a library. In the light of rapid technological advancement in the field of book production and its storage, the library should also take care and considerable attention should also be given to preserve in its natural form from the decay. To enable a librarian, the basic requirement of preservation, he should have an adequate knowledge of preservation. Our endeavour in this regard in this study is to elaborately discuss all the possible aspects. It will also provide a general outline of the various preservation and conservation methods and techniques which can make possible to keep the library damage proof. Traditionally, libraries and archives independently have

undertaken activities to preserve their collections by providing proper housing, protection from fire and theft, library binding, and occasional repair and restoration. Now libraries with custody of the nation's research collections realize that a greater commitment of library resources is required to preserve their very large, deteriorating collections. The single, but monumental, problem of deterioration of library collections caused by embrittlement of paper alone has drawn considerable national attention along with additional Perhaps the least obvious (and most commonly overlooked) problem with the effectiveness of any preservation technology that reproduces or alters the original, no matter how "faithful" the reproduction or unobtrusive the alteration, is that the scholar is left with information less reliably accurate than that in the unaltered original format. Consequently, a preservation strategy for artifacts might include a guideline that no treatment should be undertaken unless the risk of damage from delay or inaction is judged to be the greater risk. A preservation treatment must be appropriate and economical. Its appropriateness is measured by its ability to capture all information of significance. The scholar must be prepared to identify now what information is significant for current and future study in order to ensure that it is captured. Can a scholar always tell a conservator which attributes of an artifact are
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significant and must be preserved? The remote possibility of identifying all artifactual information that will in the future be significant about a book or document, combined with the inherent compromises between information saved and information lost during the preservation treatment process, appears to argue further for a preservation strategy to restrict extensive preservation treatment only to books and documents that have artifactual significance and that are in urgent need of treatment. Some treatments used to preserve materials in their original formats are very expensive. "Full conservation," or restoration, including chemical treatment and repair done to minimize its visual intrusiveness, can cost several hundred to more than a thousand dollars per book or document, depending on extensiveness of treatment. Relatively few artifacts can justify the costs of extensive preservation treatment but, fortunately, not all artifacts in need of preservation require extensive treatment. Most artifact treatments undertaken in many institutional preservation programs are minor, but are sufficient to enable the continued safe use of artifacts at a per item cost of less than fifty dollars. The vast majority of all artifacts could be preserved without treatment and at low cost through preservation measures to reduce their rates of deterioration and wear, thereby extending their lives and minimizing the number of artifacts in need of treatment at any one time. Controlling the environment (temperature, relative humidity, air impurities, and light levels) reduces the rate of deterioration; protective enclosures mitigate the effects of a poor environment or housing arrangement and reduce wear; sensible handling and use practices help preserve artifacts for many decades of continued research. Soon chemical treatment, 'mass deacidification," will be available to reduce the rate of chemically caused deterioration. These measures could be the major components of a strategy for artifact preservation, with extensive treatment as a relatively minor component. As with preservation of all library and archival materials, a strategy for preservation of books and documents in original format needs to

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encompass a justification for resources, methodologies for selection (assuming fewer resources than needs), and a range of preservation technologies able to match problems with solutions. Certainly artifacts could be claimed to have scholarly value sufficient to justify significant resources for their preservation. A preservation strategy could be crafted to meet the needs of both the most important artifacts and those most at risk. But the success of the effort will depend upon the involvement of scholars and librarians not only in identifying books and documents that must be preserved in original format, but in fully understanding the nature of the preservation problem to be solved and in developing a strategy for its solution.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lough, Eric A: Book-Binding for Libraries. London: Association of Assistant Librarians, 1957. Corderory, John: Book binding for beginners. London: Watson-Guptill, 1967. Horton, Carolyn: Cleaning and Preserving Binding and related materials. Chicago American Library Association. Johnson, Arthur W: Manual of Bookbinding. London: Thames and Hudson, 1978. Lock, RN: Bookbinding: In London, Thomas ed. The Encyclopaedia of Librarianship. Bureau of Indian Standards: Code of Practice for Reinforced Binding of Library books and periodicals. Henderson, Kathryn Luther: Conserving and Preserving Library materials. Urbana Champaign: University of IIlinois, 1983. Johnson, Arthur W: The Practical Guide to book repair and conservation. London: Thames and Hudson, 1983. Weihs, Jean, [et al]: Non book materials. The organisation of integrated collection, 2nd ed. Canadian Library Association. Charabarti, B.: Library collection: Selection and Preservation. Calcutta: World Press, 1991. Chunha, G.D.M.: Conservation of Library Material 2nd ed. Metuchem: Scare Crow Press, 1971.

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