SETS, NUMBERS, OPERTIONS & PROPERTIES

SETS
A set is a collection of well defined objects.

If we take all positive even natural numbers less than 10 as Set A, there are two ways to
represent it :
a) Roster method : A = {2,4,6,8}
[Read as A equals to Set of 2,4,6 & 8]
b) Set-Builder method : A = {x | x is an even natural number less than 10}
[Read as A = Set of all x, where x is an even natural number less
than 10].
Both the above forms represent the same set A.

The symbol a 2A (a belongs to A) means a is an element of set A. So, for the set
A={2,4,6,8}, 2 2 A, 8 2 A, but 9 2
6 A.

Sets can be finite or infinite.

A Finite set has finite numbers of elements. A = {2,4,6,8} is a finite set of 4 elements.
An Infinite set has infinite numbers of elements. A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,…..} is an infinite set
of infinite elements as it contains all natural numbers which do not end.

Subset : If every element of set A is an element of set B, then A b B (read as “Set A is a

subset of Set B”).

If A = {2,4,6,8}, B = {2,4,6}, C = {2,4,9},

then we can see that B b A , but C b
6 A, also A b
6 BA .

A = B if and only if A b B, and B b A A

` a
Important Set Operations : Two important set operations are S Union and
` a
T Intersection .

A S B = x | x 2 A or x 2 A meaning set of all elements of A and B, (remember the

R S

common elements are to be written once only, not twice).

A T B = x | x 2 A and x 2 A meaning set of all elements that are common to A and B.

R S
[ A S B is read as "A union B". A T B is read as “A intersection B”.]

Example 1: If A = {2,4,6,8}, B = {4,8,12,16}, find A S B and A T B A

Solution :
A S B = 2,4,6,8,12,16
P Q

and A T B = 4,8
P Q

Null Set or Empty Set : It is a Set which has no element, represented as { } or ∅ .

Example : If A = {x | x is a natural number less than 0}, as there are no such number
possible, so A = { } or ∅

Example : If A = {2,4,6}, B = {1,3,5}, A S B = 1,2,3,4,5,6 but A T B = ∅ .

P Q

Universal Set : A set that contains all set in a given context, represented by U.
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Complement of Set A A : Set of all those elements of U which are not in A.

SETS OF NUMBERS
REAL NUMBERS & ITS COMPONENTS
The set of all real numbers are denoted by R. Every real number has a decimal
representation and can be represented by a point on the number line.

The sets of numbers used in algebra are, in general, subsets of R. Lets discuss the types of
numbers that make up the real number system.

Natural numbers : The counting numbers e.g.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,………… Their set is

denoted by N.
N = {1,2,3,4,……}

Integers : The natural numbers, together with their opposites and 0. Their set is denoted
by Z.
Z = {……,-4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,……}
Rational Numbers (Q) : Any number that can be written as the ratio of integers
f 3f
1f 5f 2f
f g f g
f f
ff ff f
f
example , @ , 5 = , A 6666 … =
2 7 1 3
af
T U
Q= f ff
where a,b 2 Z and b ≠ 0
b
These numbers when expressed in their decimal form have a (a) finite or terminating
decimal or (b) a non-terminating but repeating decimal.

Irrational numbers (H) : All real numbers that are not rational numbers e.g.
πf
f
ff 3w
f w
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ww w
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ww f f3f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
π, @ , p5 , p2 , ` a2 etc A These numbers when expressed in their decimal form have a
3 π
non-terminating and non-repeating decimal.

Example :
8 is a real, rational, natural number and an integer.
1f
f
f
is a rational, real number.
3w
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ww
p3 is an irrational real number.
33
@ 0.66 is a rational, real number as it is same as @ f
f
ff
f
ff
50
0 is a real, rational number and an integer.

REAL NUMBER OPERATIONS

& THEIR PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES OF EQUALITY

The properties of equality involving real numbers are:

Reflexive Property: For any real number a

a=a

Symmetric Property: For any real numbers a and b

if a = b, then b = a.

Transitive Property: For any real numbers a, b and c

if a = b, and b = c, then a = c.
PROPERTIES OF OPERATIONS

For real numbers a, b, c, d etc the following rules apply :

Closure Properties :
a+b is a real number.
ab is a real number.

Commutative Properties :
a + b = b + a : order does not matter in addition. Example 3+5 = 5+3
a b = b a : order does not matter in multiplication. Example 3.5 = 5.3

Associative Properties :
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) : grouping does not matter in repeated addition;
(ab) c = a (bc) : grouping does not matter in repeated multiplication;

Example : (2 + 5) + 7 = 2 + (5 + 7)
(2 . 5) . 7 = 2 . (5 . 7)

Identity Properties :
a+0 = 0+a = a
a.1 = 1.a = a

Inverse Properties :
a + -a = -a + a = 0
for a ≠ 0, a Ba@ 1 = a@ 1 Ba = 1

Distributive Properties :
a(b+c) = ab + ac : multiplication is distributive over addition,
[ Example : 2 . ( 5 + 7) = 2 .5 + 2 . 7 = 10 + 14 = 24 ]

