Carbohydrates, Amino Acids & Polymers IIT Theory

1.
IIT-JEE Syllabus
Carbohydrates: Classification mono, di and polysaccharides (Glucose, Sucrose and
Starch only); hydrolysis of sucrose. Amino acids and Peptides: General structure and
physical properties. Properties and uses of some important polymers (natural rubber,
cellulose, nylon, teflon, PVC), Dyes and their application.
2. Carbohydrates
2.1 Introduction
Old Definition: The group of compounds known as carbohydrates received their general
name because of early observations that they often have the formula Cx(H2O)y - that is, they
appear to be hydrates of carbon.
Limitations of the old definition: The above definition could not survive long due to the
following reasons:
i) A number of compounds such as rhamnose, (C6H12O5) and deoxyribose (C5H10O4) are
known which are carbohydrates by their chemical behaviour but cannot be represented
as hydrates of carbon.
ii) There are other substances like formaldehyde (HCHO, CH2O) and acetic acid
[CH3COOH, C2 (H2O)2] which do not behave like carbohydrates but can be represented
by the general formula, Cx(H2O)y.
New definition: Carbohydrates are defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy
ketones or substances which give these on hydrolysis and contain at least one chiral carbon
atom. It may be noted here that aldehydic and ketonic groups in carbohydrates are not
present as such but usually exist in combination with one of the hydroxyl group of the
molecule in the form of hemiacetals and hemiketals respectively.
2.2 Classification
The carbohydrates are divided into three major classes depending upon whether or not they
undergo hydrolysis, and if they do, on the number of products formed.
i) Monosaccharides: The monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy
ketones which cannot be decomposed by hydrolysis to give simpler carbohydrates.
Examples are glucose and fructose, both of which have molecular formula, C6H12O6.
C6H12O6 + H2O

+
H
No reaction
glucose or
fructose
ii) Oligosaccharides: The oligosaccharides (Greek, oligo, few) are carbohydrates which
yield a definite number (2-9) of monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis. They include,
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a) Disaccharides, which yield two monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis. Examples
are sucrose and maltose, both of which have molecular formula, C12H22O11.
C12H22O11 + H2O

+
H
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
sucrose
glucose
fructose
C12H22O11 + H2O

+
H
2C6H12O6
Maltose
glucose
b) Trisaccharides, which yield three monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis. Example
is, raffinose, which has molecular formula, C18H32O16.
C18H32O16 + 2H2O

+
H
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 + C6H22O6
raffinose
glucose
fructose
galactose
c) Tetrasaccharides, etc.
iii) Polysaccharides: The polysaccahrides are carbohydrates of high molecular weight
which yield many monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis. Examples are starch and
cellulose, both of which have molecular formula, (C6H10O5)n.
(C6H10O5)n + nH2O

+
H
nC6H12O6
starch
glucose
In general, the monosaccharides and oligosaccharides are crystalline solids, soluble in
water and sweet to taste. They are collectively known as sugars. The polysaccharides,
on the other hand, are amorphous, insoluble in water and tasteless. They are called non-
sugars.
The carbohydrates may also be classified as either reducing or non-reducing sugars. All
those carbohydrates which have the ability to reduce Fehlings solution and Tollens
reagent are referred to as reducing sugars, while others are non-reducing sugars. All
monosaccharides and the disaccharides other than sucrose are reducing sugars.
3. Monosaccharides
The monosaccharides are the basis of carbohydrate chemistry since all carbohydrates are
either monosaccharides or are converted into monosaccharides on hydrolysis. The
monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones. There are, therefore,
two main classes of monosaccharides.
1. The Aldoses, which contain an aldehyde group
) H
||
O
C (
2. The Ketoses, which contain a ketone group (
||
O
C
)
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The aldoses and ketoses are further divided into sub-groups on the basis of the number of
carbon atoms in their molecules, as trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, etc. To classify a
monosaccharide completely, it is necessary to specify both, the type of the carbonyl group
and the number of carbon atoms present in the molecule. Thus monosaccharides are
generally referred to as aldotrioses, aldotetroses, aldopentoses, aldohexoses, ketohexoses,
etc.
The aldoses and ketoses may be represented by
the following general formulas.
H
Aldoses
(n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
C
|
(CHOH)
n
|
CH
2
OH
O
Ketoses
(n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4)
CH
2
OH
|
C = O
|
(CHOH)
n
|
CH
2
OH
Glucose and fructose are specific examples of an aldose and a ketose.
H
Glucose (an aldohexose)
C
|
H C OH
|
HO C H
|
H C OH
|
H C OH
|
CH2OH
O CH2OH
|
C = O
|
HO C H
|
H C OH
|
H C OH
|
CH2OH
fructose
(a ketohexose)
3.1 Trioses
D and L Terminology: The simplest of all
carbohydrates that fit the definition we have
given for carbohydrates are the trioses,
glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone.
Glyceraldehyde is aldotriose, and
dihydroxyacetone is a ketotriose.
Glyceraldehyde
(an aldotriose)
CHO
|
*CHOH
|
CH2OH
Dihydroxyacetone
(a ketotriose)
CH2OH
|
C = O
|
CH2OH
Glyceraldehyde contains one asymmetric
carbon atom (marked by an asterisk) and can
thus exist in two optically active forms, called
the D-form and the L-form. Clearly, the two
forms are mirror images that cannot be
superimposed, that is they are enantiomers.
H
CHO
OH
O H
D-Glyceraldehyde
O H
CHO
H
O H
L-Glyceraldehyde
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D-Glyceraldehyde
O
||
1
CH
|
H
2
C OH
|
3
CH2OH
L-Glyceraldehyde
O
||
1
CH
|
HO
2
C H
|
3
CH2OH
D Means on
the right
L Means on
the Left
The two forms of glyceraldehyde are especially important because the more complex
monosaccharides may be considered to be derived from them. They serve as a reference
point for designating and drawing all other monosaccharides. In carbohydrate chemistry, the
Fischer projection formulas are always written with the aldehyde or ketone groups at the top
of the structure. By definition, if the hydroxyl group on the asymmetric carbon atom farthest
from aldehyde or ketone group projects to the right, the compound is a member of the D-
family. If the hydroxyl group on the farthest asymmetric carbon projects to the left, the
compound is a member of the L-family. The maximum number of optical isomers of a sugar
is related to the number of asymmetric carbon atoms in the molecule and may be calculated
by the following simple equation.
Maximum Number of Optical Isomers = 2
n,
where n = the number of asymmetric carbon
atoms.
Since glyceraldehyde contains only one asymmetric carbon atom, the number of optical
isomer is 2
1
. We know that 2
1
is = 2, and we have seen that there are indeed two different
glyceraldehydes.
3.2 Aldotetroses
If we examine the general formula of an aldotetrose,
we see that they contain two asymmetric carbon
atoms (marked by asterisks).
This means that 2
2
or 4 optical isomers are
possible. They may be represented as the following
two pairs:
1. CHO
|
2. *CHOH
|
3. *CHOH
|
4. CH2OH
an aldotetrose
CHO
|
H C OH
|
H C OH
|
CH2OH
CHO
|
HO C H
|
HO C H
|
CH2OH
Mirror images (recemic pair)
D ()-erythrose L (+)-erythrose
CHO
|
HO C H
|
H C OH
|
CH2OH
CHO
|
H C OH
|
HO C H
|
CH2OH
Mirror images (recemic pair)
D ()-threose L (+)-threose
All four isomers have been prepared synthetically. The D- and L-erythrose are mirror
images, that is, they are enantiomers. They have exactly the same degree of rotation but in
opposite directions. Equal amounts of the two would constitute a racemic mixture, that is, a
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mixture that would allow a plane-polarised light to pass through the solution unchanged but
could be separated into detrorotatory and laevorotatory isomers. The same comments hold
for D- and L-threose. However, D-erythrose and L-threose are not images, that is, they are
diastereomers (optical isomers that are not mirror images are called diastereomers), and the
degree of rotation of each would probably differ.
3.3 Aldopentoses
If we examine the general formula of an aldopentose, we see that
they contain three asymmetric carbon atoms.
This means that 2
3
or 8 optical isomers are possible. These are:
- D() lyxose, L(+)-lyxose, D() xylose, L()xylose, D() arabinose,
L(+)-arabinose, D()-ribose, L(+)-ribose
1. CHO
|
2. *CHOH
|
3. *CHOH
|
4. *CHOH
|
5. CH2OH
an aldopentose
3.4 Aldohexoses
If we examine the general formula of aldohexose, we see that it
contains four asymmetric carbon atoms. This means that 2
4
or 16
optical isomers are possible. D and L forms of altrose, allose
glucose, mannose, galactose, talose, arabinose and idose
Only three of the sixteen possible aldohexoses are found in nature
(all sixteen isomers have been prepared synthetically). They are D-
glucose, D- mannose, and D-galactose. No one of these three optical
iosmers is a mirror image of any of the others, so all three are
diastereomers of each other.
1. CHO
|
2. *CHOH
|
3. *CHOH
|
4. *CHOH
|
5. *CHOH
|
6. CH2OH
an aldohexose
3.5 Epimers
A pair of diastereomers that differ
only in the configuration about of a
single carbon atom are said to be
epimers. e.g D(+)- glucose is
epimeric with D(+) -mannose and
D(+) -galactose as shown below:
D (+)-Galactose
C
|
H C OH
|
HO C H
|
HO C H
|
H C OH
|
CH2OH
O
H
C
|
H C OH
|
HO C H
|
H C OH
|
H C OH
|
CH2OH
O
H
C
|
HO C H
|
HO C H
|
H C OH
|
H C OH
|
CH2OH
O
H
D (+)-Glucose D (+)-Mannose
Epimers Epimers
3.6 Cyclic structure of monosaccharides
We know that aldoses (and ketoses) react with alcohols to give first hemiacetals (and
hemiketals) and then acetals (and ketals), i.e.,
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C = O + ROH C OR

