The living world The students have gained familiarity with this aspect in class 6th and 7th

through their science textbooks. Therefore you should provide more and more opportunities to class 8th students to minutely explore the living world and learn about its finer details. The following four chapters are covered in the unit: 1. conservation of plants and animals 2. cell structure and function 3. reproduction in animals 4. reaching the age of adolescence You can see that the chapters are linked to one another. For example, an understanding of the cell is necessary for understanding reproduction in animals. Similarly, understanding of the cell and of reproduction will help in building an understanding of conservation of plants and animals. Conservation is an interesting topic in itself. You can see several examples of conservation around you and the students too are familiar with them. This chapter will play a crucial role in helping the students develop an interest in their environment and establish a relationship with it. The chapter on cell requires both you and the students to patiently observe different types of cells. There is a considerable overlap between the chapters on reproduction and adolescence. In their previous classes, the students have already studied how a species reproduces through the example of plants. The chapter will highlight different modes of reproduction by looking at humans and other animals. The students will be able to relate to the changes going on in their bodies through the chapter on adolescence and see how these prepare them for reproduction in later life. 1. Cell Why should we study the cell? You all will agree that cell is an important concept in biology. This is made clear by the cell theory. But the question of why we should study the cell remains and more importantly how do we motivate the students to study this topic. Several phenomenon are studied because they are present in our environment and others because they are necessary to explain them. But the cell is different because without a microscope we will not be able to see it. Further, most of the properties of living beings can be explained satisfactorily without referring to the cell. For example, the process of digestion can be explained as follows. We eat food, this goes into the stomach and intestines where it gets digested and the digested products are absorbed and waste products are excreted. This explanation shows that different organs are present in the body and they are linked to each other but it does not require a cell. However, there are also several properties of living beings especially sexual reproduction in animals that cannot be explained without cells. Although several processes can be explained without the cell, its existence makes it necessary for us to reexamine our theories. For example, understanding of reproduction, especially in multicellular organisms, depends on the knowledge of cell. This is because cell is the starting unit of an animal

after fertilization. This cell does not show any property of the adult animal and these appear slowly. This indicates the presence of a single unit. Reproduction and genetics is an interesting aspect of biology and the discovery of cell and cell science or cytology has enabled better understanding of reproduction and heredity. What do we need to observe the cell? A good microscope and lots of patience The microscope is useful for both teachers and students. For proper use, it is necessary that we know the various parts of a microscope and their functions. Microscopes are of two types simple and compound. A compound microscope is required to observe the cell. You should help students become familiar with microscope by encouraging them to observe various minute things through it. How to observe a cell? The textbook has discussed different types of cells in great detail. You should try to arrange the observation of several cells. Some material will be required for this: a good microscope, sample from your environment that can be studied such as water from a pond or from a sewage site. Put one or two drops of this water on a slide. Along with the water, you can put some algae (?) on the slide as well. Put a cover slip on the slide and see it under the microscope. Observe all parts of the drop. Usually, plant cells are easier to get if we want to observe cells using a microscope. And they are also easier to observe. Why do you think this is so? A lot of patience is required in this activity. Were you and your students able to see some microorganisms moving around under the microscope? Ask the students to draw any cell or microorganism that they see. Ask them to describe its movements. Usually we have a picture of microorganisms in our mind as we have seen in textbooks. But in reality when we see them under a microscope they are very different. The pictures in textbooks are generalizations/standardizations. Now ask the students to observe the samples mentioned in the textbooks under the microscope. The students will enjoy this activity and this will also help them understand the foundations of biology. Additionally, they will also develop the skill of using the microscope which will help them in later classes. Motivate the students to observe take thin cuttings of the tender stems of young plants and observe them under the microscope. The thinner their cuttings, the better they will be able to observe. They can also observe the pollen of various plants and try and understand the similarities and differences in them at the cellular level. Shape of different cells While the students are observing the cells, you can also ask them to note down their shapes. The cells shown in textbooks are actually representations. It is difficult to guess the shape of cells from these pictures. And therefore this aspect of study of cells often remains untouched. So you must discuss that cells are of various shapes. For example, cells of the stems of plants are cylindrical while cells observed in an onion peel are flat. Similarly when students are observing plant stem cells, draw their attention towards their different shapes and dimensions.

