WEATHER REVIEW

ATMOSPHERE and AIR MASSES

What is the atmosphere? -a great envelope of air that surrounds the earth and rotate with it. Where is half of the air in the atmosphere? -Within the first 18,000 ft. What are the two most abundant gases in the air? -Nitrogen-78% -Oxygen- 21% What is natural air? -Dry air + various amounts of water vapor and condensation nuclei What are condensation nuclei? -Impurities in the air, salt, sand, dust. What are the layers of the atmosphere? -Troposphere, Stratosphere, Tropopause Where does all weather that is significant to take place? -Troposphere How high does the troposphere extend upward? -25,000: poles -60,000: equator What causes weather? -Uneven heating and rotation of the earth What is circulation? -The movement of air over the surface of the earth What is the three cell theory of circulation? -Changes in temp and density causes the air to be warmed at the equator and rises, flows towards the poles, air is cooled at poles and descends, flows toward equator. What is the Coriolis force? - Force developed by the unequal speed of rotation of the earths surface. Speed is greater at the equator than the poles. Force is greater at the poles. -

Where is the wind deflected in the Northern Hemisphere? -To the right. What are the three conditions that affect atmosphere circulation? -Uneven heating -Rotating earth -Earths tilt Where is the United States located? -B/t 30 and 60 lat N. What is heat energy? -an expression of molecular activity within a substance. What are the methods of heat transfer? -Radiation -Conduction -Convection -Advection What is radiation? -transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves What are the two types? -Insolation: incoming from the sun. -Terrestrial: outgoing from the earth. What is conduction? -by way of physical contact What is convection? -By way of gas, vertical movement. What is advection? -Horizontal movement. What is temperature? -A measurement of the level of intensity of heat energy. What is the standard lapse rate? -2 C per 1000ft What is the OLR? -Observed Lapse Rate: the actual change in temperature with altitude.

What are temperature inversions? -temp increases with altitude. What are the two types of temperature inversions? -Nocturnal: cool clear night -Frontal: warm air is lifted over cool air. What is an air mass? -A large body of air whose physical properties are horizontally uniform. How large is an air mass? -many hundreds of miles If the air is dry where did the air mass form? -Over land, would have been moist over water. Where does high pressure tend to form? -Over cool areas; land-winter, ocean-summer What are the three pressure systems that control weather over the U.S.? -North American High -Siberian High -Bermuda High What direction do cold air masses move? -South, warm air move north. What are the two classifications of air masses? -Continental and Maritime What does Maritime mean? -Formed over water; m and Continental is c. What are the four temperature classifications for where formed? -Arctic -Polar -Tropical -Equatorial What are the symbols for stability? -w: stable (warmer than the surface) -k: unstable (cooler than the surface) What are the conditions with stable air? -possible fog, low ceilings, poor visibility, no turb.

What are the conditions with unstable air? -Good ceilings, excellent visibility, turbulence, thunderstorms. What is the basic cause of atmospheric circulation? -Uneven heating What are the causes of the three cell circulation? -Coriolis force, unequal heating, and the tilt. When the air is heated at the equator and rises, what type of pressure is caused at the surface? -Low pressure What types of prevailing winds are at the surface between 30 and 60N? -Prevailing westerlies. From which direction does an mP (maritime polar) air mass enter the United States? -Northwest What is the general direction of movement of tropical air masses in the U.S.? -Northeast What is the general direction of movement of polar air masses of the united states? -Southeast. What are the basic characteristics of any air mass? -Temperature and moisture.

PRESSURE and WINDS

What is pressure? -The force exerted by the weight of a column of air. What is the standard pressure? -29.92 Hg or 1013.2 mb What are isobars? -lines connecting points of equal pressure corrected to sea level, usually spaced 4 mb apart. What is high pressure characterized by? - anticyclone, pressure is higher than all surrounding areas, enclosed in isobars. What is a ridge? -An elongated area of high pressure.

What is a trough? -An elongated area of low pressure. What is the pressure gradient force? -Force exerted by the change in pressure, causes the wind to blow. In which direction does the gradient force always act? -From high to low. What does the spacing of the isobars indicate? -Magnitude or strength of the pressure gradient force. What do widely spaced isobars indicate? -Low pressure gradient, low/moderate winds; usually associated with high pressure systems. What gives wind direction? -Coriolis force Where does the coriolis force act? -Perpendicular to the right of the wind. In which direction does the coriolis force cause the wind to flow? -Parallel to the isobars above the friction level. What is the friction level? -2,000ft AGL What happens to the winds in high and low pressure below the friction level? -High: Diverge -Low: converge About how many degrees does the wind converge and diverge? -30 degrees. What are the sky conditions associated with high pressure? -clear Why are the sky condition cloudy with low pressure? -Rising and cooling What is the direction of movement of a high pressure area? -clockwise