+ROH
C OR
|
H
|
H
|
H
OR
|
OH
|
H2O
Aldehyde
Hemiacetal Acetal
C = O + ROH C OR

+ROH
C OR
OR
|
OH
|
H2O
Ketone
Hemiketal ketal
|
Since monosaccharides contain a number of hydroxyl
groups and an aldehyde or a keto group, therefore, any one
of the OH groups (usually C4 or C5 in aldohexoses and C5
or C6 in ketohexoses) may combine with the aldehyde or the
keto group to form intramolecular hemiacetal or hemiketal.
O
O
furan
pyran
As a result, the open chain formulae do not represent the actual structures of the
monosaccharides. Their actual structures are cyclic involving five or six membered rings
containing an oxygen atom. The five membered ring containing one oxygen atom because
of its similarity with furan is called the furanose form and the six membered ring containing
one oxygen atom because of its resemblance with pyran is called the pyranose form. In nut
shell, all the monosaccharides (pentoses and hexoses) in the free state always exist in the
pyranose form. However, in the combined state some monosaccharides such as ribose, 2-
deoxyribose, fructose etc., usually exist in the furanose form.
3.7 Cyclic structure of Glucose Anomers

H
1
C OH
|
H
2
C OH
|
HO
3
C H
|
H
4
C OH
|
H
5
C
|

6
CH
2
OH
H
1
C = O
|
H
2
C OH
|
HO
3
C H
|
H
4
C OH
|
H
5
C O H
|

6
CH
2
OH
HO
1
C H
|
H
2
C OH
|
HO
3
C H
|
H
4
C OH
|
H
5
C
|

6
CH
2
OH
-D(+)-Glucose or
-D(+)-Glucopyranose
O O
D(+)-Glucose
(Open chain form)
-D(+)-Glucose or
-D(+)-Glucopyranose
(I)
(II)

We have discussed above that monosaccharides have cyclic hemiacetal or hemiketal
structures. To illustrate, let us first consider the example of D-glucose. During hemiacetal
formation C5 OH of glucose combines with the C1 aldehydic group. As a result, C1
becomes chiral or asymmetric and thus has two possible arrangements of H and OH groups
around it. In other words, D-glucose exists in two stereoisomeric forms, i.e., -D-glucose and
-D-glucose as shown below:
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In -D-glucose, the OH group at C1 is towards right while in -D-glucose, the OH group at C1
is towards left. Such a pair of stereoisomers which differ in configuration only around C1 are
called anomers and the C1 carbon is called Anomeric carbon (or glycosidic carbon. The
cyclic structures of monosaccharides can be better represented by Haworth Projection
formulae. To get such a formula for any monosaccharide (say -and -D-glucose), draw a
hexagon with its oxygen atom at the upper right hand corner. Place all the groups (on C1, C2,
C3 and C4) which are present on left hand side in structures I and II, above the plane of the
ring and all those groups on the right hand side below the plane of the ring.
The terminal CH2OH group is always placed above the plane of the hexagon ring (in D-
series). Following the above procedure, Haworth Projection Formulae for -D-glucose (I)
and -D-glucose (II) are obtained as shown below:
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
H OH
3
4
H
1
2
H
H
I
-D-Glucose
or
-D(+)-Glucopyranose
OH
OH
H
H OH
3
4
H
1
2
H
H
II
-D-Glucose
or
-D(+)-Glucopyranose
H
5 5
OH
6
CH2OH 6
3.8 Cyclic structure of Fructose
Like glucose, fructose also has a cyclic structure. Since fructose contains a keto group, it
forms an intramolecular hemiketal. In the hemiketal formation, C5 OH of the fructose
combines with C2-keto group. As a result, C2 becomes chiral and thus has two possible
arrangements of CH2OH and OH group around it. Thus, D-fructose exists in two
stereoisomeric forms, i.e., -D-fructopyranose and -D fructopyranose. However in the
combined state (such as sucrose), fructose exists in furanose form as shown below:
HO C
2

1
CH2OH
|
H
3
C OH
|
H
4
C OH
|
H
5
C
|
6
CH2OH

-D-Fructofuranose
O
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
1
1
2
4 3
5
6
CH2OH
1
H H
H
3.9 Mutarotation
The two stereoisomeric forms of glucose, i.e., -D-glucose and -D-glucose exist in
separate crystalline forms and thus have different melting points and specific roations. For
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example -D-glucose has a m.p. of 419 K with a specific rotation of +112 while -D-
glucose has a m.p. of 424 K and has a specific rotation of +19. However, when either of
these two forms is dissolved in water and allowed to stand, it gets converted into an
equilibrium mixture of -and -forms through a small amount of the open chain form.
-D-Glucose
(36%)
Open chain form
(0.02%)

-D-Glucose
(64%)
As a result of this equilibrium, the specific rotation of a freshly prepared solution of -D-
glucose gradually decreases from of +112 to +52.7 and that of -D-glucose gradually
increases from +19 to +52.7.
-D-Glucose
D
] [
= +112
Equilibrium mixture
D
] [
= +52.7

-D-Glucose
D
] [
= +19
Where D
] [
= specific rotation
This change in specific rotation of an optically active compound in solution with time, to an
equilibrium value, is called mutarotation. During mutarotation, the ring opens and then
recloses either in the inverted position or in the original position giving a mixture of -and--
forms. All reducing carbohydrates, i.e., monosaccharides and disacchardies (maltose,
lactose etc.) undergo mutarotation in aqueous solution.
3.10 Reactions of Glucose
a) With HI/P: It undergoes reduction to form n-hexane while with sodium amalgam it forms
sorbitol.
3 4 2 3
P / HI
CH ) CH ( CH e cos Glu
n-hexane
OH CH ) CHOH ( OH CH e cos Glu
2 4 2
Hg / Na

s-orbitol
b) With H2O: It forms neutral solution
c) With Hydroxylamine (NH2OH)
HC = NOH
|
(CHOH)
4
|
CH
2
OH
Glucose oxime

OH NH
2
e cos Glu
d) With HCN: It form addition product cyanohydrin
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CN
|
(CHOH)
5
|
CH
2
OH
Glucose cyanohydrin

HCN
e cos Glu
e) Oxidation: Glucose on oxidation with Br2 gives gluconic acid which on further oxidation
with HNO3 gives glucaric acid
COOH
|
(CHOH)
4
|
CH
2
OH
Gluconic acid

O H / Br
2 2
Glucose
3
HNO
COOH
|
(CHOH)
4
|
COOH
Glucaric acid
Strong
oxidation
f) With Tollen reagent and Fehling solution. Glucose forms silver mirror and red ppt. of
Cu2O respectively.
g) With acetic anhydride. In presence of pyridine glucose forms pentaacetate.
CHO
|
(CHOCOCH3)4
|
CH2OCOCH3
Glucose pentaacetate

O ) CO CH ( 5
2 3
e cos Glu
C5H5N
h) With phenylhydrazine: it forms glucosazone
CH
2
OH
|
(CHOH)
3
|
C = NNHC
6
H
5
|
CH = NNHC
6
H
5
(Glucosazone)

2 5 6
NHNH H C
e cos Glu
C
5
H
5
N
i) With conc. HCl acid: Glucose gives laevulinic acid
O H HCOOH COOH CH CH CO CH e cos Glu
2 2 2 3
HCl . Conc
+ +
Laevulinic acid
j) Glycoside formation: When a small amount of gaseous HCl is passed into a solution of
D (+) glucose in methanol , a reaction takes place that results in the formation of amomeric
methyl acetals.
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O
H
OH
OH
H
HO
H
CH2OH
1
H
H
5
OCH3
Methyl -D-glucopyranoside
+
Methyl -D-glucopyranoside
HCl
OH CH
form) Pyranose (
3
Glucose ) ( D +
Carbolydrate acetals, genrally are called glycosides and an acetal of glucose is called
glucoside.
Other reactions
a) Kiliani - Fischer Synthesis: - This is a method of lengthening the carbon chain of an
aldose. To illustrate, we take synthesis of D-threose and D-erythrose (Aldotetroses) from
D-glyceraldehyde (an aldotriose).
Addition to HCN to glyceraldehyde produces two epimeric cyanohydrins because
reaction creates a new stereoicenter. The cyanohydrins can be separated easily (since
they are diastereomers) and each can be converted to an aldose through hydrolysis,
acidification and lactonisation, and reduction with NaHg. One cyanohydrin ultimately
yields D-erythrose and D-threose.
Here we can see that both sugars are D-sugars because starting compound is D-
glyceraldehyde and its stereocentrer is unaffected by its synthesis.
b) Ruff Degradation: It is opposite to Kiliani Fischer synthesis that can be used to shorten
the chain by a similar unit. The ruff degradation involves (i) Oxidation of the aldose to an
aldonic acid using Bromine water. (ii)Oxidative decarboxylation of the aldonic acid to the
next lower aldose using H2O2 and Fe2(SO4)3. D-ribose for example can be reduced to D-
erythrose.
HOH
D() Ribose
HOH
HOH
CH
O
CH2OH
O H
Br
2
2

HOH
DRibonic acid
HOH
HOH
COH
O
CH2OH
3 4 2
2 2
) SO ( Fe
O H

HOH
D() -Erythrose
HOH
CH
O
CH2OH
+ CO2
Exercise 1: Treatment of (+) glucose with HIO4 gives results that confirm its aldohexose
structure. What product should be formed, and how much HIO4 should be
consumed.
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4. Disaccharides
Carbohydrates which upon hydrolysis give two molecules of the same or different
monosaccharides are called disaccharides. Their general formula is C12H22O11. The three
most important disaccharides are sucrose, maltose, and lactose. Each one of these on
hydrolysis with either an acid or an enzyme gives two molecules of the same or different
monosaccharides as shown below:
C12H22O11 + H2O

