TYPES OF CAMERAS

SLR, which stands for single-lens reflex, refers to a type of camera that employs a rotating mirror (either a pentaprism or a pentamirror) that reflects the image that comes through the lens onto a focusing screen. From the mirrors reflection, the images then appears in the cameras eyepiece. The image only reaches the film after the focal plane shutter opens (when the photographer takes the shot). Produced in 1935, the GOMZ sport was first version of the SLR camera to be made. Different models flourished and improvements in the viewfinders orientation and the cameras internal mirrors happened. Since the 1970s, amateur and professional photographers alike have been using SLR cameras. Over the years as photographic technology improved, retailers produced SLR cameras that were equipped with LCD screens, improved lenses and microcomputers. Today, camera manufacturers such as Canon and Nikon have made digital SLR cameras available.
While digital SLR cameras give the photographer the advantage of viewing the scene without parallax distortion (apparent movement of fixed objects when the photographer changes position), they do prevent the photographer from seeing his shot at the moment the picture is taken.

TYPES OF CAMERAS

The following list details the various types of cameras a photographer can use: 35mm camera digital camera disposable camera SLR camera. Comparison of Film or Digital - Unless youre buying a camera for a professional photographer, go with digital. Digital is more convenient and there are no film costs.
Digital Features - Resolution -In digital photography, this is determined by how many megapixels the camera has. Megapixels do not determine the quality of the image; rather they determine the quality of the print size. The more megapixels, the bigger the enlargement can be without losing clarity. A three-megapixel camera will provide good prints up to 8 x 10. Digital cameras have a variety of options The following features are essential Optical zoom lens, Ability to use rechargeable batteries, Removable memory card An ISO range of up to at least up to 400 (more if the person is likely to shoot in dim light) Note: ISO determines how light sensitive the camera is, A built-in flash (with a red-eye reduction feature), An LCD screen for viewing pictures, A glass lens

TYPES OF CAMERAS
The accessories are dependent on the type of camera. While a manual camera requires film (with extra rolls), a digital camera demands a memory card (with extras for longer, more involved shoots). Regardless of the type of camera, photographers should always pack extra batteries. Specialized lenses can enhance a photographers shots. While some lenses are primarily used by professionals, the zoom lens is one type that amateurs can enjoy without much training. Zoom lenses, also known as telephoto lenses, are best used when a photographer cant get close to his subject. In addition to the telephoto lens, pros may consider using a macro lens, a fisheye lens or a wide-angle lens. While the macro lens enlarges small subjects in photos (such as the eyes of a fly), both the fisheye and the wide-angle lenses capture subjects that have a broad scope, such as overviews of cities or landscape shots. Filters alter the way in which light enters the cameras lens. A filter either slightly changes the details or shades of a frame or it creates an image on the film that isnt visible to the naked eye. Special flash attachment may be required for the more advanced cameras they may not come with a built-in flash. Photographers may use different types of films: they change between color and black and white and may also use films of different speeds. While slower film speeds are best used in poorly lit scenes, faster speeds are more suited for action shots, such as cars speeding by.

ACCESSORIES
Standard Lenses this is a term that seems to be disappearing a little from terminology. Traditionally on film cameras it was used to describe lenses in the 50mm range because this is what usually came with the camera. Kit Lenses These days the lens that is offered as a package with the DSLR is generally called the kit lens. It is generally an entry level quality zoom lens. Prime Lenses A prime lens is a lens that has one focal length only. They are becoming less popular in an age where photographers like to have the convenience of a range of focal lengths at their finger tips. Telephoto Zoom Lenses Zoom lenses are the most popular DSLR lenses at present and come in a range of configurations and levels of quality. These lenses can have quite narrow ranges or quite long ones. For example, it is available in lengths ranging up to 300mm or longer - the longer your focal length the more impact that camera shake has on your images. More and more lenses these days are being released with Image Stabilisation (IS) to combat camera shake.

ACCESSORIES
Flash photography is a wonderful thing as it allows you to take pictures in all manner of places but there are a few common problems that come along with it that many digital camera owners fall into the trap of including: harsh shadows cast on walls behind your subject over exposed subjects harshly and unnaturally lit Flash Diffusers -There are many techniques for overcoming these problems including using bounce flash techniques and controlling the flash output from your camera, but the simple idea is to soften the light from your flash using a diffuser. Diffusers help eliminate harsh light and shadows and can help leave your photos looking more natural. Diffusers come in all shapes and sizes depending upon the type of flash youre using.