By now the students will know that cells are extremely minute. But how small are they exactly? Some bacteria are as small as 0.2 micrometer. If we divide 1 meter into 10 lakh equal divisions, then 1 division is equal to 1 micrometer. Or if we divide 1 cm into 10,000 divisions, then also one division is equal to 1 micrometer. An average animal cell is 20 micrometers. However, we must not forget that some animal cells are very big. For example, the cell of the egg of an ostrich is about 7 cm in diameter. Here the egg of the ostrich refers to the yellow yolk within the egg. Activity When observing the cells, ask the students to estimate their size. They can think of the size of the cells in an onion peel. Take a graph paper which has mm divisions. Put a drop of oil on it so that it becomes translucent. Now observe this under a microscope at low resolution. Without blinking your eyes, try and see how many mm squares you can observe. Now see the onion cell slide at the same resolution. How many onion cell can you see? This activity will broadly give an idea about how big a cell is.

Note: Your role in all these activities and their preparation is extremely crucial. It will be helpful if you try out all these experiments yourself first.

Historical Background Leeuvenhoek observed different microorganisms under a microscope he had made himself. He called these microorganisms animalcules. His observations were so good that he managed to observe bacteria by 1683. You can show students those samples that were possibly observed by Leeuvenhoek. Cork cells To observe cork sections, soak it for an hour in water. Now cut a thin section of this cork, put it on the slide in a drop of water and put a cover slip on it. If you dont have cork, you can use a section of a match stick instead. Now observe it under a microscope. Were your students able to see what Leeuvenhoek had seen first? Discuss with your students that knowing the history of an area makes it easier to understand it deeply. What we know about cells now was not known before Leeuvenhoek. We should also understand the importance of the discovery of the microscope in discovery of the cell. What is inside the cell? You must have heard that cell is the structural and functional unit of life. All living things are made of cells. Cell has a dual identity. It is an independent unit and also the building block of an organism. For example, cells together form tissues which combine to form an organ. And an organism has several such organs. But is there anything inside the cell? What is the cell made of? A cell has several components such as cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, golgi bodies, ribosomes etc. Although the students will study these in detail in higher classes some of them can be observed by a little extra effort. The nucleus in an onion peel cell can be seen easily. A cell is surrounded by a membrane that defines its shape and boundary. It also protects the cell. Many substances reach inside the cell by passing through the cell membrane. One characteristic of the cell membrane is that it does not allow everything to pass into or from the cell. The substances that can pass through it are chosen carefully. That is why a cell membrane is said to be selective permeable. Dont present all this information to the student. Rather, if you feel that students are inclined towards asking such questions then only include these in discussions. How to observe the nucleus? You can observe the nucleus in onion peel cells. Put a few drops of blue dye solution on the peel section on the slide using a dropper. You will now have to gently warm the slide. For this, take a burning matchstick and move it 6-8 times under the slide. Keep the slide aside for 10 minutes. After this, use a dropper to put water over the slide till all the dye is washed away. Now put a cover slip on this coloured onion peel and observe it under a microscope. Can you see a dark dot within the cell? This is the cell nucleus. Comparison between plant and animal cells