+
H
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose
or Invertase
Glucose Fructose
C12H22O11 + H2O

+
H
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Maltose
or Maltase
Glucose Glucose
C12H22O11 + H2O

+
H
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Lactose
or Lactase
Glucose Galactose
Disaccharides may also be considered to be formed by a condensation reaction between
two molecules of the same or different monosaccharides with the eliminatioin of a molecule
of water. This reaction involves the formation of an acetal from a hemiacetal and an alcohol
in which one of the monosaccharides acts as the hemiacetal while the other acts as the
alcohol.
4.1 Sucrose
It is formed by condensation of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose.
Unlike maltose and lactose, it is non-reducing sugar since both glucose (C1 - ) and fructose
(C2 - ) are connected to each other through their reducing centres. Its structure is shown
below:
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Hydrolysis: (Invert Sugar or Invertose).
Hydrolysis of sucrose with hot dilute acid yields
D-glucose and D-fructose.
C12H22O11 + H2O

+
H
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose
D
] [
= +66.5
D-glucose
D
] [
= +53
D-fructose
D
] [
= 92
Invert Sugar
D
] [
= (+53) (92) = 39
Sucrose is dextrorotatory, its specific rotation
being +66.5%, D-glucose is also dextrorotatory,
[]D = +53, but D-fructose has a large negative
rotation, []D = -92. Since D-fructose has a
greater specific rotation than D-glucose, the
resulting mixture is laevorotatory. Because of
this the hydrolysis of sucrose is known as the
inversion of sucrose, and the equimolecular
mixture of glucose and fructose is known is invert
sugar or invertose.
O
OH
H
CH2OH
1
CH2OH
H H OH
O
H
1
OH
OH
H
HO
H
6
CH2OH
1
H
2
3
H
4
5
-link
O
Glycosidic
linkage
(Glucose unit)
(Fructose unit)
-link
Sucrose
5. Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are formed when a large number (hundreds to even thousands) of
monosaccharide molecules join together with the elimination of water molecule. Thus,
polysaccharides may be regarded as condensation polymers in which the monosaccharides
are joined together by glycosidic linkages. Some important polysaccharides are:
1. Cellulose 2. Starch 3. Glycogen
4. Gums and 5. Pectins
5.1 Starch
It is a polymer of glucose. Its molecular formula is (C6H10O5)n where the value of
n (200 1000) varies from source to source. It is the chief food reserve material or storage
polysaccharide of plants and is found mainly in seeds, roots, tubers, etc. Wheat, rice,
potatoes, corn, bananas etc., are rich sources of starch.
Starch is not a single compound but is a mixture of two components a water soluble
component called amylose (20%) and a water insoluble component called amylopectin
(80%). Both amylose and amylopectin are polymers of -D-glucose.
Amylose is a linear polymer of -D-glucose. It contains about 200 glucose units which are
linked to one another through -linkage involving C1 of one glucose unit with C4 of the other
as shown below:
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( Glucose Glucose Glucose Glucose )n
Linear Polymer
C1 C4
-linkage
Amylopectin, on the other hand, is a highly branched polymer. It consists of a large number
(several branches) of short chains each containing 20-25 glucose units which are joined
together through -linkages involving C1 of one glucose unit with C4 of the other. The C1 of
terminal glucose unit in each chain is further linked to C6 of the other glucose unit in the next
chain through C1 C6 -linkage. This gives amylopectin a highly branched structure as
shown below.-
Glucose
Glucose
Glucose
Glucose
Glucose
Glucose
Glucose
Glucose
Glucose
C1
C4
-linkage

C1
C6
-linkage

C1
C6
-linkage
Hydrolysis: Hydrolysis of starch with hot dilute acids or by enzymes gives dextrins of
varying complexity, maltose and finally D-glucose. Starch does not reduce Tollens reagent
and Fehlings solution.
Uses: It is used as a food. It is encountered daily in the form of potatoes, bread, cakes, rice
etc. It is used in coating and sizing paper to improve the writing qualities. Starch is used to
treat textile fibres before they are woven into cloth so that they can be woven without
breaking. It is used in manufacture of dextrins, glucose and ethyl alcohol. Starch is also
used in manufacture of starch nitrate, which is used as an explosive.
6. Amino Acids
6.1 Introduction and Nomenclature
Amino acids are molecules, which contain two functional groups, one is carboxylic group
and another is amino group. Amino acids are derivatives of carboxylic acids in which one
hydrogen atom of carbon chain is substituted by Amino group.
Amino group may be at , , position with respect to carboxylic group
H2N CH2 COOH Amino acetic acid, or Glycine
CH3 CH (NH2) COOH - Amino propionic acid or Alanine
H2N CH2 CH2 COOH - Amino propionic acid
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H2N CH2 (CH2)2 COOH - Amino butyric acid
Some amino acids contain a second carboxyl group or a potential carboxyl group in the form
of carboxamide: these are called acidic amino acid some contain a second basic group
which may be an amino group these are called basic amino acids.
H2N
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH
COOH
|
NH2
HOOC
CH2
CH
COOH
|
NH2
Lysine
(Basic amino acid)
Aspartic acid
(Acidic amino acid)
6.2 Physical Properties and Structure
Although the amino acids are commonly shown as containing an amino group and a
carboxyl group, certain properties are not consistent with this structure.
1. In contrast to amines and carboxylic acids, the amino acids are nonvolatile solids, which
melt at fairly high temperatures.
2. They are insoluble in organic solvents [i.e. non polar solvents] and are highly soluble in
water.
3. Their aqueous solution is neutral.
4. Their aqueous solutions behave like solutions of substances of high dipole moment.
5. Acidity and basicity constants are ridiculously low for - COOH and NH2 groups
All these properties are quite consistent with a dipolar ion structure for the amino
acids (I)
+
H3N CHR COO
(I)
Amino acid : dipolar ions
In the physical properties melting points, solubility, and high dipole moment are just what
would be expected of such a salt.
The acid base properties also become understandable when it is realized that the measured
Ka actually refers to the acidity of an ammonium ion, RNH3
+
+
H3NCHRCOO
+ H2O H3O
+
+ H2NCHRCOO
] RCOO CH N H [
] NCHRCOO H ][ O H [
K
3
2 3
a
+
+

and Kb actually refers to the basicity of a carboxylate ion, RCOO
+
H3N CH RCOO
+ H2O
+
H3N CHR COOH + OH
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] NCHRCOO H [
] OH ][ COOH CHR N H [
K
3
3
b
+
+

When the solution of an amino acid is made alkaline, the dipolar ion(I) is converted to the
anion (II); the stronger base, hydroxide ion, removes a proton from the ammonium ion and
displaces the weaker base, the amine
+
H3N CHRCOO
+ OH
H2N CHRCOO
+ H2O
(I) (II)
Stronger Stronger Weaker Weaker
acid base base acid
When the solution of an amino acid is made acidic; the dipolar ion I is converted into the
cation (III); the stronger acid O H
3
+
, gives up a proton to the carboxylate ion, and displaces
the weaker carboxylic acid.
+
H3N CHRCOO
+ H3O
+

+
H3N CHRCOOH + H2O
(I) (III)
Stronger Stronger Weaker Weaker
base acid acid base
In summary, the acidic group of a simple amino acid like glycine is
+
3
NH not COOH, and
basic group is COO
-
not NH2.
Exercise 2: The amino acids in water acts as ampholyte. Explain?
6.3 Iso Electric Point
What happens when a solution of an amino acid is placed in an electric field depends upon
the acidity or basicity of solution. In quite alkaline solution.
H2N-CHRCOO