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY and CLOUDS

What are the three water states? -Vapor, liquid, and solid. What are the ways moisture can change? -Evaporation: changes to vapor; requires heat -Condensation: changing to liquid water; release latent heat. Impurities present. -Fusion: liquid to solid, releases heat, solid to liquid, requires heat. -Sublimination: vapor to solid, vapor to ice, release heat. What is saturation? -All the water vapor that it can hold at that temperature. When does the saturation level double? -Every 20F increase. What is the Dew Point? -The temperature that the air must be cooled to in order to become saturated. What is the difference between temperature and de point referred to as? -The spread. What is the relative humidity? -the amount of water vapor in the air. What is the adiabatic process? -A process by which the temperature of a gas is changed without the addition or deletion of heat energy. What is adiabatic cooling? -Expansion of gas will cause its temperature to decrease. What is adiabatic heating? -Compression of gas will cause temperature to increase. How does the adiabatic process affect the atmosphere? -When air rises it will cool adiabatically because of expansion and visa versa. What is the dry adiabatic cooling rate? -3 C per 1000ft What is the moist adiabatic cooling rate? -1.5 C per 1000ft after saturation. Why is the cooling rate important? -Cloud formation.

What is the lifted condensation level? -Temp and dew point the same at this altitude. What is the Level of free convection? -Air surrounding the parcel becomes the same. Any further lifting and the air inside will become warmer and TS can form. What are the three stability conditions? -Stable: air that resists vertical movement. -Unstable: air that starts moving vertically. -Conditionally unstable: air stable one way but different conditions may cause unstable. What are the stability factors? -OLR: OLR higher than cooling rate=unstable, OLR lower than cooling rate= stable, OLR between rates= conditionally unstable. -Moisture content What are clouds? -Extremely small condensed water droplets suspended in the atmosphere. Why do clouds form? -Direct result of saturation What is saturation a result of? -Cooling What are the three types of cooling? -Adiabatic: most common, vertical development -Nocturnal: low clouds and fog -Advection: low clouds. What are the two categories of clouds? -Cumulus: vertical development, air is cool, ground is warm -Stratus: horizontal development. Air is warm, ground is cool What are the three types of clouds? -Nimbus: rain cloud -Fracto: fragmented clouds -Alto: middle level clouds What are the altitude classifications? -Low: below 6,500ft -Middle: 6500ft to 20000ft -High: Over 20000ft

When water droplets are cooled below freezing, they are referred to as what? -Super cooled water droplets Through what process is snow formed? -Sublimination Why is dew point temperature important? -Tells pilot when fog may start. Dew is a form of what? -Condensation What are the OLR rates and what types of air is associated with them? -Greater than 3C: Stable -Between 3 and 1.5C: conditionally unstable -Less than 1.5 C: Unstable What type of clouds are associated with Nocturnal cooling? -Low stratus and fog.

FRONTAL WEATHER
What is a front? -A boundary between air masses of different densities. When does a front form? -When to high pressure cells converge What are all fronts? -Low pressure. What is the primary cause of frontal weather? -The lifting of warm moist air by more dense air. What do all fronts have? -Temperature inversions What are the primary factors affecting frontal weather? -Slope and speed, moisture content and stability. What is a cold front? -Leading edge of a cold air mass, normally moving from northwest to southeast. What is the slope of a cold front? -1:50 to 1:100 (avg. 1:80)

What type of clouds are formed in a cold front? -Cumuliform because of adiabatic cooling. What type of weather is associated with a cold front? -Post Frontal How large is cold front weather? -50 miles wide Where are the winds associated with a cold front? -Generally from the NW behind the front and SW ahead of the front. In what direction does a cold front move? -SE What is the average speed of a cold front? -25 knots What may happen if the speed is greater than 25 knots? -A squall line may form. How long does the weather affect you? -About 2 hrs. What is a warm front? -a trailing edge of a cold air mass moving generally to the NE , being overridden by warm air. What is the slope average? -1:200 (shallow) What type of weather is associated with a warm front? -Low ceilings, poor visibility, TS, and freezing rain below inversion level. What is the coverage area of a warm front? -400-600 miles- pre frontal. Where are the winds generally from in a warm front? -From the SW behind and from the SE ahead. In what direction does a warm front move? -NE What is the average speed of a warm front? -15 knots.

