Rotating Magnetic Field

Induction Motors

Introduction
The level of prosperity of a community is related to its capability to produce goods and services. But producing goods and services is strongly related to the use of energy in an intelligent way. Motion and temperature (heat) control are paramount in energy usage. Energy comes into use in a few forms such as thermal, mechanical and electrical. The larger part of electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy in electric motors. Among electric motors, induction motors are most used both for home appliances and in various industries.

A Historical Touch
Faraday discovered the electromagnetic induction law around 1831 and Maxwell formulated the laws of electricity (or Maxwells equations) around 1860. The knowledge was ripe for the invention of the induction machine which has two fathers: Galileo Ferraris (1885) and Nicola Tesla (1886). In 1889, Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the induction motor with the wound rotor and subsequently the cage rotor in a topology very similar to that used today. He also invented the double-cage rotor. Thus, around 1900 the induction motor was ready for wide industrial use. No wonder that before 1910, in Europe, locomotives provided with induction motor propulsion, were capable of delivering 200 km/h.

Introduction
Three-phase induction motors are the most common and frequently encountered machines in industry
simple design, rugged, low-price, easy maintenance wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to 10 MW run essentially as constant speed from zero to full load speed is power source frequency dependent
not easy to have variable speed control requires a variable-frequency power-electronic drive for optimal speed control

Construction
An induction motor has two main parts
a stationary stator
consisting of a steel frame that supports a hollow, cylindrical core core, constructed from stacked laminations (why?), having a number of evenly spaced slots, providing the space for the stator winding

Stator of IM

Construction
a revolving rotor
composed of punched laminations, stacked to create a series of rotor slots, providing space for the rotor winding one of two types of rotor windings conventional 3-phase windings made of insulated wire (wound-rotor) similar to the winding on the stator aluminum bus bars shorted together at the ends by two aluminum rings, forming a squirrel-cage shaped circuit (squirrel-cage)

Two basic design types depending on the rotor design

squirrel-cage wound-rotor

Construction
Squirrel cage Induction Motor
Aluminum bus bars shorted together at the ends by two aluminum rings, forming a squirrel-cage shaped circuit (squirrel-cage). This type of construction does not admit any access to the rotor windings while operating, which results in a missing opportunity to directly influence the operational behaviour. Large machines feature copper rotor bars and short-circuit-rings whereas die-cast aluminum cages are used for small power machines.

Construction
Wound-rotor
conventional 3-phase windings made of insulated wire (wound-rotor) similar to the winding on the stator. End windings are outside the cylindrical cage connected to slip rings. Rotor windings are short-circuited either directly or via brushes using a starting resistor or can be supplied by external voltage, which are means to adjust Notice the rotational speed. slip rings

Construction
Slip rings

NOTE: Wound rotor are known to be more expensive due to its maintenance cost to upkeep the slip rings, carbon brushes and also rotor windings.
Brushes

Cutaway in a typical wound-rotor IM. Notice the brushes and the slip rings

Construction

Rotating Magnetic Field

Balanced three phase windings, i.e. mechanically displaced 120 degrees form each other, fed by balanced three phase source A rotating magnetic field with constant magnitude is produced, rotating with a speed

nsync =

120 f e P

rpm

Where fe is the supply frequency and P is the no. of poles and nsync is called the synchronous speed in rpm (revolutions per minute)

Rotating Magnetic Field

Principle of operation
This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and produces an induced voltage in the rotor windings

eind = (v x B) l
Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for both squirrel cage and wound-rotor, and induced current flows in the rotor windings The rotor current produces another magnetic field A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those two magnetic fields

ind = kBR Bs
Where ind is the induced torque and BR and BS are the magnetic flux densities of the rotor and the stator respectively

Principle of operation

The magnetic fields in an induction motor under light loads

The magnetic fields in an induction motor under heavy loads

Induction motor speed

At what speed will the IM run?
Can the IM run at the synchronous speed, why? If rotor runs at the synchronous speed, which is the same speed of the rotating magnetic field, then the rotor will appear stationary to the rotating magnetic field and the rotating magnetic field will not cut the rotor. So, no induced current will flow in the rotor and no rotor magnetic flux will be produced so no torque is generated and the rotor speed will fall below the synchronous speed When the speed falls, the rotating magnetic field will cut the rotor windings and a torque is produced