+
H3N.CHRCOO

+
H3N.CHRCOOH
(II) (I) (III)
OH
H
+
OH
H
+
Anions (II) exceed cations (III), and there is a net migration of amino acid toward the anode.
In quite acidic solution cations (III) are in excess, and there is a net migration of amino acid
towards the cathode. If (II) and (III) are exactly balanced, there is no net migration; under
such conditions any one molecule exists as a positive ion and as a negative ion for exactly
the same amount of time and any small movement in the direction of one electrode is
subsequently cancelled by an equal movement back towards the other electrode. The
hydrogen ion concentration of the solution in which a particular amino acid does not migrate
under the influence of an electric field is called the isoelectric point of that amino acid.
An amino acid shows its lowest solubility in a solution at the isoelectric point, since here
there is the highest concentration of the dipolar ion. As the solution is made more alkaline or
more acidic, the concentration of one of the more soluble ions, II or III increases.
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If an amino acid has amino group and one carboxyl group, it has two pK values. The
isoelectric point (PI) of this amino acid has the average value of the both pK values.
We take example of glycine.
H3
+
N CH2 COOH H3N
+
CH2 COO
+ H
+
(1)
Conjugated acid (CA) Dipolar Ion (DI)
At equilibrium
] CA [
] H ][ I D [
K
1
+
H3N
+
CH2 COO
H2N CH2 COO
+ H
+
(2)
DI Conjugated Base (CB)
At equilibrium
] DI [
] H ][ CB [
K
2
+
[CA] =
1
K
] H ][ DI [
+
[CB] =
] H [
] DI [ K
2
+
At isoelectric point [CA] = [CB]
] H [
] DI [ K
K
] H ][[ DI [
i
2
1
i
+
+
Where ] H [
i
+
= conc. of [H
+
] at isoelectric point.
or,
2
i
] H [
+
= K1 K2
or, 2log [Hi
+
] = log K1 + log K2
or 2 log (Hi
+
] = - log k1 logK2
or 2pHi = pK1 + pK2
or pHi =
2
pK pK
2 1
+
7. Peptides
As the amino acid molecules contain both basic as well as acidic group it might be expected
that an intermolecular reaction may take place between the carboxyl group of one amino
acid and the amino group of another amino acid, with the elimination of a molecule of water.
R R R R
| | | |
H2N CH COOH + H2N CH COOH H2 N CHCO NH CHCOOH
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Since the resulting molecule still has a free amino and a carboxyl group, it may react with
other amino acids at either of the ends to give a higher molecular weight linear or
condensation product. Every two amino acids are linked by means of a CO-NH group,
which is commonly referred as peptide bond. So now we can define a peptides as the
amides formed by interaction between amino groups and carboxyl groups of amino
acids.
Depending upon the number of amino acid residues per molecule, they are known as
dipeptides, tripeptides and so on and finally polypeptides.
7.1 Naming of Polypeptide
A convenient way of representing peptide structures by use of standard abbreviations.
According to convention the N-terminal amino acid residue [having the free amino group] is
written as the left and the C terminal amino acid residue (having the free carboxyl group) at
the right end.
A peptide is named by indicating its sequence of amino acids beginning with the N-terminal
residue.
H2N CH CONH CH CONH CH CONH CH CONHCH2 COOH
| | | |
CH3 CH2-OH CH2-C6H5 CH2-CONH2
Alanine SerinePhenylalamine Asparagine glycine
This pentapeptide is called alanyl-sery-phenylalanyl-asparaginyl-glycine or using the
common abbreviations as H-Ala-Ser-phe-Asn-gly-OH. All naturally occurring important
peptides, however, posses a shorter individual name.
7.2 Structure of Poly peptides
To identify the structure of a peptide, the peptide in question is first hydrolysed to its
constituent amino acids, which are separated and identified. The amount of each amino acid
is measured, and hence the number of each kind of amino acid can be calculated.
The next problem is to determine the sequence of the various amino acids constituting the
peptide. This is very difficult task, because there is a large number of possibilities in which
the constituent amino acids may be linked in the peptide, e.g. even is a dipeptide, having
glycine and alanine, the two amino-acids may be present in either of the two ways.
H2N CH2 CO NH CH COOH
Glycylalanine
CH3
|
H2N CH CO NH CH2 COOH
Alanylaglycine
CH3
|
The two structures differ in the respect that in the first the N-terminal amino acid is glycine
(i.e. the amino group of glycine is free) and C-terminal amino acid is alanine, while in the
latter the N-terminal amino acid is alanine and C-terminal acid is glycine. Various chemical
methods have been developed to remove either of the two terminal amino acid residues of a
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polypeptide in a stepwise manner and hence the arrangement of the various amino acids in
a polypeptide can be established.
7.3 Sangers Method
Sanger reagent, 1-fluoro-2, 4-dinitrobenzene (FDNB) was first used to determine that which
amino acid constituted the amino end of the polypeptide. The method consists in treating the
polypeptide with the reagent in the presence of sodium-hydrogen-carbonate solution at
room temperature to form a 2, 4-dinitrophenyl (DNP) derivative of the polypeptide. The
product is hydrolysed be means of acid (which causes the cleavage of the peptide bond
connecting the N-terminal amino acid to the rest of the polypeptide molecule) to form
dinitrophenyl (DNP) derivative of the N-terminal amino acid and the rest of the polypeptide
molecule or amino acid residues.
F + H
2
N CH CO NH CH CO NH CH COOH
NH CH CONH CH CONH CH COOH
NH CH CONH + H
2
N CH COOH + H
2
N CH COOH
|
R
1
|
R
2
|
R
3
|
R
1
|
R
2
|
R
3
O
2
N
|
NO
2
HF + O
2
N
H
+
O
2
N
|
NO
2
|
NO
2
2, 4 DNP derivative Aminoacid mixture
|
R
1
|
R
2
|
R
3
8. Dyes
8.1 Definition
The chemical substances which are used to impart colour to fabrics, foods and other objects
for their beautification and distinction are called dyes.
These chemical substances used as dyes are capable of getting fixed to the fabrics
permanently and are resistant to the action of water, soap, light, acid and alkalies.
The colour of dyes is attributed to their ability to absorb some wavelengths of visible region
of electromagnetic spectrum (380 nm to 760 nm). The part of the colour which reflected
back gives the colour of the dye i.e. complementary to the colour absorbed. The colour of
visible light absorbed and the complementary colour reflected are listed in table.
Wave length (nm) Colour absorbed Complementary colour
400 435 Violet Yellow, Green
435 480 Blue Yellow
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480 490 Greenish Blue Orange
490 500 Bluish Green Red
500 560 Green Purple
560 580 Yellowish Green Violet
580 595 Yellow Blue
595 605 Orange Greenish Blue
605 750 Red Blue, Green
In the earlier days fabrics were coloured by the dyes mainly from Alizarin (red dye) and
indigo (blue dye). But now a days, many natural dyes have been synthesized in the
laboratory. This helped us to produce dyes of desired shades which otherwise are not
available in natural dyes.
8.2 Classification
These dyes have been classified into two categories
a) Classification based on constitution: Depending upon the characteristic structural
units the dyes are classified as follows.
Sl. No. Type of Dye Structural Unit Examples
1. Nitro dyes
N
O
O
(Nitro group)
Martius yellow,
Naphthol yellow
2. Azo dyes
N = N
(azo group)
Orange-I, Orange-II,
Congo red
3. Triphenyl methane dyes (C6H5)3C
Malachite green,
Rosaniline
4. Phthalein dyes
C
O
C
O
O
(Phthalein group)
Phenolphthalein,
Mercurochrome
5. Anthraquinone dyes
C
C
O
O
(anthraquinone group)
Alizarin
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6. Indigoid dyes
C
C
C
O
O
Indigoid group
Indigo, Tyrian purple
Structures

O H
NO
2
NO
2
(Orange-I)
SO
3
Na
+
N
N O H
(Martius yellow)
(Phenolphthalein)
O
O
OH
OH
(Alizarine)
C
O
C
O
O H
OH
(Indigo)
C
N
+
(CH
3
)
2
N(CH
3
)
2
C
C
N
C
N
C
O H
H O
(Malachite green)
Diphenyl methane dye
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N
C
(H
3
C)
2
NH
2
N
+
(CH
3
)
2
Auromine - 0
8.3 Classification Based on Application
A particular dye may be suitable for one kind of fibre and may be unsuitable for the other.
For example, a dye suitable for wool and silk may not be applied or used for dyeing cotton
or rayon. Thus based on the class, shade and other properties like resistance to acids,
alkalies, and fastness to light a classification of dyes is done, as given below:
a) Acid dyes b) Basic dyes
c) Direct dyes d) Disperse dyes
e) Fibre reactive dyes f) Vat dyes
g) Insoluble azodyes h) Mordant dyes
a) Acid dyes: These dyes are characterised by the presence of acid group like sulphonic
acid ( SO3H), carboxylic acid ( COOH) and phenolic group. The presence of such
groups make the dyes more soluble and also serve as the reactive points for fixing the
dye to the fibre.
Application: These dyes are applied to wool, silk and nylon. These have no affinity for
cotton.
Examples: Orange-I and Orange-II can be obtained by the action of sulphonic
compounds with naphthols or by coupling sulphonic compounds with naphthols.
Na
+
O
3
-
S N N
+
Cl
-
+
O H
-naphthol
O H
SO
3
-
Na
+
N
N
Orange-I
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SO
3
-
Na
+
N N Cl
-
+
+
-naphthol
O H
O H
SO
3
-
Na
+
N
N
Orange-II
b) Basic Dyes: These dyes contain (NH2) group or (NR2) group as chromophore (colour
bearing group) or auxochrome (colour enhancing group). In acidic solutions these form
water soluble cations. These dyes use the anionic side on the fabric to get themselves
attached.
Application: This type of dyes is used to dye nylon, polyester, wool, cotton, leather,
paper, etc.
Example
1. Aniline yellow
N
N NH
2
2. Butter yellow
N
N N
CH
3
CH
3
3. Crysodine G
N
N NH
2
NH
2
c) Direct Dyes: These dyes also belong to the class of azo dyes and are used to dye the
fabrics directly by placing it in aqueous solution of the dye. The direct dyes attack the
fibre by means of hydrogen bonding.
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Application: These are very effective for dying cotton, wool and rayon
Example:
1. Martius yellow
2. Congo Red
NH
2
O H
N
N N
N
H
2
N
SO
3
-
Na
+
c) Disperse Dyes: These dyes, as the name signifies, are usually applied in the form of a
dispersion of finely divided dye in a soap solution in the presence of phenol, cresol or
benzoic acid.
Application: These are mainly used to dye rayon, dacron nylon, synthetic fibres,
polysters and poly acrylonitrile.
Examples:
1. Celliton fast pink B
O
O
O H
NH
2
2. Cellition fast blue B
O
O
N H
NH
CH
3
CH
3
d) Fibre Reactive Dyes: These dyes are used to dye fibres like cotton, wool or silk. These
are linked to the fibre by virtue of the hydroxy or amino group present on the fibre. These
dyes induce fast colour on fibres which is retained for a longer time.
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e) Insoluble azo dyes: The dyes belonging to this class are directly synthesised on the
fibre. The fabric to be coloured is soaked in an alkaline solution of phenol or naphthol
and is than treated with a solution of diazotised amine to produced the azo dye on the
surface of the fabric.
Application: These dyes can be used to dye cotton silk, polyester, nylon, etc.
Example:
O
2
N
N
N
O H
(Nitroaniline red)
f) Vat Dyes: Before being introduced on to fabric these dyes are first reduced to colourless
leuco compounds in wooden vats by alkaline reducing agent. The fibre is then soaked in
the solution of the dye. After proper absorption of the dye, the fibre is then exposed to air
or to an oxidising agent. By doing so the dye gets oxidised to yield insoluble coloured
dye on the fabric.
Example: Indigo dye
g) Mordant Dyes: A dye which imparts different colours to the fabric in the presence of
different metal ions (called mordants) is referred to as mordant dye. Nowadays it is
rarely used
Application: These dyes are used for dyeing of wool. The method involves the
precipitation of certain substances on the fabrics which then combine with the dye with
the dye to form an insoluble coloured complex called lake. Depending on the kind of
mordant used different colours. For example, Alizarin, a mordant dye, gives red colour
with aluminium and tin salts, where as brownish red colour chromium mordant and black
violet with iron mordant.
9. Polymers
9.1 Introduction
Sit quietly and think about your activities today from the morning. You wake up in the
morning, You want to brush your teeth. You fetch your toothpaste. The tube is made up of a
polymer. Your brush is made up of a polymer. When you want to rinse your mouth, you
open your plastic(polymer) tap. The pipe lines used to bring water to your tap is made of
PVC(polymer). Skip it. You start preparing your break fast. You take a non-stick tawa. Non-
stick? What does that mean? What is it made of? It is poly tetrafluoro ethylene abbreviated
as teflon, a polymer. See, how polymers play an important role in our daily life from dawn to
dusk. The molded chair in which you are sitting is a polymer. The pen with which I'm writing
this is a polymer. Want to know more about polymers? Read further.
Polymers can be called as macromolecules. Macromolecules can be considered as an
association of small molecules to give a big molecule. Macromolecules can be man-made,
too. The first syntheses were aimed at making substitutes for the natural macromolecules,
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rubber and silk; but a vast technology has grown up that now produces hundreds of
substances that have no natural counterparts. Synthetic macromolecular compounds
include: elastomers, which have the particular kind of elasticity characteristic of rubber;
fibers, long, thin and threadlike, with the great strength along the fiber that characterizes
cotton, wool, and silk; and plastics, which can be extruded as sheets or pipes, painted on
surfaces, or molded to form countless objects. We wear these manmade materials, eat and
drink from them, sleep between them, sit and stand on them; turn knobs, pull switches, and
grasp handles made of them; with their help we hear sounds and see sights remote from us
in time and space; we live in houses and move about in vehicles that are increasingly made
of them.
9.2 Polymers and polymerization
Macromolecules, both natural and man-made, owe their great size to the fact that they are
polymers (Greek: many parts); that is, each one is made up of a great many simpler units
identical to each other or at least chemically similar joined together in a regular way. They
are formed by a process we touched on earlier: polymerization, the joining together of
many small molecules to form very large molecules. The simple compounds from which
polymers are made are called monomers.
Polymers are formed in two general ways.
a) In chain-reaction polymerization, there is a series of reactions each of which
consumes a reactive particle and produces another, similar particle; each individual reaction
thus depends upon the previous one. The reactive particles can be free radicals, cations, or
anions. A typical example is the polymerization of ethylene. Here the chain-carrying particles
are free radicals, each of which adds to a monomer molecule to form a new, bigger free radical.
Rad. + CH2 = CH2 RadCH2CH2