Properties of Negatives : Examples

1. (-1)a = -a (-1)5 = -5
2. –(-a) = a -(-5) = 5
3. (-a)b = a(-b) = -ab (-3)7 = 3(-7) = -(3.7)
4. (-a)(-b) = ab (-3)(-7) = 3.7
5. –(a + b) = -a –b -(3 + 7) = -3 -7
6. –( a – b) = b – a -(7 – 3) = 3 – 7
Properties of Quotient :
af
ffcf
f f
ff ac
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
1A A =
b d bd
af
ff cf
f ff af
f f
ffdf f
f
f
2A D = A
b d b c
af
ff bf
f ff af
f f
f
f+f
fff
f bf
f
ff
ff
f
3A + =
c c c
af
ff cf
f ff ad
f ff
f
fff
ff
f+f
ff
f
fbc
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
4A + =
b d bd
ac
f
ff
f
fff af
f
ff
5A =
bc b
af
f
ff cf
ff
f
6 A if = then ad = bc
b d

PROPERTIES OF INEQUALITY

The real number a is less than the real number b, written as a < b, if b-a is positive
i.e. b-a > 0. In that case b will be to the left of a on the real number line.

a ≤ b means a is less than or equal to b,

a ≥ b means a is greater than or equal to b

Properties of Inequalities :

1. For every real number a, for every real number b, for every real number c,
a<b if and only if a + c < b + c
a<b if and only if a - c < b – c

2. For every real number a, for every real number b, for every real number c, c>0,
a<b if and only if ac < bc
af
f
ff bf
a<b if and only if < fff
c c
 3. For every real number a, for every real number b, for every real number c, c<0,
a<b if and only if ac > bc
af
f
ff bf
a<b if and only if > fff
c c

Example : Evaluate 3 - { 5 + ( 3 – 7 ) + [4 – (2 – 3)]}

Solution : In nested parentheses we work with the innermost parentheses first.

3 - { 5 + ( 3 – 7 ) + [4 – (2 – 3)]}
= 3 - { 5 + ( – 4 ) + [4 – (– 1)]}
= 3 - { 5 + ( – 4 ) + [4 + 1]}
= 3 - { 5 – 4 + 5}
=3–{6}
= -3

Example : Simplify a + 3 [ 2b – ( 2c – 3a + b)] – 4 (2a – c)

Solution : a + 3 [ 2b – 2c + 3a – b ] – 8a + 4c
= a + 3 [ b – 2c + 3a ] – 8a + 4c
= a + 3b – 6c + 9a – 8a + 4c
= 2a + 3b - 2c

Absolute Value:
x if x ≥ 0
V
The absolute value of a real number x, written as LxM=
LM
@x if x < 0 A

Therefore, | 5 | = 5, | -5 | = -(-5) = 5.
 REAL NUMBERS AND THE COORDINATE LINE
Real numbers can be put on a one-to-one correspondence with the points on a line. This
means any real number can be represented as a point on that line. On the other hand, any
point on that line represents a real number.

We select a point, call it the origin and assign the number 0 to it. Then the points on the
right side of the origin represents the positive real numbers and that on the left side
represents the negative real numbers.

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

If the points P and Q are associated with the real numbers x1 and x 2 respectively , then
the distance (d) between P and Q is
d = | x1 @ x 2 | (absolute value)

Intervals:

For what values of x, x 2 ≤ 3 ? The solution is all the real numbers lying between -3 and
3. But this region contains infinite points and so, infinite real numbers. How do we
express them?

The concept of intervals is very useful for the above. An uninterrupted portion of a
number line is called an interval. The interval represents the collection of all the infinite
number of points in that portion.

We may write an interval like [-3,2] which means all the real numbers on the number line
from -3 to 2 or all real numbers x where @ 3 ≤ x ≤ 2 A The interval (-3,2) means
@ 3<x <2 .

a,b = x | x 2 R and a<x <b

b c R S
(a,b) is called an open interval where

a,b = x | x 2 R and a ≤ x ≤ b
B C R S
[a,b] is called an closed interval where

Interval @ 2,1 = x | x 2 R and @ 2<x <1

b c R S
Example :
Interval @ 2,1 = x | x 2 R and @ 2 ≤ x <1
B c R S
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Though most of our operations involve real numbers only, not all numbers are real
numbers. In some situations there is a need for numbers which are not real.

If we square a positive or a negative real number, we always get a positive real number.
2 = 2.2 = 4, and @ 2 = @ 2 A @ 2 = 4 A So the positive real number 4 has two real
2 ` a2 ` a` a

square roots,
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ww whichw
w
w
w are
w
w
ww +2 and -2. Similarly positive real number 7 has two real square
w
w
roots + 7 and @ 7 .
p p

But what about a negative number like -4? Does it have any square root i.e. any number
multiplied with itself, can it give us -4? You find that the answer cannot be any real
number.
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ww
w
w
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ww
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w
w
ww
To solve this, we define i 2 = @ 1, or i = p@ 1 ( i is pronounced iota).