Induction motor speed

If the induction motors rotor were turning at synchronous speed

the rotor bars would be stationary relative to the magnetic field

no rotor current

no induced voltage

no rotor magnetic field

Induced torque = 0

Rotor will slow down due to friction

Induction motor speed

So, the IM will always run at a speed lower than the synchronous speed The difference between the motor speed and the synchronous speed is called the Slip

Where nslip= slip speed nsync= speed of the magnetic field nm = mechanical shaft speed of the motor

The Slip
s=
Where s is the slip
s=0

nsync nm nsync

Notice that : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed if the rotor is stationary
s=1

Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the above eq. by 100, notice that the slip is a ratio and doesnt have units

The Slip
Slip may also be described in terms of angular velocity, .
s =

sync

sync

x 100

Using the ratio of slip, we may also determine the rotor speed:

nm = (1 s ) nsync

or

m = (1 s ) sync

The Electrical Frequency on the Rotor

An induction motor is similar to a rotating transformer where the primary is similar to the stator and the secondary would be a rotor. But unlike a transformer, the secondary frequency is not be necessarily the same as in the primary. If the rotor is locked (cannot move), the rotor would have the same frequency as the stator . On the other hand, if the rotor turns at synchronous speed, the frequency on rotor will be zero. Another way to look at it is to see that when the rotor is locked (nm= 0), rotor speed drops to zero, hence by default, slip is 1. At (nm= n syn) the rotor frequency fr = 0 Hz and the slip s= 0. For any speed in between , the rotor frequency is directly proportional to the difference between the speed of magnetic field nsyn and the speed of rotor nm.

The Electrical Frequency on the Rotor

Why? Since

S =

sync

n
syn c

And rotor frequency may be expressed as:

f =

fr = sfe
n
sync

n
sync

Hence combing both equations would give: And since

n sync=120fe / P
fr = P (nsync nm ) 120

Which shows that the relative difference between synchronous speed and the rotor speed will determine the rotor frequency.

Example
A 208-V, 10hp, four pole, 60 Hz, Y-connected induction motor has a full-load slip of 5 percent
1. 2. 3. 4. What is the synchronous speed of this motor? What is the rotor speed of this motor at rated load? What is the rotor frequency of this motor at rated load? What is the shaft torque of this motor at rated load?

Solution
1. nsync =
120 f e 120(60) = = 1800 rpm P 4

2. nm = (1 s)ns
= (1 0.05) 1800 = 1710 rpm

3. f r = sf e = 0.05 60 = 3Hz 4. load = Pout = Pout

m
2

nm 60 10 hp 746 watt / hp = = 41.7 N .m 1710 2 (1/ 60)

Problem

Equivalent Circuit
An induction motor relies for its operation on the induction of voltages and currents in its rotor circuit from the stator circuit (transformer action). This induction is essentially a transformer operation, hence the equivalent circuit of an induction motor is similar to the equivalent circuit of a transformer.
The Transformer Model of an Induction Motor A transformer per-phase equivalent circuit, representing the operation of an induction motor is shown below:

The transformer model or an induction motor, with rotor and stator connected by an ideal transformer of turns ratio aeff.

Equivalent Circuit
As in any transformer, there is certain resistance and self-inductance in the primary (stator) windings, which must be represented in the equivalent circuit of the machine. They are - R1 - stator resistance and X1 stator leakage reactance Also, like any transformer with an iron core, the flux in the machine is related to the integral of the applied voltage E1. The curve of mmf vs flux (magnetization curve) for this machine is compared to a similar curve for a transformer, as shown below: The slope of the induction motors mmf-flux curve is much shallower than the curve of a good transformer. This is because there must be an air gap in an induction motor, which greatly increases the reluctance of the flux path and thus reduces the coupling between primary and secondary windings.