Ask the students to observe the edges of the cell in the slide prepared above. Can they see thick lines outside the cell? These thick lines between adjoining cells are actually cell walls surrounding each cell. In animal cell, the outer region of the cell is a membrane only. But in plants, apart from this membrane there is also a strong layer made of cellulose called the cell wall. This is one of the major differences between plant and animal cells. 2. Reproduction in animals Ask the students if all animals give birth to young ones similar to themselves? Tell them that this is an important characteristic of living things. The chapter can be started by asking the students questions such as: 1. Is there any plant or animal that does not reproduce? 2. can a parrot or hen come out from a pigeons egg? Discuss with the students that it is necessary that a new animal or plant can come only from a similar existing plant or animal. Also discuss that you get mango seeds from mango tree and not jamun or orange. Similarly, a cow gives birth to a calf and not a goat or puppy. The process where plants and animals produce young ones of their kind and thus increase their population is known as reproduction. Several social issues are linked to the topic of reproduction. Many superstitions are prevalent regarding reproduction in human beings. This chapter has several themes revolving around reproduction including the science involved. Some times talking about reproduction leads to discomfort and teachers hesitate in discussing this topic. Discussion on this theme with students is necessary because currently they are unable to do so at home. Lack of proper dialogue can lead to their moving in the wrong direction with the little information that they have. You should try and tell them that reproduction is a relevant aspect of human life and talking about its social and scientific importance is necessary. When looking at chapter 9 (reproduction) and chapter 10, you try and create an atmosphere in the classroom that encourages the students to talk about reproduction and reproductive organs. Let them ask questions related to this aspect. Try to plan your class in such a manner that it gives space to the children to ask questions and discuss problems. Children have already studied reproduction in plants in class 7th and you can start this chapter by going back to and recalling it. Give them examples about the animals they see around each other. They may have observed how birds, cats, dogs, butterflies etc are born. Try to make them realize that animals can reproduce by giving birth to their young or by laying eggs. They can make a table where list the animals around them in these two categories. Sexual reproduction When you discuss reproduction, children can see a lot of examples around them of animals who reproduce sexually. They will probably be able to distinguish the male and females in the animals around them. For example, cow and bull, cock and hen etc.

Ask them to list animals where they find it difficult to tell the male from the female or it is not possible for them. Two types of gametes Having two types of gametes male and female - is the first condition for sexual reproduction. This chapter discusses sexual reproduction by taking the example of human beings. The textbook has diagrams showing the male and female reproductive organs. The students will understand that male gametes and reproductive organs are seen in men and female gametes in women. Before starting this chapter, students must have read and understood the chapter on cells. So the students can be told that male gametes or sperms and female gametes or ova (eggs) are a type of cells. They are called reproductive cells. The fusion between male and female gametes to form a zygote is another critical condition for sexual reproduction. Some students from rural backgrounds might have seen the birthing process in farm animals. They will know that only the female can give birth. You can ask the students the role of the male in reproduction. Some students may have birds as pets. Ask them to tell or find out if a female bird kept alone in a cage lays eggs or not. Take the students to a nearby poultry farm if possible. Ask them to look around and ask questions. They will find that a cock is not kept with hens that lay eggs for human consumption. No chicks can hatch from these eggs. The students can find out what is done in the poultry farm when they want chickens from eggs. Fertilization You can talk with the students about the fertilization between the sperm and the egg. You can discuss the two types of fertilization external or outside the body and internal or inside the body. You can give examples of both types of fertilization. For example in humans and other breast feeding animals, fertilization happens inside the female. And in frogs it happens outside the body in water. In external fertilization, the male releases sperms and the females lays eggs which then combine to form the zygote. Frogs are a good example of external fertilization. Ask the students to recall the noise made by frogs in the rainy season. This is their reproduction season. The male frog tries to attract the female by making loud croaking noises. Sometimes you can see the male and female frogs stuck to each other. Male frogs release sperms in lakhs in water sources such as ponds. You can ask the children to observe the eggs of a frog and the hatched tadpoles in water bodies during the rainy season. Similarly you can attract the students attention towards reproduction. They can observe sparrows in their homes. They collect twigs and build their nest in a secure place. Then the female sparrow lays eggs in the nest and also takes care of the young chicks when they are hatched. You can ask students to observe butterflies, caterpillars and the eggs laid by many other animals, birds in the rainy season.