BASICS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
The Exposure Triangle
The three main elements that need to be considered when playing around with exposure are called the exposure triangle. Each of the three aspects of the triangle relate to light and how it enters and interacts with the camera. The three elements are: ISO the measure of a digital camera sensors sensitivity to light Aperture the size of the opening in the lens when a picture is taken Shutter Speed the amount of time that the shutter is open It is at the intersection of these three elements that an images exposure is worked out. Most importantly a change in one of the elements will impact the others. This means that you can never really isolate just one of the elements alone but always need to have the others in the back of your mind.

The relationship between ISO, Aperture and Shutter Speed

Imagine your camera is like a window with shutters that open and close. Aperture is the size of the window. If its bigger more light gets through and the room is brighter. Shutter Speed is the amount of time that the shutters of the window are open. The longer you leave them open the more that comes in. Now imagine that youre inside the room and are wearing sunglasses. Your eyes become desensitized to the light that comes in (its like a low ISO). There are a number of ways of increasing the amount of light in the room (or at least how much it seems that there is. You could increase the time that the shutters are open (decrease shutter speed), you could increase the size of the window (increase aperture) or you could take off your sunglasses (make the ISO larger). Keep in mind that changing each element not only impacts the exposure of the image but each one also has an impact upon other aspects of it.

ISO Settings in Digital Photography

In traditional (film) photography ISO (or ASA) was the indication of how sensitive a film was to light. It was measured in numbers (youve probably seen them on films 100, 200, 400, 800 etc). The lower the number the lower the sensitivity of the film and the finer the grain in the shots youre taking. In Digital Photography ISO measures the sensitivity of the image sensor. The same principles apply as in film photography the lower the number the less sensitive your camera is to light and the finer the grain. Higher ISO settings are generally used in darker situations to get faster shutter speeds (for example an indoor sports event when you want to freeze the action in lower light). 100 ISO is generally accepted as normal and will give you lovely crisp shots (little noise/grain). Situations where you might need to push ISO to higher settings include: Indoor Sports Events where your subject is moving fast yet you may have limited light available. Concerts also low in light and often no-flash zones Art Galleries, Churches etc- many galleries have rules against using a flash and of course being indoors are not well lit. Birthday Parties blowing out the candles in a dark room can give you a nice moody shot which would be ruined by a bright flash. Increasing the ISO can help capture the scene.

What is Aperture?

Aperture is the size of the opening in the lens when a picture is taken. When you hit the shutter release button of your camera a hole opens up that allows your cameras image sensor to catch a glimpse of the scene you want to capture. The aperture that you set impacts the size of that hole. The larger the hole the more light that gets in the smaller the hole the less light. Aperture is measured in f-stops. Youll often see them referred as f/number for example f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6,f/8,f/22 etc. Moving from one f-stop to the next doubles or halves the size of the amount of opening in your lens (and the amount of light getting through). Keep in mind that a change in shutter speed from one stop to the next doubles or halves the amount of light that gets in also. So f/2.8 is in fact a much larger aperture than f/22

What is Shutter Speed?

Shutter speed is the amount of time that the shutter is open. In film photography it was the length of time that the film was exposed to the scene youre photographing and similarly in digital photography shutter speed is the length of time that your image sensor sees the scene youre attempting to capture. Shutter speed is measured in seconds or in most cases fractions of seconds. The bigger the denominator the faster the speed (ie 1/1000 is much faster than 1/30). In most cases youll probably be using shutter speeds of 1/60th of a second or faster. This is because anything slower than this is very difficult to use without getting camera shake. Camera shake is when your camera is moving while the shutter is open and results in blur in your photos. If youre using a slow shutter speed (anything slower than 1/60) you will need to either use a tripod or some some type of image stabilization (more and more cameras are coming with this built in). Shutter speeds available to you on your camera will usually double (approximately) with each setting. As a result youll usually have the options for the following shutter speeds 1/500, 1/250, 1/125, 1/60, 1/30, 1/15, 1/8 etc. This doubling is handy to keep in mind as aperture settings also double the amount of light that is let in as a result increasing shutter speed by one stop and decreasing aperture by one stop should give you similar exposure levels.

Focal Length and Shutter Speed

Another thing to consider when choosing shutter speed is the focal length of the lens youre using. Longer focal lengths will accentuate the amount of camera shake you have and so youll need to choose a faster shutter speed. The rule of thumb to use with focal length in non image stabilized situations is to choose a shutter speed with a denominator that is larger than the focal length of the lens. For example if you have a lens that is 50mm 1/60th is probably ok but if you have a 200mm lens youll probably want to shoot at around 1/250.