Equivalent Circuit
The higher reluctance caused by the air gap means that a higher magnetizing current is required to obtain a given flux level. Therefore, the magnetizing reactance Xm in the equivalent circuit will have a much smaller value than it would in a transformer. The primary internal stator voltage is E1 is coupled to the secondary ER by an ideal transformer with an effective turns ratio aeff. The turns ratio for a wound rotor is basically the ratio of the conductors per phase on the stator to the conductors per phase on the rotor. It is rather difficult to see aeff clearly in the cage rotor because there are no distinct windings on the cage rotor. ER in the rotor produces current flow in the shorted rotor (or secondary) circuit of the machine. The primary impedances and the magnetization current of the induction motor are very similar to the corresponding components in a transformer equivalent circuit.

The Rotor Circuit Model

When the voltage is applied to the stator windings, a voltage is induced in the rotor windings. In general, the greater the relative motion between the rotor and the stator magnetic fields, the greater the resulting rotor voltage and rotor frequency. The largest relative motion occurs when the rotor is stationary, called the locked-rotor or blocked-rotor condition, so the largest voltage and rotor frequency are induced in the rotor at that condition. The smallest voltage and frequency occur when the rotor moves at the same speed as the stator magnetic field, resulting in no relative motion. The magnitude and frequency of the voltage induced in the rotor at any speed between these extremes is directly proportional to the slip of the rotor. Therefore, if the magnitude of the induced rotor voltage at locked-rotor conditions is called ER0, the magnitude of the induced voltage at any slip will be given by:

ER = sER0

The Rotor Circuit Model

And the frequency of the induced voltage at any slip is:

fr = sfe
This voltage is induced in a rotor containing both resistance and reactance. The rotor resistance RR is a constant, independent of slip, while the rotor reactance is affected in a more complicated way by slip. The reactance of an induction motor rotor depends on the inductance of the rotor and the frequency of the voltage and current in the rotor. With a rotor inductance of LR, the rotor reactance is: X = L = 2 f L
R r R r R

Since f r = sf e , X R = s 2 f e L R = sX R 0
where XR0 is the blocked rotor reactance.

The Rotor Circuit Model

The resulting rotor equivalent circuit is as shown: Rotor current flow can be found as:

IR =

Therefore, the overall rotor impedance taking into account rotor slip would be: RR + jX R 0 Z R ,e q = s

ER ER ER0 = = RR + jX R RR + jsX R 0 RR + jX R0 s

The Rotor Circuit Model

And the rotor equivalent circuit using this convention is:

The rotor circuit model with all the frequency (slip) effects concentrated in resistor RR. In this equivalent circuit, the rotor voltage is a constant ER0 and the rotor impedance ZR,eq contains all the effects of varying rotor slip. Based upon the equation above, at low slips, it can be seen that the rotor resistance is much bigger in magnitude as compared to XR0. At high slips, XR0 will be larger as compared to the rotor resistance.

The Final Equivalent Circuit

To produce the final per-phase equivalent circuit for an induction motor, it is necessary to refer the rotor part of the model over to the stator side. In an ordinary transformer, the voltages, currents and impedances on the secondary side can be referred to the primary by means of the turns ratio of the transformer. Exactly the same sort of transformation can be done for the induction motors rotor circuit. If the effective turns ratio of an induction motor is aeff , then the transformed ' rotor voltage becomes

E1 = ER = aeff ER 0
I
2

The rotor current: And the rotor impedance:

IR a e ff

2 R Z 2 = a eff R + jX R 0 s

If we make the following definitions:

R2 = a2eff RR X2 = a2eff XR0

The Final Equivalent Circuit

The final per-phase equivalent circuit is as shown below:

The rotor resistance RR and the locked rotor resistance XRo are very difficult or impossible to determine directly on squirrel cage rotors, and the effective turns ratio a eff is also difficult to obtain for squirrel cage rotors.

Power losses in Induction machines

An induction motor is already be described as a rotating transformer. Its input is a 3 phase system of voltages and currents. For an ordinary transformer, the output is electric power from the secondary windings. The secondary windings in an induction motor (the rotor) are shorted out, so no electrical output exists from normal induction motors. Instead, the output is mechanical.

Power losses in Induction machines

Copper losses
Copper loss in the stator (PSCL) = I12R1 Copper loss in the rotor (PRCL) = I22R2

Core loss (Pcore) Mechanical power loss due to friction and windage How this power flow in the motor?