The students can ask why if only one sperm fertilizes the egg, then so many sperms are formed. You can discuss that reproduction is very important and the large number of sperms is to ensure definite fertilization of the egg under all circumstances. You can explain that a frog lays hundreds of eggs but not all of them produce young frogs. Many of these eggs are eaten by other animals. Sometimes the young tadpole is eaten by other animals. Therefore, nature ensures that a species can continue by producing eggs and sperms in large quantities. The students can watch programmes on National geographic and discovery channels that are entertaining and informative. You can tell the students that in humans and in all cases of sexual reproduction some characteristics in the young one are from the father and some from the mother. They can look at themselves and their friends and see which characteristics they got from their father and which from their mother. By class 8th students will be aware that there are some families that cannot have children. Very often, the female is held responsible. You can discuss with the class whether the male also can be responsible for not having children. Compel them to think on these issues. Many times non-scientific methods are used by families in the hope of getting children. Students can discuss whether it is right to do so. Test tube baby Test tube babies are no longer a new technique. The children especially in cities may have heard of test tube babies. This certainly does not mean that the baby develops in a test tube. You can discuss how under certain circumstances, fertilization is not possible in the mothers body. Then external fertilization is tried by doctors and the fertilized embryo is placed inside the mothers body. The development of the embryo Embryo development is one important aspect of reproduction. Students may be fascinated to learn how the embryo develops within the mothers body. At what stage which organs are formed? Some people believe that the sex of the child, that is whether it will be a boy or a girl, is determined during the development of the embryo. You must clarify that sex determination occurs during fertilization itself. Therefore any efforts to get a boy after pregnancy are generally unsuccessful. Here you should also logically discuss that it is matter of chance whether a boy or a girl will be born. And it may be relevant here to discuss that girls are in no way inferior to boys. Picture: Development stages of the embryo. You can also discuss the laws regarding sex determination during pregnancy. It is now illegal and punishable to determine the sex of the child at any clinic. Activity You can ask the students to observe the eggs of different egg laying creatures. They can first examine the external characteristics of the egg like the hardness of its shell and the different colours of different eggs.

Similarly they can also observe insects. If you look at the lower surface of leaves during the rainy season, youll be able to observe very small (minute) eggs. You may need a hand lens to see such eggs. If you place these eggs carefully in a box along with some leaves you may see some caterpillars coming out after some time. In metamorphosis, the young one coming out of the egg is very different from its parents. For example, the tadpole is completely vegetarian while the frog is totally carnivorous. Similarly, the tadpole cannot survive outside water while a frog can. You can also discuss metamorphosis in insects. Also discuss the advantages of metamorphosis for the animal. You can also tell the children that the leeks in their hair are the eggs laid by lice. They can also observe these. Note: Ask the students, not to break the eggs during observation because these eggs are necessary to continue the species. Asexual Reproduction Asexual reproduction has been discussed at the end of the chapter. The number of examples of asexual reproduction seen in plants is way more than that in animals. Actually, it is more common in microorganisms. You can discuss this through a ready made hydra slide. You can also talk about the differences in sexual and asexual reproduction. The characteristics in a young one formed during sexual reproduction are a mixture of both its parents but in asexual reproduction only the characteristics of one parent get passed on. Cloning has been discussed in the textbook. But this is also an example of asexual reproduction. Cloning does not require male and female gametes. When the sheep clone called dolly was made, it resembled its mother in all respects. In English language, the word clone is used for an identical image or form. Therefore, clone implies an identical offspring. Table

No .