Digital Photography Composition

Rule of Thirds

The basic principle behind the rule of thirds is to imagine breaking an image down into thirds (both horizontally and vertically) so that you have 9 parts. With this grid in mind the rule of thirds now identifies four important parts of the image that you should consider placing points of interest in as you frame your image. It also gives you four lines that are also useful positions for elements in your photo. The theory is that if you place points of interest in the intersections or along the lines that your photo becomes more balanced and will enable a viewer of the image to interact with it more naturally. Studies have shown that when viewing images that peoples eyes usually go to one of the intersection points most naturally rather than the center of the shot using the rule of thirds works with this natural way of viewing an image rather than working against it.

Digital Photography Composition

In this image the head of the subject is placed on one of the intersecting points especially his eyes which are a natural point of focus for a portrait. His tie and flower take up a secondary point of interest.

In this shot, the subject is placed along a whole line which means she is considerably off center and therefore creating an additional point of interest. Placing her right in the center of the frame could have resulted in an awkward shot.

Digital Photography Composition

A good technique for landscape shots is to position horizons along one of the horizontal lines. Otherwise the horizon will be inclined from the horizontal & so will be the ridge of the roof, the eaves etc.

Take for example this shot of an archway in a European art gallery. This shot is obviously off line if you look at how the bottom of the painting slopes towards the right in comparison to the bottom edge of the view finder. Similarly sills and lintels should be horizontal, as should be the ridge of a sloped roof.

Digital Photography Composition

Working the Lines in Architectural Photography
Using Horizontal Lines -Theres something about a horizontal line in an image that conveys a message of stability or even rest. Horizons, fallen trees, oceans, sleeping people all of these subjects have something about them that speaks either of permanency and timelessness or rest.

Layers of horizontal lines can create rhythm or patterns in an image that can become the focus of an image in and of itself. Horizons are the most common horizontal line to be found in photographs and they often act as a dividing point in a photograph in effect an anchor that the rest of the image is formed around.

Digital Photography Composition

Using Vertical Lines Vertical lines have the ability to convey a variety of different moods in a photograph ranging from power and strength (think of skyscrapers) to growth - think of trees.
Vertical lines can be used very effectively by swapping the way you hold your camera into a vertical framing. This lengthens the vertical subject further which can emphasize its height.

Using Diagonal Lines Diagonal lines generally work well to draw the eye of an images viewer through the photograph. They create points of interest as they intersect with other lines and often give images depth by suggesting perspective.

Digital Photography Composition

6 Techniques to Enhance the Focal Point in an Image 1. Position Place it in a prominent position you might want to start with the rule of thirds. 2. Focus Learn to use Depth of Field to blur out other aspects in front or behind your focal point. 3. Blur If you really want to get tricky you might want to play with slower shutter speeds if your main subject is still and things around it are moving. 4. Size making your focal point large is not the only way to make it prominent but it definitely can help. 5. Color using contrasting colors can also be a way of setting your point of interest apart from its surroundings. 6. Shape similarly contrasting shapes and textures can make a subject stand out.

Digital Photography Composition

Getting Backgrounds Right Backgrounds present both opportunities and challenges to photographers. On the one hand they can put a subjects in context and make it stand out in a way that highlights it wonderfully but on the other hand backgrounds can overwhelm subjects and distract from them. Distracting Focal Points, Protruding Elements from Subjects Heads and Competing Lines are some of the common mistakes

Framing Your Shots Photography Composition Technique Framing is the technique of drawing attention to the subject of your image by blocking other parts of the image with something in the scene. The benefits of framing pictures include: giving the photo context giving images a sense of depth and layer leading the eye towards your main focal point

Digital Photography Composition

4 Rules of Composition for Landscape Photography 1.Diagonal lines are very effective-The lines need not be actual lines they could be the shape of a path, a line of trees, a fence, river or any other feature in an image. Converging line can be all the more effective. 2.Geometric shapes -By positioning key aspects of a landscape on points of a geometric shape you can help create a balanced composition. Perhaps the most common and easiest way to do this is to use a triangle shape between objects in an image with three objects in a frame positioned with one to each side and one more central. 3.The Rule of Thirds -Position key points of interest in a landscape on the intersecting point between imaginary third points in an image. 4.Framing Images -While adding points of interest to a foreground is an important technique, another technique is to frame the shot by adding interest to other parts of the edges of an image.

