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Integration or the process of finding the antiderivative is one of the most important
operations in calculus. It is the opposite process of differentiation.
We write Z f x dx = F x + C
` a ` a
F x = x 2 @ 2,
` a
The antiderivative of a given function is not unique. For example,
G x = x 2 + 5, and H x = x2 f x = 2x
` a ` a ` a
are all antiderivatives of as
df c d b c d b c
F. x = G. x = H. x = f x or ff
ff
f
ff 2
x @2 = ff
f
ff
f
ff 2
x +5 = ff
f
ff
f
ff 2
x = 2x for all x in the
` a ` a ` a ` a b
dx dx dx
domain of f .
We note that, all the antiderivatives of the function f differ only by a constant (the
derivative of the constant value is always zero). Geometrically, this means that the graphs
` a ` a ` a
of F x , G x and H x are identical except for their vertical position. All their
derivatives will be same for any x = x 0 . All indefinite integrals of f x = 2x are then
` a
The notation Z is used for integration. The symbol Z f x dx is used to denote the
` a
indefinite integral of the function f(x). The function f(x) is called the integrand.
The indefinite integral of a function is sometimes called the general antiderivative of the
function.
INTEGRATION BY INSPECTION
We shall solve the first few questions by method of inspection, that is, comparing the
integrand with some known derivatives.
f x = sin x
` a
Example : Find the indefinite integral of the function
Solution :
F x = @ cos x is F. x = sin x
` a ` a
We know that the derivative of the function
f x = x2
` a
Example : Find the indefinite integral of the function
Solution :
f 3g
df
ff
ff
f
ff 3 df
ff
ff
f
ff xf
f
ff
f
ff 1f
ff
x = 3x , or = A 3x 2 = x 2
b c
2
We know that
dx dx 3 3
3
xf
f
fff
ff
As the derivative of F x = is F. x = x 2
` a ` a
3
3
xf
Z x 2 dx = ff
ff
f
f
+C
3
df
ff
ff
f
ff
sin x = cos x Z cos x dx = sin x + C
` a
dx
df
ff
ff
f
ff
cos x = @ sin x Z sin x dx = @ cos x + C
` a
dx
df
ff
ff
f
ff
tan x = sec 2 x Z sec 2 x dx = tan x + C
` a
dx
df
ff
ff
f
ff
cot x = @csc 2 x Z csc 2 x dx = @ cot x + C
` a
dx
df
ff
ff
f
ff
sec x = sec x tan x Z sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
` a
dx
df
ff
ff
f
ff
csc x = @ csc x cot x Z csc x cot x dx = @ csc x + C
` a
dx
df
ff
ff
f
ff
e = ex Z e x dx = e x + C
` xa
dx
x
df
ff
ff
f
ff af
a = a x ln a Z a x dx = ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
+ C a>0, a ≠ 1
` xa
dx ln a
df
ff
ff
f
ff a 1f 1f
ln x = fff Z ff
f
dx = ln |x| + C
`
dx x x
INTEGRATION OF COMBINATION OF FUNCTIONS
The following rules of integration for addition, subtraction and scaler multiples of
functions can be used. Note that, unlike differentiation, product and quotients of
functions are not covered in these (which are to be solved using substitution or
integration by parts or by some other methods).
Z c f x dx = c Z f x dx
` a ` a
Z f x F g x dx = Z f x dx F Z g x dx
B ` a ` aC ` a ` a
Example : Evaluate Z x 3 dx
Solution :
3+1
xf 1f
Z x 3 dx = ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f f
ff
+ C = x4 + C
3+1 4
f
f1f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
f
Example : Evaluate Z p
w
www dx
w
w
w
x
Solution :
1
1f @ fff+ 1
1f f
f
ff
xf w
w
w
w
ww
w
Z f
fff
ff
f
ff
f
f ff
ff
f
ff
f
2
fff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
=Z x dx = + C = 2 px + C
@
w
www dx
w
w
w 2
px 1f
@ +1
f
ff
2
SUBSTITUTION METHOD: CHANGE OF VARIABLES
Till now we have discussed integrals of those functions which are readily obtained from
derivatives of some known functions. They could be solved using the standard formulas.
But some integrals can not be evaluated directly as no standard formula matches the form
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
ww
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww ` a2
fln
ff
ff
fxf
ff
ff
f
ff
f
fff
of the given function. Some examples are Z x x + 5 dx ,
q 2
Z dx ,
x
Z tan3 x sec 2 x dx .