Power flow in induction motor

Power flow in induction motor

Pin = 3 VL I L cos = 3 V ph I ph cos PSCL = 3 I12 R1 Pcore = 3E2GC

The input power to an induction motor Pin is in the form of 3phase electric voltages and currents. The first losses encountered in the machine are I2R losses in the stator windings (the stator copper loss PSCL). Then, some amount of power is lost as hysteresis and eddy currents in the stator (Pcore).

Power flow in induction motor

P = P (P + P ) AG in SCL core
The power remaining at this point is transferred to the rotor of the machine across the air gap between the stator and rotor. This power is called the air gap power PAG of the machine.

Power flow in induction motor

R C L

3 I

2 2

c o n v

A G

R C L

After the power is transferred to the rotor, some of it is lost as I2R losses (the rotor copper loss PRCL), and the rest is converted from electrical to mechanical form (Pconv).

Power flow in induction motor

P =P (P+w +P ) out conv f stray

Finally, friction and windage losses PF&W and stray losses Pmisc are subtracted. The remaining power is the output of the motor Pout.

Power relations
Pin = 3 VL I L cos = 3 V ph I ph cos

PSCL = 3 I12 R1

PAG = Pin ( PSCL + Pcore ) = Pconv + PRCL = 3I 2 3I 2

2 PRCL = 3I 2 R2 2 Pconv = PAG PRCL = 3I 2 R2 (1 s ) s Pout = Pconv ( Pf + w + Pstray )

R2 s

PRCL = s

PRCL (1 s ) = s

Problem

Problem

Home Work?

(Page # 372)

Example 7.2 A 480V, 60Hz, 50hp, 3 phase induction motor is drawing 60A at 0.85 PF lagging. The stator copper losses are 2kW, and the rotor copper losses are 700W. The friction and windage losses are 600W, the core losses are 1800W, and the stray losses are negligible. Find: a. The air gap power PAG b. The power converted Pconv c. The output power Pout d. The efficiency of the motor

Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics

Induced Torque from a Physical Standpoint
No-load Condition At no load conditions rotor speed is near to synchronous speed (rotating magnetic field). The net magnetic field Bnet is produced by the magnetization current IM . The magnitude of IM and Bnet is directly proportional to voltage E1 . If E1 is constant, then Bnet is constant. In an actual machine, E1 varies as the load changes due to the stator impedances R1 and X1 which cause varying volt drops with varying loads. However, the volt drop at R1 and X1 is so small, that E1 is assumed to remain constant throughout.

The magnetic fields in an induction motor under light loads/ No Load condition.

Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics

At no-load, the rotor slip is very small, and so the relative motion between rotor and magnetic field is very small, and the rotor frequency is also very small. Since the relative motion is small, the voltage ER induced in the bars of the rotor is very small, and the resulting current flow IR is also very small. Since the rotor frequency is small, the reactance of the rotor is nearly zero, and the max rotor current IR is almost in phase with the rotor voltage ER . The rotor current produces a small magnetic field BR at an angle slightly greater than 90 degrees behind Bnet. The stator current must be quite large even at no-load since it must supply most of Bnet .

The magnetic fields in an induction motor under light loads/ No Load condition.

Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics

The induced torque which is keeping the rotor running, is given by and its magnitude is

in d = k B R B n e t
In terms of magnitude,

ind = kB R B net sin

is the angle b/w Bnet and BR

The induced torque will be small due to small rotor magnetic field.

Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics

On-load Conditions
As the motors load increases, its slip increases, and the rotor speed falls. Since the rotor speed is slower, there is now more relative motion between rotor and stator magnetic fields. Greater relative motion means a stronger rotor voltage ER which in turn produces a larger rotor current IR . With large rotor current, the rotor magnetic field BR also increases. However, the angle between rotor current and BR changes as well. The magnetic fields in an induction motor under heavy loads

Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics

Since the rotor slip is larger, the rotor the rotor frequency rises (fr =sfe) and reactance increases (LR). Therefore, the rotor current now lags further behind the rotor voltage, and the rotor magnetic field shifts with the current. The rotor current now has increased compared to no-load and the angle has increased. The increase in BR tends to increase the torque, while the increase in angle tends to decrease the The magnetic fields in an induction torque (ind is proportional to sin ). motor under heavy loads.

Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics

Since the first effect is larger than the second one, the overall induced torque increases to supply the motors increased load. As the load on the shaft is increased, the sin term decreases more than the BR term increases (the value is going towards the 0 cross over point for a sine wave). At that point, a further increase in load decreases ind and the motor stops. This effect is known as pullout torque.

Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics

Modelling the torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor

ind = kBR Bnet sin

Rotor magnetic field will increase as the rotor current will increase (provided that the rotor core is not saturated). Current flow will increase as slip increase (reduction in velocity) The net magnetic field density will remain constant since it is proportional to E1 (refer to equivalent induction motor equivalent circuit). Since E1 is assumed to be constant, hence Bnet will assume to be constant. The angle will increase as slip increases. Hence the sin value will reduce until as such that the reduction of sin will be greater than the increase of BR (pullout torque). Since is greater than 90 degrees, as such that: sin = sin ( r + 9 0 ) = c os r

Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics

where: R is the angle between ER and IR (note that ER is in phase with Bnet since it is in phase with Bnet). Adding the characteristics of all there elements would give the torque speed characteristics of an induction motor. cos R can also be known as the motor power factor where:

sin = sin ( r + 90 ) = cos r

Xr 1 sXo r = tan = tan Rr Rr

1

Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics

The torque speed curve may be divided into 3 regions of operations:

Linear region or low slip region Moderate slip region located until the pullout torque level. High slip region Typical values of pullout torque would be at about 200% to 250% of the rated full load torque of the induction machine. The starting torque would be about 150% than the rated full load torque; hence induction motor may be started at full load.
Linear region or low slip region
Motor slip increases almost linearly with increased load and rotor mechanical speed decreases linearly with load. In this region of operation, rotor reactance is negligible so the rotor P.F is approximately unity.

Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics

Moderate slip region located until the pullout torque level In this region rotor frequency is higher than before and the rotor reactance is on the same order of the magnitude as the rotor resistance. In this region rotor current no longer increases as before, and power factor starts to drop. High slip region In high slip region, the induced torque actually decreases with increased load, since increase in rotor current is completely overshadowed by decrease in rotor power factor.

Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics

Typical torque-speed characteristics of induction motor

Comments
1. The induced torque is zero at synchronous speed. Discussed earlier. 2. The curve is nearly linear between no-load and full load. In this range, the rotor resistance is much greater than the reactance, so the rotor current, torque increase linearly with the slip. 3. There is a maximum possible torque that cant be exceeded. This torque is called pullout torque and is 2 to 3 times the rated full-load torque.

Comments
4. The starting torque of the motor is slightly higher than its full-load torque, so the motor will start carrying any load it can supply at full load. 5. The torque of the motor for a given slip varies as the square of the applied voltage. 6. If the rotor is driven faster than synchronous speed it will run as a generator, converting mechanical power to electric power.

Complete Speed-torque c/c

Speed Control of Induction Motor

Induction motors are not good machines for applications requiring considerable speed control. The normal operating range of a typical induction motor is confined to less than 5% slip, and the speed variation is more or less proportional to the load. Since PRCL = sPAG , if slip is made higher, rotor copper losses will be high as well. There are basically 2 general methods to control induction motors speed: Varying stator and rotor magnetic field speed Varying slip

Speed Control of Induction Motor

Varying the magnetic field speed may be achieved by varying the electrical frequency or by changing the number of poles. Varying slip may be achieved by varying rotor resistance or varying the terminal voltage.
Induction Motor Speed Control by Pole Changing There are 2 approaches possible:

Method of Consequent Poles (Old Method) Multiple Stator Windings Method (Expensive)

Speed Control of Induction Motor

Speed Control by Changing the Line Frequency Changing the electrical frequency will change the synchronous speed of the machine. Changing the electrical frequency would also require an adjustment to the terminal voltage in order to maintain the same amount of flux level in the machine core. If not the machine will experience: Core saturation (non linearity effects) Excessive magnetization current.