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM

Photographic film is a sheet of plastic (polyester, PET) coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive silver halide salts with variable crystal sizes that determine the sensitivity, contrast and resolution of the film. When the emulsion is sufficiently exposed to light, it forms a latent(invisible) image. Chemical processes can then be applied to the film to create a visible image, in a process called film developing. In black-and-white photographic film there is usually one layer of silver salts. When the exposed grains are developed, the silver salts are converted to metallic silver, which block light and appear as the black part of the film negative. Color film uses at least three layers. Dyes make the crystals sensitive to different colors. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by the green and red layers. During development, the exposed silver salts are converted to metallic silver. In a color film, the byproducts of the development reaction simultaneously combine with chemicals known as color couplers that are included either in the film itself or in the developer solution. Following development, the silver is converted back to silver salts in the bleach step. It is removed from the film in the fix step. This leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Newer color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers to 20 layers.

TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM

Print film, when developed, turns into a negative with the colors (or black and white values, in black and white film) inverted. This type of film must be "printed"that is either enlarged by projecting through a lens, or placed in direct contact as light shines through itonto photographic paper (which in turn is itself developed) in order to be viewed as intended. Print films are available in both black-andwhite and color. Color print films use an orange color correction mask to correct for unwanted dye absorptions and improve color accuracy. Color reversal film after development is called a transparency and can be viewed directly using a slide projector. Reversal film mounted with plastic or cardboard for projection is often called a slide. It is also often marketed as "slide" film. Photographic prints can be produced from reversal film, but the process is expensive and not as simple as that for print film. Black-and-white reversal film exists, but is uncommon. Conventional black-andwhite negative stock can be reverse processed, to give black & white slides. Some kits were available to enable B&W reversal processing to be done by homeprocessors, but most are discontinued. B&W transparencies can be produced from almost all B&W films. Instant photography, as popularised by Polaroid, uses a special type of camera and film that automates and integrates development, without the need of further equipment or chemicals. This process is carried out immediately after exposure, as opposed to regular film, which is developed afterwards and requires additional chemicals. Films can be made to record non- visible ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) radiation. These films generally require special equipment.

HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY, FILM & CAMERA

Ancient times: Camera obscura used to form images on walls in darkened rooms; image formation via a pinhole Isaac Newton discovers that white light is composed of different colors in 1727. Johann Heinrich Schulze discovered that silver nitrate darkened upon exposure to light in 1794. Joseph Niepce achieves first photographic image with camera obscura - however, the image required eight hours of light exposure and later faded in 1837.

HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY, FILM & CAMERA

Camera Obscura, Latin for dark room, refers to a dark box in which light rays from an object pass through a small hole or lens to produce the image on the plate or film contained inside. When the light rays create the image within the camera obscura, the image is generated upside down.
While early models of camera obscura were as large as a room, over the years, models became more an more portable, eventually becoming the prototype for modern cameras. The first inventors to make the camera obscura portable were Robert Boyle and Robert Hook. These early models were used by artists who wanted to document their travels Louis Daguerre and William Fox Talbot created the later models that took the first true photographs. Louis Daguerre's first daguerreotype - the first image that was fixed and did not fade and needed under thirty minutes of light exposure in1840. Louis Daguerre creates images on silver-plated copper, coated with silver iodide and "developed" with warmed mercury.

HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY, FILM & CAMERA

1861: Scottish physicist James Clerk-Maxwell demonstrates a color photography system involving three black and white photographs, each taken through a red, green, or blue filter. The photos were turned into lantern slides and projected in registration with the same color filters. This is the "color separation" method. In 1871, Richard Maddox discovered gelatin could be used instead of glass for photographic plates. This step not only allowed for faster development but also paved the way for mass-produced film. George Eastman took the process further and introduced flexible film in 1884. In 1888, Eastman introduced the box camera, the first product in the history of cameras available to the general public. George Eastman invented flexible, paperbased photographic film. Eastman also patents Kodak roll-film camera. Early photography in the form of daguerreotypes did not use film at all. Eastman Kodak developed the first flexible photographic film in 1885. This original "film" was coated on paper. The first transparent plastic film was produced in 1889. In 1907, First commercial color film, the Autochrome plates, manufactured by Lumiere brothers in France. First mass-marketed camera known as the Brownie was sold in 1913/1914. First 35mm still camera developed in 1927. In1936 Kodachrome, multi-layered color film, is developed. In 1937 Photojournalism becomes an important part of reporting WWII news. 1948: Hasselblad in Sweden offers its first medium-format SLR for commercial sale; Pentax in Japan introduces the automatic diaphragm; Polaroid sells instant black and white film 1949: East German Zeiss develops the Contax S, first SLR with an unreversed image in a pentaprism viewfinder.