Name of animal

Eggs or young ones

Metamorph osis Or not

Who looks after the young one after birth

1 2 3 4 5 6

Frog Fly butterfly

7
Project As project work, you can ask the students to collect information about all animals seen around them and list their properties. They can identify animals that lay eggs, that give birth to young ones. They can also see where there is external fertilization and where there is internal fertilization. What is done to raise the young one and is there a special season when an animal reproduces. You can add more such points. The children can also make charts and display them in the classroom. 3. Reaching the age of adolescence This topic is important at several levels. Children of class 8th are themselves passing through this phase and therefore it is important for them to be aware of the changes in their body. Secondly, adolescence is the preparatory stage for reproduction. Everyone passes through this phase. In humans it generally starts at 11 years and continues till 18-19 years. You can start the chapter by asking certain questions that are often also asked by the children. For example: o Why dont girls have beards? o Why do boys have beards? o Why do girls menstruate? These are some questions linked to adolescence. There can be other questions that motivate students to think about the characteristics of adolescence. This is the time when a girl or a boy are undergoing several physical changes but do not get an opportunity to talk about them with anyone. In these circumstances, your role as a teacher becomes very important. The changes due to adolescence are more visible in girls but it is still not considered appropriate to talk about physical changes, menstrual cycle etc. Lack of discussion can lead to misconceptions and mental stress. Since this chapter is very similar to reproduction, you can teach it in continuation. During adolescence, girls and boys undergo several physical changes. Shoes and clothes brought one month, dont fit them after some time. At the age of around 1011, boys suddenly start growing taller rapidly. Their bodies also start changing and their sweat and oil glands become active. Hair growth is seen in the underarm area, on their arms and legs and around the reproductive organs. Their voice starts changing. Some facial hair and chest hair also starts appearing. When we start discussions about adolescence, we should not ignore gender. There are several beliefs in the society that girls are weaker and boys are strong. There are many beliefs regarding menstruation. Where ever possible, discuss these issues while teaching the chapter. Activity Ask the students to make a detailed list of the changes occurring during adolescence. If both girls and boys are in the class, you can divide them into two groups and ask them to write down the changes that they can see or feel. Ask

them to write down only the changes that they can see in themselves. You will have to be very careful while discussing this list so that it takes place properly. Changes seen in girls:

S.No.

Physical

Mental

Changes seen in boys:

S.No.

Physical

Mental

It can be often seen in the class that one child could be quite tall and another is very short. The second child is often called names like pidda, shorty etc by his classmates and sometimes even adults make fun of him. Some parents also get concerned if their child is not gaining height and try several ways to make their child grow tall. They give him tonics or medicines with hormones. But here it is more important for us to find out the factors that affect height. The students can also analyse their observations. Ask the students to try out activity 10.1 from their textbook among themselves. This will give the estimated height of each child at the end of the growth period. You can get a measuring tape and the children can measure their heights and calculate it when they are 18. This can prove to be an interesting activity for children.

Discuss with the students that the height of any person is very similar to some other family member. This is because height depends on a gene that a child gets from parents. However, nutrition also plays a role in the growing years. Students sometimes worry whether they will grow or not. They start feeing lowly. Sometimes fun is made of changes happening during adolescence. If you talk to students about this, it will change their thinking. Make such discussions a part of normal classroom process. Try to attract the students attention to the fact that the changes seen during adolescence are mental as well as physical. Make them aware that this is an age where the capacity of the brain to learn is quite high. Factors behind the changes seen in adolescence By now, the students must have formed some understanding of the changes seen during adolescence. Now is the time to discuss the factors in our body that are responsible for these changes. You can make this topic interesting by presenting it in terms of a clock or system within our body that keeps track of the changes with time.

Actually, hormones are responsible for these changes. Discuss with the students that many chemicals are produced in our body that control various functions. These chemicals are called hormones and are formed in glands. No special pipe or duct is required to transport these hormones to different parts of the body. Therefore these glands are also called ductless glands. Hormones enter the blood straight from these glands. These are also called endocrine glands. It is possible that hormones are being discussed for the first time. Therefore it is necessary that this concept becomes very