One way of solving them is to substitute some new variables in the integral and thus
transforming it to standard form with the new variable. After choosing the suitable
variable, we have to rewrite the integral in terms of the new variable, so that one or more
of the standard formulas can be used. After the integration process is over, the result is to
be written in terms of the original variable.
c4
Example : Evaluate Z 3x x 2 + 1 dx
b
Solution :
Let t = x 2 + 1
dt
f
ff
ff
ff
f
[ = 2x
dx
1f
[ x dx = f f
dt
2
4 3f
Z 3x x 2 + 1 dx = Z ff4
b c
t dt
2
5
3fftf
f 3f
= A ffff
+C = f f
ff
f
f5
t + C
2 5 10
3f c5
= f f
ff
f
f 2
x +1 + C
b
10
Example : Evaluate Z sin 3x dx
Solution :
Let 3x = t
1f
f
f
dx = dt
3
1f
Z sin 3x dx = Z ff
sin t dt
3
1f
ff 1f
f
f
= @ cos t + C = @ cos 3x + C
3 3
Solution :
Let 2x @ 3 = t
1f
f
f
dx = dt
2
1f
Z tan2 2x @ 3 dx = Z ff 2
` a
tan t dt
2
H I
1f
f
f 1f
ff
= Z sec 2 t @ 1 dt = J Z sec 2 t dt @Z dt K
b c
2 2
1f
ff
= tan t @ t + C
@ A
2
1f
ff `
= tan 2x @ 3 @ 2x @ 3 + C
B a ` aC
2
OTHER INTEGRATION FORMULAS
Apart from the standard formulas given above, the following formulas are also used in
integration (these are obtained by using the substitution method) :
Z tan x dx = @ ln |cos x| + C
Z cot x dx = ln |sin x| + C
+
L M
f
f
ff
f
fdx
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
ff 1f
ff
ff
f
ff L af
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
fxf
f
ff
f
= M+
M
Z 2 2
lnL
L M
C
a @x 2a L a @ xM
w
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
wM
dx
L
Z f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
w = lnL
Lx + x + a M + C
q 2 2M
L
w
w
ww
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w
ww M
q x2 + a2
w
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
wM
dx
L
Z f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
w = lnL
Lx + x @ a M + C
q 2 2M
L M
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
q x2 @ a2
dx xf
Z f
f
f
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
f
f
ff f
ff
w = arcsin + C
qa 2 @ x 2 a
w
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
w w
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
w w
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
wM
1f 1f
L
Z q x 2 + a 2 dx = ff
fq 2 f
ff
x x + a 2 + a 2 lnL
Lx + x + a M + C
q 2 2M
L
M
2 2
w
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
w w
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
w w
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
wM
1f 1f
L
Z q x 2 @ a 2 dx = ff
fq 2 f
ff
Lx + x @ a M + C
x x @ a 2 @ a 2 lnL q 2 2M
L M
2 2
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
ww
w
ww
ww
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
1f
f
ffq 2 1f
f
ff xf
f
ff
Z q a 2 @ x 2 dx = x a @ x 2 + a 2 arcsin + C
2 2 a
dx f 1f xf
Z f
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
w
w
w
f
f
f
w
w
w
w
f
f
ff
f
ff
w =
w
f
ff f
ff
arcsec + C
x q x2 @ a2 a a
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Another useful integration technique for indefinite integrals which do not fit in the basic
formulas is integration by parts. We may consider this method when the integrand is a
product of two functions.
When u and v are differentiable functions of x which is the variable of integration, then
d uv = u dv + v du, u dv = d uv @ v du
` a ` a
or
Integrating both sides we get the following formula for Integration by parts,
Z u dv = uv @ Z v du
While using this method of integration, the given integral is to be separated into two
parts, one part being u and the other part, combined with dx, being dv. For this reason
this method is called integration by parts.
(a) We have to first choose dv which must be readily integrable to find v. The u
function will be the remaining part of the integrand that will be differentiated to
find du.
(b) The purpose is to find an integral Z v du which is easier to integrate than the
original integral Z u dv .
Solution :
Let u = x so du = dx
and dv = sec 2 x dx then v =Z dv =Z sec 2 x dx = tan x
using Z u dv = uv @ Z v du
= x tan x @ @ ln |cos x| + C
b c
= x tan x + ln |cos x| + C
Example : Evaluate Z ln x 2 + 4 dx
b c
Solution :
2x
Let u = ln x 2 + 4 du = ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
b c
so dx
x +4
2
and dv = dx then v =Z dv =Z dx = x
using Z u dv = uv @ Z v du
2
2x
Z ln x 2 + 4 dx = x ln x 2 + 4 @ Z f
f
ff
fff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
b c b c
dx
2
x +4
8f
= x ln x 2 + 4 @ Z 2 @ ff
f
ff
fff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
b c F G
dx
x +4
2
8f
= x ln x 2 + 4 @ Z 2 @ ff
f
ff
fff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
b c F G
dx
x +4
2
xf
f
ff
= x ln x 2 + 4 @ 2x + 4 arctan + C
b c
2