2 2
CH CH
RadCH2CH2CH2CH2 etc.
b) In step reaction polymerization, there is a series of reactions each of which is
essentially independent of the preceding one; a polymer is formed simply because the
monomer happens to undergo reaction at more than one functional group. A diol, for
example, reacts with a dicarboxylic acid to form an ester; but each moiety of the simple
ester still contains a group that can react to generate another ester linkage and hence a
larger molecule, which itself can react further, and so on.
HOOC COOH + HOCH
2
CH
2
OH C C
OH
O
O
H
2
CH
2
COH
O
1,2-Ethanediol
terephthalic acid

OH CH HOCH
2 2 O
O
OH
O
O H
O
O
OH
O
O
O
O
O
HOOC
p-C
5
H
4
(COOH)
2
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a) Free-radical vinyl polymerization: In we discussed briefly the polymerization of
ethylene and substituted ethylenes under conditions where free radicals are generated
typically in the presence of small amounts of an initiator, such as a peroxide. Reaction
occurs.
| | | | |
G G G G G
Vinyl monomer or ( CH2CH )n
|
G
Polymer
nCH2 = CH

initiator
CH2CHCH2CHCH2CHCH2CH
At the doubly bonded carbons the vinyl groups and is called vinyl polymerization. A
wide variety of unsaturated monomers may be used, to yield polymers with different
pendant groups (G) attached to the polymer backbone. For example.
| | | |
Cl Cl Cl Cl
Vinyl chloride Poly (vinyl chloride)
(PVC)
CH2 = CH
CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH

| | | | |
CN CN CN CN CN
Acrylonitrile Polyacrylonitrile
(Orlon)
CH2 = CH
CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH

| | | |
C6H5 C6H5 C6H5 C6H5
Styrene
Polystyrene
CH2 = CH
CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH

b) Copolymerization: So far, we have discussed only polymerisation of a single
monomeric compound to form a homopolymer, a polymer made up except, of course,
at the two ends of the long molecule of identical units.
Now, if a mixture of two (or more) monomers is allowed to undergo polymerization, there
is obtained a copolymer a polymer that contains two (or more) kinds of monomeric units
in the same molecule. For example:
CH3 CH3
| |
CH2 = CH + CH2 = C

initiator
CH2 CH CH2 C
| | | |
Ph COOCH3 Ph COOCH3
Styrene
Methyl methacrylate Polystyrene (co-methyl methacrylate)
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Through copolymerization there can be made materials with different properties than those
of either homopolymer, and thus another dimension is added to the technology. Consider,
for example, styrene. Polymerized alone, it gives a good electric insulator that is molded into
parts for radios, television sets, and automobiles. Copolymerization with butadiene (30%)
adds toughness; with acrylonitrile (20-30%) increases resistance to impact and to
hydrocarbon; with maleic anhyride yeilds a material that, on hydrolysis, is water-soluble, and
is used as a dispersant and sizing agent. The copolymer in which butadiene predominates
(75%) butadiene, 25% styrene) is an elastomer, and since World War II has been the
principal rubber substitute manufactured in the United States.
Copolymers can be made not just from two different monomers but from three, four, or even
more. They can be made not only by free-radical chain reactions, but by any of the
polymerization methods we shall take up; ionic, coordination, or step-reaction. The
monomer units may be distributed in various ways, depending on the technique used. As we
have seen, they may alternate along a chain, either randomly or with varying degrees of
regularity. In block copolymers sections made up of one monomer alternate with sections of
another:
M1M1M1M1M1 M2M2M2M2 Block copolymer
If graft copolymers, a branch of one kind is grafted to a chain of another kind:
M1M1M1M1M1M1M1
|
M2M2M2M2
Fibres are long thin, threadlike bits of material that are characterized by great tensile
(pulling) strength in the direction of the fiber. The natural fibres cotton, wool, silk are
typical. Fibres are twisted into threads, which can then be woven into cloth, or embedded in
plastic material to impart strength. The tensile strength can be enormous, some synthetic
fibres rivaling on a weight basis steel.
The gross characteristics of fibres are reflected on the molecular level the molecules, too,
are long, thin, and threadlike. Furthermore, and most essential, they lie stretched out
alongside each other, lined up in the direction of the fiber. The strength of the fiber resides,
ultimately, in the strength of the chemical bonds of the polymer chains. The lining-up is
brought about by drawing stretching the return to random looping and coiling is
overcome by strong intermolecular attractions. In a fiber, enthalpy wins out over entropy.
This high degree of molecular orientation is usually although not always accompanied
by appreciable crystallinity.
An elastomer possesses the high degree of elasticity that is characteristic of rubber: it can
be greatly deformed stretched to eight times its original length, for example and yet
return to its original shape. Here, as in fibres, the molecules are long and thin; as in fibres,
they become lined up when the material is stretched. The big difference is this: when the
stretching force is removed, the molecular chains of an elastomer do not remain extended
and aligned but return to their original random conformations favored by entropy. They do
not remain aligned because the intermolecular forces necessary to hold them that way are
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weaker than in a fiber. In general, elastomers do not contain highly polar groups or sites for
hydrogen bonding; the extended chains do not fit together well enough for Vander Waals
forces to do the job. In an elastomer entropy beats enthalpy.
H
|
N
C
||
O
H
|
N
C
||
O
H
|
N
C
||
O
O
||
C
N
|
H
O
||
C
N
|
H
O
|
C
N
|
H
H
|
N
C
||
O
H
|
N
C
||
O
H
|
N
C
||
O
Hydrogen bonding in crystallites of nylon-6,6
One further requirement the long chains of an elastomer must be connected to each other
by occasional cross links: enough of them to prevent slipping of molecules past one
another; not so many as to deprive the chains of the flexibility that is need for ready
extension and return to randomness.
Natural rubber illustrates these structural requirements of an elastomer; long flexible chains;
weak intermoecular forces and occasional cross linking. Rubber is cis 1,4-polyisoprene .
With no highly polar substituents, intermolecular attraction is largely limited to van der Waals
forces. But these are weak because of the all cis configuration about the double bond.
Figure below compares the extended chains of rubber with those of its trans stereoisomer.
As we can see, the trans configuration permits highly regular zig zags that fit together well;
the cis configuration does not. The all-trans stereoisomer occurs naturally as gutta percha; it
is highly crystalline and non-elastic.
(a)
(b)
Extended chains of (a) natural rubber, cis-1,4 polyisoprene, and of (b) gutta
percha, its trans stereoiosmer.
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Chief among the synthetic elastomers is SBR, a copolymer of butadiene (75%) and styrene
(25%) produced under free-radical conditions; it competes with natural rubber in the main
use of elastomers, the making of automobile tires. All-cis polybutadiene and polyisoprene
can be made by Ziegler Natta polymerization.
An elastomer that is entirely or mostly polydiene is, of course, highly unsaturated. All that is
required of an elastomer, however, is enough unsaturation to permit cross-linking. In making
butyl rubber for example, only 5% of isoprene is copolymerized with isobutylene.
Exercise 3: What is the difference between addition and condensation
polymersiation give an examples.
Some Important Polymers:
a) Natural Rubber: Natural rubber is an addition polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-
butadiene)
Rubber has an average chain length of 5000 monomer units of isoprene.
The rubber in which the arrangement of carbon chain is trans with respect to the double
bond is known as Gutta Percha and this is the natural rubber obtained from bark of
various trees. Natural rubber is sticky material. This disadvantage is removed by
'VULCANISATION' which involves addition of sulphur to rubber and heating the mixture.
sulphur forms short chains of sulphur atoms that link two hydrocarbon (isoprene) units
together.
----CHC=CHCH 2CHC=CHCH 2----
S
----CHC=CHCH 2CH2C=CHCHCH------
CH3 CH3
CH3
CH3
S
When tension is applied the chains can strengthen out but they cannot slip past each
other because of sulphur bridges. Thus rubber can be stretched only to a certain extent
and hydrocarbon chains have the tendency to regain their shape when tension is
removed. Vulcanised rubber is thus stronger and less sticky than the natural rubber.
b) Synthetic rubber: (Polychloroprene) or Neoprene) It is obtained by free radical
polymerisation of chloroprene in
nCH
2
=CCH=CH
2
(CH
2
C=CHCH
2
)
n
Cl Cl
Neoprene
it is a thermoplastic and need not to be vulcanised. It is a good general purpose rubber
and superior to natural rubber as it is resistant to the reaction of aire, heat, light
chemicals, alkalis and acids below 50% strength. It is used for making transmission
belts, printing rolls and flexible tubing employed for conveyence of oil and petrol.
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c) Buna rubbers: Butadiene polymerises in the presence of sodium to give a rubber
substitute viz. BuNa. It is of two types
i) Buna - N or GRA: it is synthetic rubber obtained by copolymerisation of one part of
acryl nitrile and two parts of butadiene.
nCH2=CHCH=CH 2 + nCH2=CH
CH2CH=CHCH 2CH2CH
CN CN
n
BUNA-S
It is more rigid responds less to heat and very resistant to swelling action of petorol,
oils and other organic solvents.
ii) Buna -S or GRS (General purpose Styrene rubber): It is a copolymer of three moles
of butadiene and one mole of styrene\ and is an elastomer. It is obtained as a result
of free radical copolymerisation of its monomers.
nC6H5CH=CH2 + nCH2=CHCH=CH 2
[CH2CH=CHCH 2CHCH2]n
BUNA-S
C6H5
It is generally compounded with carbon black and vulcanised with sulphur. It is
extremely resistant to wear and tear and finds use in manufacture of tyres and other
mechanical rubber goods.
d) Teflon: It is polymer of tetrafluorethylene (F2C=CF2) which on polymerisation gives
Telfon.
nCF2=CF2