Speed Control of Induction Motor

Speed Control by Changing the Line Voltage

Varying the terminal voltage will vary the operating speed but with also a variation of operating torque. In terms of the range of speed variations, it is not significant hence this method is only suitable for small motors only.
Speed Control by Changing the Rotor Resistance It is only possible for wound rotor applications but with a cost of reduced motor efficiency.

TRENDS IN INDUCTION MOTOR DESIGN

Smaller motor for a given power output, great saving (modern 100 hp same size of 7.5 hp motor of 1897) However not necessarily increase in efficiency (used since electricity was inexpensive) New lines of high efficiency induction motors being produced by all major manufacturers using some the following techniques; More copper in stator windings; reduce copper losses rotor & stator length increased to reduce B in air gap (decreasing saturation and core loss) More steel in stator, greater amount of heat transfer using special high grade steel with low hysteresis loss in stator steel made of especially thin guage & high resistivity to reduce eddy current loss rotor carefully machined to produce uniform air gap, reducing stray load losses

123456-

INDUCTION MOTORS STARTING

An induction motor has the ability to start directly, however direct starting of an induction motor is not advised due to high starting currents, may cause dip in power system voltage; that across-the-line starting not acceptable. for wound rotor, by inserting extra resistance can be reduced; this increase starting torque, but also reduces starting current. For cage type, starting current vary widely depending primarily on motors rated power & on effective rotor resistance at starting conditions

INDUCTION MOTORS STARTING

To determine starting current, need to calculate the starting power required by the induction motor. A Code Letter designated to each induction motor, which can be seen on motor nameplate data.
S s ta r t = 3V T

IL

In example: for code letter A; factor of kVA/hp is between 0-3.15 (not include lower bound of next higher class)

INDUCTION MOTORS STARTING

EXAMPLE: what is starting current of a 15 hp, 208 V, code letter F, 3 phase induction motor? Maximum kVA / hp is 5.6 max. starting kVA of this motor is Sstart=15 x 5.6 = 84 kVA the starting current is thus: IL=Sstart / [3 VT] = 84 / [3 x 208] = 233 A Starting current may be reduced by a starting circuit: a- inductor banks b- resistor banks c-reduce motors terminal voltage by autotransformer

INDUCTION MOTORS STARTING

Autotransformer starter:
During starting 1 & 3 closed, when motor is nearly up to speed; those contacts opened & 2 closed. Note: as starting current reduced proportional to decrease in voltage, starting torque decreased as square of applied voltage, therefore just a certain reduction possible if motor is to start with a shaft load attached

INDUCTION MOTORS STARTING

A typical full-voltage (across-the-line) motor magnetic starter circuit

INDUCTION MOTORS STARTING

Start button pressed, rely coil M energized, & N.O. contacts M1,M2,M3 close Therefore power supplied to motor & motor starts Contacts M4 also close which short out starting switch, allowing operator to release it (start button) without removing power from M relay When stop button pressed, M relay de-energized, & M contacts open, stopping motor

INDUCTION MOTORS STARTING

A magnetic motor starter circuit has several built-in protective features: 1- short-circuit protection 2- overload protection 3- under-voltage protection Short-circuit protection provided by fuses F1,F2,F3 If sudden short circuit current develops within motor causes a current (many times greater than rated current) flow; these fuses blow disconnecting motor from supply (however, short circuit current by a high resistance or excessive motor loads will not be cleared by fuses)

INDUCTION MOTORS STARTING

Overload protection for motor is provided OL relays which consists of 2 parts: an over load heater, and overload contacts

when an induction motor overloaded, it is eventually damaged by excessive heating caused by high currents However this damage takes time & motor will not be hurt by brief periods of high current (such as starting current)
Undervoltage protection is also provided by controller If voltage applied to motor falls too much, voltage applied to M relay also fall, & relay will de-energize The M contacts open, removing power from motor terminals

INDUCTION MOTORS STARTING

3 step resistive starter Similar to previous, except that there are additional components present to control Removal of starting resistors Relays 1TD, 2TD, & 3 TD are time-delay relay

