Stephen Blake Ch. 14 Outline I. Macroevolution and the Diversity of Life A.

Darwin observed a high diversity of life on the Galapagos Islands, which led him to develop an explanation for macroevolution. B. Macroevolution - the major changes in the history of life, evident in the fossil record C. Speciation - the formation of new species as a result of macroevolution 1. Speciation helps increase the diversity of life 2. Through this, all of the species on Earth today evolved from one common ancestor II. The Origin of Species A. Species - a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed with one another to produce fertile offspring 1. Can be classified based on measurable physical traits 2. Can be identified in terms of ecological niches 3. Can also be defined as the smallest group of individuals sharing a common ancestor and forming one branch on the tree of life B. Reproductive Barrier - anything that prevents individuals of closely related species from interbreeding 1. Prezygotic Barriers - prevent mating or fertilization between species a. Temporal Isolation - mating or fertilization occurs at different seasons or times of day b. Habitat Isolation - Populations live in different habitats and do not meet c. Behavioral Isolation - Little or no sexual attraction exists between populations d. Mechanical Isolation - Structural differences prevent fertilization e. Gametic Isolation - Female and male gametes fail to unite in fertilization 2. Postzygotic Barriers - operate if interspecies mating actually occurs and results in hybrid zygotes a. Reduced Hybrid Viability- Hybrid zygotes fail to develop or fail to reach sexual maturity b. Reduced Hybrid Fertility - Hybrids fail to produce functional gametes c. Hybrid Breakdown - Hybrids are feeble or sterile C. Mechanisms of Speciation 1. Allopatric Speciation - The initial block to gene flow is a geographic barrier that physically isolates the splinter population a. caused by mountains

b. caused by separation of land c. common for small, isolated populations 2. Sympatric Speciation - The origin of a new species without geographic isolation a. caused by the development of adaptations b. caused by choosing of mates based on color c. caused by accidents during cell division, genetic alterations d. caused by cross-breeding by humans D. Tempo of speciation 1. Punctuated Equilibria - long periods of little change, or equilibrium, punctuated by abrupt episodes of speciation 2. Graduated Model - species that are descended from a common ancestor diverge gradually in form as they acquire unique adaptations III. The Evolution of Biological Novelty A. Adaption of Old Structures for New Functions- exaptations 1. A structure can sometimes become adapted to alternative functions it was not originally designed for 2. Some structures can serve multiple functions in organisms over time 3. An animal has to evolve over time in order to give a structure an alternative function. B. Evo-Devo - evolutionary developmental biology 1. studies the evolution of developmental processes in multicellular organisms 2. just a few genetic changes can become magnified into major structural differences between organisms 3. developmental genes cover the rate, timing, and special pattern of changes in an organisms form as it develops from a zygote into an adult 4. paedomorphosis - the retention into adulthood of features that were solely juvenile in ancestral species a. alters the structure of an organism, as adulthood features are mixed with childhood features b. causes uneven bone growth in humans 5. duplications or alterations of homeotic genes, which determine the location of structures on the body, probably facilitated the origin of new body shapes in animals IV. Earth History and Macroevolution A. Geologic Time and the Fossil Record 1. The fossil record, the sequence in which fossils appear in rock strata, is an archive of macroevolution. 2. Fossils are most commonly seen in sedimentary rocks

3. Geological Time Scale - a constant sequence of geological periods in the Earths history a. Precambrian (earlier than 542 mya) b. Paleozoic (542-251 mya) c. Mesozoic (251-65 mya) d. Cenozoic (65 mya to present) 4. The boundaries between eras are marked by mass extinctions 5. Radiometric Dating - a method of determining the age of rocks and fossils based on the decay of radioactive isotopes B. Plate Tectonics and Macroevolution 1. The continents all drift on Earths surface floating on top of the hotter mantle 2. A supercontinent made up of all of the landmasses was formed about 250 mya 3. As a result of this, all of the biodiversity of Earth came together on one land mass and competed. Some species became extinct at this time. 4. When Pangea split apart, the isolation caused by this resulted in some species in different areas of the world evolving differently. C. Mass Extinctions and Explosive Diversifications of Life 1. Five mass extinctions have occurred in the past 500 million years. 2. Mass extinction is usually followed by explosive diversification of survivors. V. Classifying the Diversity of Life A. Basics of Taxonomy 1. Naming Species a. Species are named using a two-part latinized name, or binomial, b. the first part of the latin name is the species genus and the second part is a unique name for each species within the genus. 2. Hierarchical Classification a. eight levels, in order from general to specific: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species b. each level of classification is made up of many subgroups that share similar traits. B. Classification and Phylogeny

1. Biologists use phylogenetic trees to depict hypotheses about the evolutionary history of species 2. Homology and Analogy a. Homologous Structures - structures found in different species which may vary in form and function but exhibit fundamental similarities because they evolved from the same structure in a common ancestor b. Convergent Evolution - when species from different evolutionary branches have certain structures that are superficially similar if natural selection has shaped analogous adaptations c. To classify organisms based on evolutionary history, you can only use homologous structures. d. Complex structures that are similar are more likely to be homologous than simple structures. 3. Molecular biology can be used to search for homology in similar structures, by comparing the genomes of the species which have these structures. 4. Cladistics - the scientific research for clades, which are an ancestral species and all of its descendants; a distinct branch on the tree of life. These studies are used to shape classification. C. Classification: A Work in Progress 1. Like all hypotheses, phylogenetic trees are constantly being revised. 2. Three-Domain System - a classification system created in the late 1900s which puts all life into three domains: bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. a. In the Eukarya domain, there are four kingdoms: Plantae, Fungi, Animalia, and the Protists. b. The protist kingdom is believed to contain multiple kingdoms, however scientists havent found any yet.