K 1020 870 O S ) NH (
8 2 2 4 (CF2CF2)n
It is thermoplastic polymer with a high softening point (600K). It is very tough and difficult
to work. It is inert to most chemicals except fluorine and molten alkali metals. It
withstands high temperatures. Its electrical properties make it an ideal insulating material
for high frequency installation.
e) Nylon -66: It is a polymer resin. It is a condensation polymer formed by reaction between
adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine. Both monomer units consist of 6 carbon atoms
and therefore named nylon -66.
+
O H
|
H
||
O
2
2 6 2 4 2
NH ) CH ( N H OH C ) CH ( C HO
copolymer) on condensati A (
NH ) CH ( N C ) CH ( C
66 Nylon
|
H
||
O
||
O
6 2 4 2
1
1
1
]
1

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It is thermoplastic polymer when extruded above its melting point (536 K) through
spinneret, it gives nylon fiber which is extremely tough and resistant to friction. It
possess greater tensile strength, elasticity and lusture than any natural fiber. It is
chemically inert and is fabricated into sheet, bristles and textile fibres.
f) Nylon 6 or Perolon - L: A polyamide is prepared by prolonged heating of caprolactam at
530 - 540 K.
(CH2)5
NH
C=O

K 540
6 Nylon
O
||
O
||
NH C ) CH ( NH C ) CH (
5 5 2
1
1
1
]
1

The fiber is practically identical to Nylon in properties
Exercise 4: Complete the reactions
nHO
CH
2
CH
2
OH
+
C C nHO
O
OH
O
-2nH
2
O
Exercise 5: a) What is the structure of nylon-6, made by alkaline polymerisation of
caprolactom?

C
N
O
Caprolactam
H
b) Suggest a mechanism for the process. Is polymerisation of the chain
reaction or step reaction type?
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8. Solutions to Exercise
Exercise 1: Since in glucose there are five OH groups so five moles of HIO4 are
consumed giving main product formic acid and formaldehyde as shown
below :
Glucose + 5HIO4 5HCOOH + HCHO
Exercise 4:
C C O
O O
CH
2
CH
2
O
~
D =
n
Exercise 5: a) ~~
O
||
C ) CH (
|
H
N
O
||
C ) CH (
|
H
N ~~
5 2 5 2

b)
C N
O
H
Base:
Base C (CH2)5 NH
O
C N
O
H
Base C (CH2)5 NH
O
Base C (CH2)5 N C(CH2)5 NH
, etc
O O
H
The reaction is anionic chain reaction polymerization, involving
nucleophilic substitution at the acyl group of the cyclic amide. The base
could be OH
itself or the anion formed by abstraction of the NH proton

from a molecule of lactam.
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9. Solved Problems (Subjective)
9.1 Subjective
Complete the reactions (Question 1 to 3)
Problem 1: nCF2 = CF2
pressure high , heat
A

(CF2 CF2 )n Teflon
Solution: A = (NH4)2S2O8
Problem 2:
nCH
2
C
CH
CH
2
Cl
B
8 2 2
O S K

Solution:
B =
neprene
n
2
Cl
|
2
CH CH C CH

,
_

Problem 3:
nH
O
CH
2
CH
2
OH + C
O CH
2
CH
2
O C C
O O
-2nH2O
Terelene
Solution:
nHO
C
O
C
OH
O
C =
Terephathalic acid
Problem 3: Give the classification of polymers obtained from esters of acrylic acid
(CH2 = CH.COOH)
Solution:
Formula of
monomer
Polymer Characteristics Uses
C H
2
C
CH
3
COOC
2
H
5
methylacrylate
C H
3
C
CH
3
COOCH
3
Polymethylacrylate
n ( )
Hard transparent,
high optical
clarity. It is
capable of
acquiring
different colours
and tints
Lenses,
transparen
t object
domes and
skylights
plastic
jewellery
C H
2
C
COOC
2
H
5
ethyl acrylate
H
2
C CH
COOC
2
H
5
Polyethylacrylate
n ( )
Tough and
rubbery polymer
Similar to
above
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OH
2
CH
CN
acrylonitrile
H
2
C C
CN
n ( )
Polyacrylonitrile
Hard, horney and
high melting
material
Used in
preparing
cloth,
carpets
and
blankets
Problem 4: a) Show how an aldohexose can be used to synthesize 2-ketohexose. (b)
Since glucose is converted to fructose by this method, what can you
say about the configurations of C
3
, C
4
and C
5
in the sugars.
(CHOH)3
(CHOH)4 + 3C6H5NH
NH2
C = N
NHC6H5
C6H5NH2
H2O
NH3
2C6H5CHO
2C6H5CH = NNHC 6H5
CH2OH
CH = N
NHC6H5
Osazone
Aldohexose
CH2OH
CHO
H C = O
Osone
C = O
(CHOH)3
CH2OH
Zn/CH3COOH
CH2OH
C = O
(CHOH)3
CH2OH
2-ketohexose
Here aldohexose reacts with one molecule of phenylhyrazine which
condenses with the aldehyde group to give phenylhydrazone. When
warmed with excess of phenyl hydrazine, the secondary alcoholic
group adjacent to the aldehyde group is oxidised by another molecule
of phenylhydrazine, to a ketonic group. With this ketonic group, the
third molecule of phenylhydrazine condenses to give osazone. The
phenylhydrazinyl group is transferred from osazone to C6H5CHO
giving C6H5CH = N NHC6H5 and a dicarbonyl compound called an
osone. The more reactive aldehyde group of the osone is reduced,
not the less reactive keto group and it gives the 2-ketohexose.
b) The configurations of these carbons which are unchanged in the
reactions, must be identical in order to get the same osazone.
Problem 5: a) Supply structures for H through K. Given:
An aldohexose
MeOH / NaOMe HOAC NaOAc / O Ac base / OH NH
J I H
2 2
K.
b) Explain the last step (c). What is net structural change (d) Name this
overall method. (e) Discuss the possibility of epimer formation.
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Solution: a) H is an oxime HOCH2(CHOH)4CH = NOH; I is the completely
acetylated oxime, AcOCH2(CHOAc)4CH = NOAc that loses 1 mole of
HOAc to form J, AcOCH2(CHOAc)4 C N; K is an aldopentose,
HOCH2(CHOH)3CHO.
b) The acetates undergo transesterification to give methyl acetate
freeing all the sugar OHs. This is followed by reversal of HCN
addition.
c) There is loss of one C from the carbon chain.
d) Wohl degradation
e) The -CHOH becomes the CH = O without any configurational
changes of the other chiral carbons. Thus no epimers are formed.
Problem 6: Although both polymers are prepared by free radical processes, poly (vinyl
chloride) is amorphous and poly (vinylidene chloride) (saran) is highly
crystallilne. How do you account for the different? (vinylidene chloride is
1,1-dichloroethene).
Solution:
PVC ) chloride vinyl ( Poly
~~
Cl
|
|
H
C
H
|
|
H
C
Cl
|
|
H
C
H
|
|
H
C ~~
saran ) chloride vinylidene ( Poly
~~
Cl
|
|
Cl
C
H
|
|
H
C
Cl
|
|
Cl
C
H
|
|
H
C ~~
As poly (vinyl chloride) is able to show stereoisomerism and further it is
formed by a free radical process, it is atactic (chlorine atoms distributed
randomly), the molecules fit together poorly.
Poly (vinylidene chlroide) has two identical substituents on each carbon
and the chains fit together well.
Problem 7: Show the fundamental unit of structure common to all polypeptides and
proteins and show how cross linking occurs between two chains by H -
bonding.
Solution:
N
H O
R
N
O
H
R
N
H
R
N
H
R
N
O
O
Problem 8: How will you synthesize Alanine from acetylene.
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Solution:
CH
CH
4 4 2
2
HgSO , SO H
O H