INDUCTION MOTORS STARTING

Start button is pushed in this circuit, M relay energizes and power is applied to motor as before Since 1TD, 2TD, & 3TD contacts are all open the full starting resistor in series with motor, reducing the starting current When M contacts close, notice that 1 TD relay is energized, however there is a finite delay before 1TD contacts close, cutting out part of starting resistance & simultaneously energizing 2TD relay After another delay, 2TD contacts close, cutting out second part of resistor & energizing 3TD relay Finally 3TD contacts close, & entire starting resistor is out of circuit

Introduction
Most induction motors of fractional-kilowatt (fractional horsepower) rating are single-phase motors. In residential and commercial applications, they are found in a wide range of equipment including refrigerators, air conditioners and heat pumps, fans, pumps, washers, and dryers.

Introduction
Structurally, the most common types of single-phase induction motors resemble poly phase squirrel-cage motors except for the arrangement of the stator windings.
Instead of being a concentrated coil, the actual stator winding is distributed in slots to produce an approximately sinusoidal space distribution of mmf.

Introduction
By symmetry, it is clear that such a motor inherently will produce no starting torque since at standstill, it will produce equal torque in both directions. However, we will show that if it is started by auxiliary means, the result will be a net torque in the direction in which it is started, and hence the motor will continue to run.

Classification
Single-phase induction motors are classified in accordance with their starting methods and are usually referred to by names descriptive of these methods. Selection of the appropriate motor is based on the starting- and runningtorque requirements of the load, the duty cycle of the load, and the limitations on starting and running current from the supply line for the motor. Typically, in order to minimize cost, an application engineer will select the motor with the lowest rating and performance that can meet the specifications of the application.

Split Phase Motor

Split-phase motors have two stator windings, a main winding (also referred to as the run winding) which we will refer to with the subscript 'main' and an auxiliary winding (also referred to as the start winding) As in a two-phase motor, the axes of these windings are displaced 90 electrical degrees in space, and they are connected as shown in The auxiliary winding has a higher resistanceto-reactance ratio than the main winding, with the result that the two currents will be out of phase, as indicated in the phasor diagram.

Split Phase Motor

which is representative of conditions at starting. Since the auxiliary-winding current Iaux leads the main-winding current Imain, the stator field first reaches a maximum along the axis of the auxiliary winding and then somewhat later in time reaches a maximum along the axis of the main winding. The winding currents are equivalent to unbalanced two-phase currents, and the motor is equivalent to an unbalanced two-phase motor. The result is a rotating stator field which causes the motor to start. After the motor starts, the Auxiliary winding is disconnected, usually by means of a centrifugal switch that operates at about 75 percent of synchronous speed. The simple way to obtain the high resistance-to-reactance ratio for the auxiliary winding is to wind it with smaller wire than the main winding.

Torque speed Characteristics

Capacitor Type Motor

Capacitors can be used to improve motor starting performance, running performance, or both, depending on the size and connection of the capacitor. The capacitor-start motor is also a split-phase motor, but the time-phase displacement between the two currents is obtained by means of a capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding, as shown in Fig. Again the auxiliary winding is disconnected after the motor has started, and consequently the auxiliary winding and capacitor can be designed at minimum cost for intermittent service.

Torque speed Characteristics

By using a starting capacitor of appropriate value, the auxiliary-winding Current Iaux at standstill can be made to lead the main-winding current Imain by 90 electrical degrees, as it would in a balanced two-phase motor. In practice, the best compromise between starting torque, starting current, and cost typically results with a phase angle somewhat less than 90 . A typical torque-speed characteristic is shown in fig, high starting torque being an outstanding feature. These motors are used for compressors, pumps, refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment, and other hard-to-start loads

Permanent-split-capacitor motor
In the permanent-split-capacitor motor, the capacitor and auxiliary winding are not cut out after starting; the construction can be simplified by omission of the switch, and the power factor, efficiency, and torque pulsations improved. For example, the capacitor and auxiliary winding could be designed for perfect twophase operation at any one desired load. The losses due to the backward field at this operating point would then be eliminated, with resulting improvement in efficiency, resulting in quieter operation.