clear for the students. Especially clarity on their role in terms of adolescence can lead to relevant discussions. Ask the children to recall why they are advised to eat iodized salt. This can open the window to discussions on hormone production. Iodine is required for proper functioning of the thyroid gland. The hormones responsible for onset of adolescence have been discussed in the textbook. Remember that the names of hormones should not be mentioned simply for the purpose of memorization. Rather, they should connect it with the details and complexities of adolescence. Whether, boy or a girl, the purpose of this chapter is to try and give them a proper picture of life processes.
Major Hormones
Where Hormone Is Produced
Pituitary gland Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin) Corticotropin (ACTH) Causes kidneys to retain water and, along with aldosterone, helps control blood pressure Controls the production and secretion of hormones by the adrenal glands Growth hormone Controls growth and development; promotes protein production Luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone Control reproductive functions, including the production of sperm and semen, egg maturation, and menstrual cycles; control male and female sexual characteristics (including hair distribution, muscle formation, skin texture and thickness, voice, and perhaps even personality traits) Oxytocin Causes muscles of the uterus and milk ducts in the breast to contract Prolactin Starts and maintains milk production in the ductal glands of the breast (mammary glands) Thyroid-stimulating hormone Stimulates the production and secretion of hormones by the thyroid gland Ovaries Estrogen Controls the development of female sex characteristics and the reproductive system Progesterone Prepares the lining of the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg and readies the mammary glands to secrete milk Testes Testosterone Controls the development of male sex characteristics and the reproductive system

Hormone

Function

This chapter also discusses the menstrual cycle in girls. Usually this occurs in the 12 to 50 years age in women. It happens approximately once a month in this time span apart from the

time the female is pregnant. A woman can reproduce from the time she starts menstruating till the time of the last menses. Menstruation is the process where a womans body prepares itself to have a child. This cycle start when the girl enters adolescence which can start anywhere between the age of 9 to 16 depending on the individual. Several thoughts are prevalent in society regarding this process. You can list these after talking to your students especially girls and then discuss. There is flow of blood during menstruation which can last from 4 to 5 days. These days are very painful for many women and stomach aches, back aches and pain in legs are frequent complaints. Some women experience mild discomfort, other more and some other extreme pain. Some feel it just before menstruation starts and it stops once the bleeding starts and many feel pain during the flow of blood. You can discuss in the class that the uterus lining is shed during this time. To remove this lining from the body, the uterus need to contract and this breaking and contraction leads to pain. Menstruation can also affect mood and make a person tense. The exact reason for this is not very clear but the endocrine glands play an important role. More or less hormones are secreted by these glands to maintain some sort of balance in the body. Some discomfort is caused by this increase and decrease. Menstruation does not occur in some girls. There could be many reasons for this. The onset of the menstrual cycle is an indicator of development of the reproductive system and depends on the endocrine glands. If there is some problem or disease in these two, the girl may not experience menstruation or the cycle may start and then stop. Our attitude and views regarding menstruation, the behavior of people around us, our food, health and lack of blood, malnutrition and being ill for a long time can all effect the menstrual cycle. Stopping of menstruation during adolescence could be due to blood deficiency or malnutrition. We need more nutritious food in this period. There could be loss of blood during menstruation which has to be produced again. You can take iron tablets or iron rich food for blood deficiency. Food like dal, green leafy vegetables, amla, sprouts should be part of the diet. Sex determination

Sex determination during pregnancy is one related aspect. Although, in the chapter on reproduction the students read about the formation of sperms and eggs and by now they have some knowledge of chromosomes also. Recall that embryo is formed by the fertilization of the egg by a sperm. Discuss in detail that the sperms and eggs have the characteristics of father and mother as chromosomes and their genes. Therefore chromosomes are called the carriers of heredity. You can start by telling the children that the number of chromosome in each organism is fixed. Humans have 23 paired (or 46) chromosomes. But this number is half in sperms and ova. The chromosomes that determine the male sex are different. The chromosome for determining boys or males is Y. This means that the sex chromosome in males is XY and in females it is XX. So the gametes formed in reproductive organs of males are of two types ones that have X chromosome and others that have Y. But all female gametes or eggs are of the same types with X chromosome. Sex is determined by the type of sperm that fertilizes the egg. When the Y type gamete of the male fertilizes the egg, males are produced and when the X type fertilizes girls are born. So whether a girl is born or a boy, depends on the sperm and it is only chance that determines the type of sperm that will fertilize the egg.