CH3CHO
3
NH
HCN

CH3CH
CN
NH2
H3
+
O
CH3CH
COOH
NH2
Alanine
Problem 9: Glycine exists as (H3N
+
CH2COO
) while anthranilic acid

(PNH2C6H4 COOH) does not exist as dipolar ion.
Solution: COOH is too weakly acidic to transfer H
+
to the weakly basic NH2
attached to the electron withdrawing benzene ring. When attached to an
aliphatic carbon, the NH2 is sufficiently basic to accept H
+
form
COOH group.
Problem 10: i) Sulphanilic acid although has acidic as well as basic group, it is
soluble in alkali but insoluble in mineral acid
ii) Sulphanilic acid is not soluble in organic solvents.
Solution: i) Sulphanilic acid exist as Zwitterion
HO3S
NH2
O3S
NH3
+
The weakly acidic
+
NH3 transfers H
+
to OH
to form a soluble salt, P

NH2C6H4

3
SO Na
+
on the other hand

3
SO is too weakly basic to
accept H
+
from strong acids.
ii) Due to its ionic character it is insoluble in organic solvents.
Problem 11: Why should isoelectric point for Aspartic acid (2.98) be so much lower than
that of leucine?
Solution: This may be explained by considering following ion equilibria
OOCCHCH 2COOH HOOCCHCH 2COO
H
+
H
+
HOOCCHCH 2COOH
NH3
NH3
+
+
NH3
+
+H
+
(A)
(B) (C)
OOCCHCH 2COO
NH3
+
(D)
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It is apparent that ions (A) and (B) are neutral, while (C) is a cation and
(D) is dianion. In species (D), the anion is derived from the second
COOH group present in aspartic acid and is not possible in leucine. At
neutral pH a significant concentration of (D), will be present in aqueous
solution. It will therefore, be necessary to decrease the pH of such a
solution if the formation of (D) is to be suppressed to a stage
where anions and cations are present in equal concentration
(the isoelectric point).
9.2 Objective
Problem 1: Nylon-66 is a polyamide of
(A) Vinylchloride and formaldehyde
(B) Adipic acid and methyl amine
(C) Adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine
(D) Formaldehyde and malamine
Solution:
O H (CH
2
)
4
OH
O O
+ N H
2
(CH
2
)
6
NH
2
C (CH
2
)
4
C N (CH
2
)
6
NH
O O H
Nylong-66
(C)
Problem 2: Which of the following is not a condensation polymer?
(A) Glyptal (B) Nylon-66
(C) Dacron (D) PTFE
Solution: Others are condensed polymer
(C)
Problem 3: Which of the following is an example of basic dye?
(A) Alizarine (B) Indigo
(C) Malachite (D) Orange I
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Solution:
C
N(CH
3
)
2
N
+
(CH
3
)
2
(C)
Problem 4: Which of the following is not a chromophone?
(A) NH2 (B) NO
(C) NO2 (D) N = N
Solution: Chromophore is colour bearing group
(A)
Problem 5: Which of the following is a natural fibre?
(A) Starch (B) Cellulose
(C) Rubber (D) Nylon-6
Solution: (B)
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10. Assingments (Subjective Problems)
LEVEL - I
1. How the configuration of () fructose related to those of (+) glucose & (+) mannose?
2. Give the configuration of the () glucose, ()-mannose and (+) fructose.
3. What are carbohydrates and how they are classified? Give examples. What is their
importance is everyday life?
4. How will you distinguish between glucose and fructose
5. What type of substances are included in the term carbohydrates?
6. Why aldoses react with Fehlings solutionand PhNHNH2, but not with NaHSO3?
7. What are diastereomers? Explain by taking examples from aldohexoses.
8. Briefly discuss the ring structure and mutarotation of glucose.
9. Lactose and sucrose are both disaccharides having the formula C12H22O11, lactose is
reducing sugar but sucrose is not why?
10. Why hydrolysis of sucrose is called inversion also?
Complete the following equations (Question No. 11 to 15)
11.
N
N
N
N H
2
NH
2
NH
2
B A HCHO
tion Polymerisa
+
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12.
OH
B A HCHO
OH
+ +

A

tion Polymerisa , OH
_
C,
+

tion Polymerisa , OH
nB nA
D
13.
OH

Oxidation
O
B A
4 2 2
2
SO H ent rearrangem
Backmann
O H
OH NH

14.
NH
O
B A
tion polymerisa
heat O H
2

15.
nH
2
N
(CH
2
)
6
NH
2
+
nHOC (CH
2
)
4
C OH
O O
B A
K 525 ~
+
6513942
LEVEL - II
1. Identify from A to I
L(+) lactic acid

, HCl , O H KCN HBr OH H C , Na SO H , OH H C
2 5 2 4 2 5 2
D C B A

Pd / H HI COOH CH , Na HCl , OH CH
2 3 3
H G F E
(+)-2-butanol
2. Write equations to show how D (+) glucose could be converted into
a) Methyl--D-glucoside
b) 2,3,4,6-tetra-o-methyl-D-glucose
c) D-fructose
3. In what respect does natural rubber differ from synthetic rubber? Give the synthesis
of neoprene from acetylene.
4. a) No. only enantiomers have this property and anomers are not enantiomers.
b) Anomers are epimers whose conformations differ only about C
1
.
5. What structural feature distinguishes proline from other -amino acids.
6. How many chiral centers are there in () - fructose? (b) How many stereo isomeric
2-keto hexoses should be there.
7. How does acidic medium of stomach helps in the digestion of proteins.
8. (+) glucose reacts with Ac2O to give two isomeric pentaacetyl derivatives neither of
which reduces Fehling's (or) Tollen's reagent. Account for these facts.
9. How do you account for the experimentally observed [] = 19.9 for invert sugar?
10. What would be the molecular formula of (+) sucrose if C1 of glucose were attached
to, say C4 of fructose, and C2 of fructose were joined to C4 of glucose? Would
this be a reducing (or) a non - reducing sugar?
11. Complete the equation
6513942
nH2N (CH2)6 NH2 + A
heat
[HN (CH2
-
)6 |
H
N

||
O
C
(CH2)8
||
O
C
]n + 2nHCl
12. A hydrocarbon (A) which decolourises when treated with Br2/CCl4 and gets reduced
by 1 mole of H2 in presence of Ni. When A is treated with dilute aqueous KMnO4
solutions gives B which on treatment with phthalic acid gives a polymeric compound
C which is poly (ethylene glycol phthalate). Write the structures of A, B
and C.
13. Distinguish between acid dye and basic dye
14. Give the structure of the following
a) Alizarin b) Indigo
c) Phenolphthalein d) Martius Yellow
15. Give the method of preparation of Buna-S rubber.
LEVEL - III
1. Show the product from A to F with Fischer projection
D(+)-glucose

3
HNO
(+) glucaric acid

O H
2
A + B (lactones)
A

) Hg ( Na
C (aldonic acid)

O H
2
D (lactone)

acid ) Hg ( Na
D (+)-glucose
B

) Hg ( Na
E (aldonic acid)