What is a stationary front? -a front which is not moving. What type of clouds are associated with a stationary front? -Stratoform Weather associated with a stationary front is similar to what other front? -A warm front What are the winds associated with a stationary front? -Variable but involves a 180 degree wind shift, usually parallel. What is the speed of the front? -0 to 5 knots. What is an open wave? -looks like a sea wave. Where are the winds from? -Generally the southwest. In what direction does the open wave move? -Easterly What is an occluded front? -the result of a faster moving cold front overtaking a slower moving warm front. What are the two types of occluded fronts? -Warm Air occlusion and Cold Air occlusion. What are the characteristics of a Cold Air occlusion? -Cold front runs underneath the warm front, coldest air is behind the cold front. What are the characteristics of a Warm Air occlusion? -cold front runs over the warm front, warm air is lifted aloft. What type of clouds form in an occlusion? -Both cumulus and strataform What are the four discontinuities across a frontal boundary? -Temperature -Moisture content -Pressure -Wind Shift

WEATHER HAZARDS
What is fog? -Visible moisture with base below 50 ft and no visible downward motion. What are factors conducive to fog formation? -High moisture content -Condensation nuclei -Cooling action How is fog dissipated? -Heating and strong wind. What slows fog dissipation? -Greenhouse effect or overcast sky. What is radiation fog? -Terrestrial radiation cools the surface of the earth, lower layer of air reaches dew point. What increases the radiation fog? -Light winds When does radiation fog dissipate? -After sunrise What is Advection fog? -Results from surface cooling and the wind speeds up (15 knots) What type of fog is associated with sea fog? -Advection fog What is upslope fog? -Warm, moist air flowing up rising terrain and cools adiabatically. What might it do to the mountains? -It may cap the mountains. What is valley fog? -Air on slope cools rapidly at night, becomes denser. What is frontal fog? -Warm air is forced aloft until precipitation falls.

What are the two types of frontal fog? -Prefrontal: ahead of warm front -Postfrontal: behind cold front. What is ice fog? -Any time fog forms with abundant nuclei, tiny ice crystals. What are the types of icing? -Rime Ice, Clear ice, and frost. What temperatures are associated with Rime Ice? -0 to -20 C What are the sizes of the ice formed? -Very small What types of clouds are formed? -0 to -20C (Strataform) and -10 to -20C (Cumuliform) Is Rime Ice easy to break loose? -Yes What temperatures are associated with Clear icing? -0 to -10C What are the sizes of the droplets? -Large Is the clear ice easy to break loose? -No When does frost form? -On cold clear nights with temperatures below 0C. What two factors do you need for freezing rain? -Visible moisture and below freezing point. What type of icing occurs in freezing rain? -Clear ice Why is icing a hazard? -Loss of autorotative capability, decreases stall speed

What are the conditions conducive to Thunderstorm formation? -Unstable or conditionally unstable air -High moisture content -Lifting action What are the two types of thunderstorms? -Air Mass -Frontal What are the three stages of a thunderstorm? -Cumulus stage: All upward currents, warmer in cloud, light turbulence -Mature Stage: upward and downward currents, warm in updraft and cold in downdraft areas, heavy rain showers and strong winds. -Anvil or dissipating: All downward currents, colder in cloud, moderate to severe turbulence, decreasing rain showers. What is a microburst? -A powerful downburst of air, lasting 5-15 minutes. mile wide. What are the types of microburst? -Wet microburst: low based cumulus cloud with heavy rain. -Dry microburst: high based cumulus cloud with little or no rain What type of microburst is virga associated with? -Dry microburst What is virga? -Precipitation that evaporates before ground contact. What are the aviators actions when they reach an air mass thunderstorm? -Circumnavigate 20 miles, if a frontal thunderstorm- land. What are your procedures when penetrating a thunderstorm? -Attitude: Maximum endurance -Altitude -Cockpit lights-bright -Airspeed: maximum endurance -Radio- volume down -Do not turn back What is a mountain wave? -needs stable air with winds in excess of 25 knots blowing across a mountain range.

Where is the most turbulence found? -On the lee side of the mountain What are the three types of cloud types that will form with mountain waves? -Cap cloud, Lenticular, Rotor How should you approach the mountain range if a mountain wave exists you must pass? -45 degree angle, stay clear of clouds and avoid downdrafts. Which clouds are the best indicators of a mountain wave? -Lenticular clouds Which are the most turbulent? -Rotor clouds. Where is the altitude of least amount of turbulence in a TS? -4000-6000 ft

WEATHER REPORTS
What is the difference between Zulu and Central? -6 hours less = CST Wind direction is in reference to what? -True north and reported to the nearest 10 degrees. When is variable used? -Direction is variable and speeds less than 6 knots How is calm wind shown? -00000KT When is the V for varying used? -Variations of 60 degrees or more and wind is greater than 6 knots. What is the prevailing visibility? -The greatest horizontal distance that specified objects can be seen over at least one half of the horizon. What is the Runway Visual Range? -Given in feet when the runway visibility is 1SM or less and the designated runway visibility is 6000ft or less.

When is an obstruction to visibility reported? -Less than 7SM What is a ceiling? -Lowest layer of clouds, BKN or greater.

WEATHER CHARTS
How often are surface weather charts developed? -Eight times, every three hours. How old is the weather when used by an aviator in a weather station? -2-6 hours What is the purpose of a weather chart? -To show weather trends