Permanent-split-capacitor motor and typical torque-speed

If two capacitors are used, one for starting and one for running, theoretically optimum starting and running performance can both be obtained. One way of accomplishing this result is shown in Fig. The small value of capacitance required for optimum running conditions is permanently connected in series with the auxiliary winding, and the much larger value required for starting is obtained by a capacitor connected in parallel with the running capacitor via a switch with opens as the motor comes up to speed. Such a motor is known as a capacitor-start, capacitor-run motor.

Problem
A 2.5-kW 120-V 60-Hz capacitor-start motor has the following impedances for the main and auxiliary windings (at starting):

Find the value of starting capacitance that will place the main and auxiliary winding currents in quadrature at starting.

Problem
The impedance angle of the main winding is

To produce currents in time quadrature with the main winding, the impedance angle of the auxiliary winding circuit (including the starting capacitor) must be

The combined impedance of the auxiliary winding and starting capacitor is equal to

Problem
and hence

The capacitance C is then

Home Work?
Consider the same motor of the above problem. Find the phase angle b/w the main- and auxiliary- winding currents if the 177F capacitor is replaced by a 200F capacitor.

What & Why?

Answer

Torque, power and Thevenins Theorem

Thevenins theorem can be used to transform the network to the left of points a and b into an equivalent voltage source V1eq in series with equivalent impedance Req+jXeq

Torque, power and Thevenins Theorem

V1eq

jX M = V1 R1 + j ( X 1 + X M )

Req + jX eq = ( R1 + jX 1 ) // jX M

Torque, power and Thevenins Theorem

I2 = V1eq ZT = V1eq R2 Req + + ( X eq + X 2 ) 2 s
2

Then the power converted to mechanical (Pconv)

Pconv R2 (1 s ) =I s
2 2

And the internal mechanical torque (Tconv)

Tconv = Pconv

Pconv = (1 s )s

R2 I s =
2 2

Torque, power and Thevenins Theorem

Tconv V1eq 1 = 2 s R + R2 + ( X + X ) 2 eq 2 eq s
2 1eq

R2 s

Tconv

R2 V 1 s = 2 s R2 Req + + ( X eq + X 2 ) 2 s

Torque-speed characteristics

Typical torque-speed characteristics of induction motor

Maximum torque
Maximum torque occurs when the power transferred to R2/s is maximum. This condition occurs when R2/s equals the magnitude of the impedance Req + j (Xeq + X2)
R2 2 = Req + ( X eq + X 2 ) 2 sTmax
sTmax = R2
2 Req + ( X eq + X 2 ) 2

Maximum torque
The corresponding maximum torque of an induction motor equals
2 Veq 1 = 2 2s Req + Req + ( X eq + X 2 ) 2

Tmax

The slip at maximum torque is directly proportional to the rotor resistance R2 The maximum torque is independent of R2

Maximum torque
Rotor resistance can be increased by inserting external resistance in the rotor of a wound-rotor induction motor. The value of the maximum torque remains unaffected but the speed at which it occurs can be controlled.

Maximum torque

Effect of rotor resistance on torque-speed characteristic

Problem 7-5 (p.468)

Solution to Problem 7-5 (p.468)

Problem 7-7 (pp.468-469)

Solution to Problem 7-7 (pp.468-469)

Solution to Problem 7-7 (pp.468-469) Contd

Solution to Problem 7-7 (pp.468-469) Contd

Problem 7-19 (p.470)

Solution to Problem 7-19 (pp.470)

Solution to Problem 7-19 (pp.470) Contd

Solution to Problem 7-19 (pp.470) Contd

Solution to Problem 7-19 (pp.470) Contd

Equivalent Circuit
We can rearrange the equivalent circuit as follows

Actual rotor resistance

Resistance equivalent to mechanical load

Speed Control of Induction Motor

Varying frequency with or without adjustment to the terminal voltage may give 2 different effects: Vary frequency, stator voltage adjusted generally vary speed and maintain operating torque. Vary Frequency, stator voltage maintained able to achieve higher speeds but a reduction of torque as speed is increased. There may also be instances where both characteristics are needed in the motor operation; hence it may be combined to give both effects. With the arrival of solid-state devices/power electronics, line frequency change is easy to achieved and it is more versatile to a variety of machines and application.