O H
2
F (lactone)
F (lactone)

acid ) Hg ( Na
(+)-gulose
2. In an electric field, the amino acid migrates towards cathode when pH is below the
isoelectric point while it migrates towards anode when pH is higher than isoelectric
point.
3. Why do glucose, mannose and fructose form identical osazone.
4. How will you distinguish between Glycine and acetamide.
5. Give the two isomeric products from the reaction of D-threose with NaCN/HCN. What
is the net result of this reaction? Why epimers formed are in unequal amounts?
6. a) Give structures for E through G. Given:
An aldohexose G
) III ( Fe
2
O
2
H
F
3
CaCO
E
2
Br . aq

b) Name this overall method (c). Discuss possibility of epimer formation.
7. Two Ruff degradations of an aldohexose give an aldodetrose that is oxidised by
HNO3 to meso-tartaric acid. Give the family configuration of the aldohexose.
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8. Compare and explain the difference in behaviour when an aldohexose and a typical
aldehyde react with an excess of R OH in dry HCl. Give the general name for the
product from an aldohexose and the specific name when the sugar is glucose.
9. a) Account for isolation of two diastereomers of naturally occuring glucose from
water solution.
b) Give the structures and names for the diastereomers. (C) Classify the type of
diastereomers (d) How many methyl glucosides are there?
10. a) Give the structure of disaccharide sucrose, the common table sugar from
following (i) It does not reduce Fehling reagent and does not mutarotate (ii) It is
hydrolysed by maltase or emulsion to D-glucose and D-fructose (iii) Methylation
and hydrolysis give 2, 3, 4, 6-tetra-O-methyl-D-glucopyranose and a tetramethyl-
D-fructose.
b) What structural features are uncertain.
c) Give IUPAC name of sucrose.
11. a) Give a simple test for starch.
b) Describe the change that occurs when the test is performed at elevated
temperatures.
c) Discuss the structural change that accounts for the variation in the test.
d) Do amylose and amylopectin give the same colour? Explain.
12. Like other oxygen- containing compounds, alcohols dissolve in cold concentrated
H2SO4. In case of some secondary and tertiary alcohols, dissolution is followed by
the gradual separation of an insoluble liquid of high boiling point. How do you
account for this behaviour?
13. What products would be obtained if (+)-maltose itself were subjected to methylation
and hydrolysis? What would this tell us. About the structure of (+)-maltose? What
uncertainty would remain in the (+) maltose structure? Why was it necessary to
oxidize (+) maltose first before methylene?
14. Predict the products of the treatment of glycine with
a) Aqueous NaOH
b) Aqueous HCl
c) Benzoyl chloride + aqueous NaOH
d) Acetic anhydride
e) NaNO2 + HCl
15. Predict the products of the following reactions
a) N-benzoylglycine + SOCl2
b) Product (a) + NH3
c) Product (a) + alanine
d) Product (a) + C2H5OH
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9. Assignments (Objective Problems)
LEVEL I
1. Which of the following is/are addition polymer/s?
(A) PVC (B) Nylon-6
(C) Teflon (D) Terylene
2. Nylon-6, 6 is formed by heating
(A) Adipic acid and methane (B) Succinic acid and 1,3-butadiene
(C) Adipic acid and hexamethylene (D) none
3. Terylene (Dacron) is a condensation polymer of
(A) Formaldehyde and urea
(B) Ethylene glycol and ethylene diisocyanate
(C) Ethylene glycol and dimethyl terephthalic acid
(D) Maleic anhydride and methyelene glycol
4. Polystyrene is a
(A) Copolymer (B) Addition polymer
(C) Condensation polymer (D) None
5. The polymer having strongest intermolecular forces is
(A) Fibres (B) Elastomer
(C) Thermoplastic (D) Thermosetting polymer
6. Which of the following is not a monosaccharide?
(A) Glucose (B) Fructose
(C) Cellulose (D) Ribose
7. Glucose is
6513942
(A) Aldopentose (B) Aldohexose
(C) Ketopentose (D) Ketohexose
8. The monomer units of starch are
(A) -glucose (B) -glucose
(C) Pyranose (D) Galactose
9. Which of the following is the sweetest?
(A) Glucose (B) Fructose
(C) Maltose (D) Sucrose
10. Maltose is made up of
(A) -D-glucose (B) D-fructose
(C) -D-Glucose and -D-glucose (D) Glucose and fructose
11. Which is used to identify glucose
(A) Neutral FeCl3 (B) CHCl3 + KOH (alc.)
(C) C2H5ONa (D) Ammoniacal AgNO3
12. Number of possible isomers of glucose is
(A) 16 (B) 14
(C) 10 (D) 8
13. The carbohydrate which cannot be hydrolysed by the human digestive system is:
(A) Starch (B) Glycogen
(C) Cellulose (D) All the above
14. A carbohydrate which cannot be hydrolysed to simpler compounds is called:
(A) Monosaccharide (B) Polysaccharide
(C) Disaccharide (D) Trisaccharide
15. Which of the following has a branched chain structure?
(A) Amylopectin (B) Amylose
(C) Cellulose (D) Nylon
16. Glucose reacts with acetic anhydride to form:
(A) Monoacetate (B) Tetra-acetate
(C) Penta-acetate (D) Hexa-acetate
17. Glucose molecule reacts with X number of molecules of phenylhydrazine to yield
osazone. The value of X is
(A) Three (B) Two
(C) One (D) Four
18. When sucrose is heated with conc. HNO3 acid the product is
(A) Saccharic acid (B) Oxalic acid
(C) Formic acid (D) Invert sugar
19. Glucose is hydrolysed by zymase into
(A) Dicarboxylic acid (B) Alcohol
6513942
(C) Amino acids (D) Aromatic acids
20. Ozazone formation involves only 2-carbon atoms of glucose because of
(A) Oxidation (B) Reduction
(C) Chelation (D) Hydrolysis
LEVEL II
1.
CH
2
OH
O H H
O H H
H O H
CHO
is
(A) L(+) Ribose (B) L(+) Arabinose
(C) L() Xylose (D) L (+) Lyxose
2.
H OH
H OH
H OH
OH H
CHO
CH
2
OH
A
3 4 2
2 2
2
2
) SO ( Fe
O H
O H
Br

A is
(A)
CH
2
OH
O H H
O H H
OH H
CHO
(B)
CH
2
OH
H OH
H OH
OH H
CHO
(C)
CH
2
OH
H OH
O H H
OH H
CHO
(D)
CH
2
OH
O H H
O H H
H O H
CHO
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3.
C
O C H
3
C
C
C H
3
OH
O
H B A
) O H 2 (
HIO 2
2
4
+ +
A & B are
(A) CH3CHO & CH3COCH3 (B) CH3COCOOH & CH3CHO
(C) 2CH3COOH + HCOOH (D) CH3COCH3 + 2HCOOH
4.
OCH
3
H OH
H OH
H OCH
3
OH H
H
B A
) O H 2 (
HIO
2
4
+
A & B are
(A) HCHO & HCOCH(OCH3)2 (B) (CH3O)2CH COOH & HCHO
(C) (CH3O)2C = O and
COOH
|
COOH
(D) HCOOH & HCOCH(OCH3)2
5. Which of the following is a basic amino acid?
(A)
HOOC
CH
2
CH
COOH
NH
2
(B)
HOOC HC
CH
2
NH
2
CN
(C)
NH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
NH
2
COOH
(D)
C H
3
CH
2
CH
COOH
NH
2
6. Glucose
A
heat HI hydrolysis HCN

. A is
(A) Heptanoic acid (B) 2-iodohexane
(C) Heptane (D) Heptanol
7. Glucose

+ O H Br
2 2
Product is
(A) Glucaric acid (B) Gluconic acid
(C) Hexanoic acid (D) Bromo hexane
8. Sugars which is/are non-reducing
(A) Glucose (B) Starch
(C) Sucrose (D) Maltose
9. Carbohydrates which differ in configuration at the glycosidic carbon (i.e. C1 in aldose
and C2- in ketoses) are called
(A) Anomers (B) Epimers
(C) Diastereomers (D) Enantiomers
6513942
10. A pair of diastereomers that difer only in the configuration about a single carbon
atom are called
(A) Anomers (B) Epimers
(C) Conformers (D) Enantiomers
11. Main structural unit of protein is:
(A) Ester linkage (B) Ether linkage
(C) Peptide linkage (D) All the above
12. The reagent used for detection of protein is
(A) Conc. HNO3 (B) Fehling's solution
(C) Tollen's reagent (D) Baeyer's reagent
13. The pH value of a solution in which a polar amino acids does not migrate under the
influence of electric field is called
(A) Iso electric point (B) Iso electronic point
(C) Neutralisation point (D) None
14. The sequence in which amino acids are arranged in protein is called
(A) Primary structure (B) Secondary Structure
(C) Tertiary Structure (D) Quaternary structure
15. The bond that determines the secondary structure of protein is:
(A) Ionic bond (B) Covalent bond
(C) Coordinate bond (D) Hydrogen bond
16. Nylon-6,6 is an example of
17. Teflon is an example of:
18. Nylon-6 is a polyamide having monomer
(A) Caprolactam (B) Cyclohexane
(C) Cyclohexanone-oxime (D) None.
19. Natural rubber is a polymer of
(A) Chloroprene (B) Isoprene
(C) 1, 3-Butadiene (D) None
20. In vulcanization of rubber we add
(A) Sulphur (B) Phosphorus
(C) Magnesium (D) Chlorine

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10. Answers to Objective Assignments
LEVEL I
1. A, C 2. C
3. C 4. B
5. A 6. C
7. B 8. A
9. B 10. A
11. D 12. A
13. C 14. A
15. A 16. C
17. A 18. B
19. B 20. A
LEVEL II
1. A 2. B
3. C 4. A
5. C 6. A
7. B 8. B, C
9. A 10. B
6513942
11. C 12. A
13. A 14. A
15. D 16. A
17. D 18. A
19. B 20. A
6
6513942

Carbohydrates, Amino Acids & Polymers IIT Theory

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Carbohydrates, Amino Acids & Polymers IIT Theory

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1.

and Kb actually refers to the basicity of a carboxylate ion, RCOO

H2N CH2 COO

CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH

CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH

CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH

itself or the anion formed by abstraction of the NH proton

) while anthranilic acid

to form a soluble salt, P

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Carbohydrates, Amino Acids &amp; Polymers IIT Theory

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Carbohydrates, Amino Acids &amp; Polymers IIT Theory

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1.

and Kb actually refers to the basicity of a carboxylate ion, RCOO

H2N CH2 COO

CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH

CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH

CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH

itself or the anion formed by abstraction of the NH proton

) while anthranilic acid

to form a soluble salt, P

You might also like

Carbohydrates, Amino Acids & Polymers IIT Theory

Carbohydrates, Amino Acids & Polymers IIT Theory