Now we can get the square root of -4.

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w
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p@ 4 = q 4 A `@ 1a = p 4 A p@ 1 = 2i

and 2i = 2iA 2i = 4i 2 = 4 A @ 1 = @ 4
` a2 ` a

i1 = i, i 2 = @ 1 by definition , i 3 = i 2 A i = @ 1 i = @ i,
b c ` a

i 4 = i 2 A i 2 = @ 1 @ 1 = 1, i 5 = i 4 A i = i and so on A We can find any power of iA

` a` a

A complex number can contain a real part also like z = 2 + 3i.

Standard form of complex number is z = a+bi.

A real number can also be written as a complex number , like 4 = 4 + 0i. The complex
numbers that are not real are also called imaginary numbers.

If C is the set of all complex numbers then

C = {a +bi | a and b are real numbers }

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wwc f p
1f 3f
Example : 3 + 2i iε A 3 + @ 4 , @ 7i, 2πi, + f
f f
ff
f
fff
f
f
b
p i are complex numbers A
3 2
f
f
f
The conjugate off
f
faf
f
ff
fcomplex
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff number z = a + bi is defined as z = a @ bi
Or a + bi = a @ bi
 w
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ww
f p
1f 3f
Example : Write the conjugates of the complex numbers 3 @ 2i, @ 7i, 2πi, f+ f
f
ff
ff
ff
f
f
i
3 2

Solution :f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
3 @ 2i = 3 + 2i @ 7i = 0 @ 7i = 0 + 7i = 7 i
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
f
ff
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ff
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ff f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f w
ww
w
w
w w
ww
w
w
w
1f
f
f fpf3f
f
f
ff
ff 1f
f
f f p
f f
f3f
f
f
ff
ff
f
f
2πi = 0 + 2πi = 0 @ 2πi = @ 2πi + i= @ i
3 2 3 2

Operations of complex numbers:

If z1 = a + bi and z 2 = c + di
Then z1 + z 2 = a+c + b+d i
` a ` a

z1 @ z 2 = a@c + b@d i
` a ` a

z1 B z 2 = ac @ bd + ad + bc i
` a ` a

For division of complex numbers, we multiply both numerator and denominator

by the conjugate of the denominator to get a real number in the denominator

af
f
f+f
f
ff
ff
f
fbi
f
ff
f
fff af +f bi f cf @ di
= ff
fff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
B f ff
f
ff
ff
f
ffff
f
ff
f
c + di `c + di ca @`di
+ +
a
f
fac
f
fff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ffbd
f
f
fff
f
ff
f
ff
fff
f
ff
ff
f
ffbc
ff
f
ff
ff
f
f@
f
ff
f
ff
fad
f
f
ff
f
fff
f
ff
f
fif
f
f
=
c +d
2 2

ac + bd f bc @ ad
= fff
fff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
fff
f
fff
f
+ f f
f
ff
fff
f
fff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
ff
i
c +d c +d
2 2 2 2

Example : If z1 = 2 @ 4i and z 2 = 3 + 2i, then find z1 + z 2 , z1 @ z 2 , and z1 B z 2 A

Solution :

z1 + z 2 = 2 @ 4i + 3 + 2i = 2 + 3 + @ 4 + 2 i = 5 @ 2i
` a ` a ` a ` a

z1 @ z 2 = 2 @ 4i @ 3 + 2i = 2 @ 3 + @ 4 @ 2 i = @ 1 @ 6i
` a ` a ` a ` a

z1 B z 2 = 2 @ 4i B 3 + 2i = 2.3 @ @ 4 A 2 + 2.2 + @ 4 A 3 i = 6 + 8 + 4 @ 12 i = 14 @ 8i
` a ` a B ` a C B ` a C @ A @ A

2f@ 3fif
Example : Write ff
ff
f
ff
f
ff
ff
fff
in the form a + bi.
4 + 2i

Solution :
2f
f
f@
f
f
ff
f
f3i
f
f
ff
f
ff
ff 2ff
f
f@
f
f
ff
f
f3i
f
f
ff
f
ff 4f
f f
f@
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
f2i
f
ff
f
fff
= B multiplying both numerator and denominator
4 + 2i 4 + 2i 4 @ 2i
by the conjugate of denominator;
8f
f
f@
f
f
ff
ff
f
f12i
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fff@
f
f
ff
f
f4i
f
f
ff
f
ff
ff+f
f
f
2
f
ff
f
f6i
f
ff
f
fff
f
ff
=
4 +2
2 2

8f
f
f@
f
f
ff
ff
f
f16i
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fff@
f
f
ff
f
f6f
f
f
ff
ff
=
16 + 4
2f
f
f@
f
f
ff
ff
f
f16i
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
fff 2 ff
ff
f
ff 16ff
f
ff
f
f f1f
f
ff 4f
f
f f
ff
= = @ i = @ i
20 20 20 10 5