System calculations

Torque and inertia calculations

The first step in sizing a positioning system is to calculate the torque and speed requirements of the load. Speed is normally determined by the required throughput rate, although it is worth reading the notes later in this section about the relationship between shaft power and move time - even small concessions in move times can have a significant effect on the power required from the motor. To establish the torque requirements normally demands a certain amount of calculation, depending on the nature of the load and the motion required. Parker has produced a sizing program for this purpose which greatly simplifies this process and recommends suitable motor-drive packages for the application. However we will cover the basics of manual calculation here since these can be applied in virtually any situation.

L D

Fig 7.1 Rotating cylindrical components

When the component is made of steel: J = 761 x D4 x L (J in Kg.m2, D & L in metres) For aluminium: J = 261 x D4 x L (J in Kg.m2, D & L in metres) When you know (or can calculate) the weight: J = WD2 8 (J in Kg.m2, W in Kg, D in metres) (Note that if you double the length, you double the inertia; but if you double the diameter, the inertia goes up by 16 times).

Components of the load torque

In a typical positioning system, the motor must perform two distinct tasks - it must accelerate and decelerate the mechanical components, and it must overcome any friction in the system. Both require torque from the motor, but each depends on totally different mechanical properties.

Components which move in a straight line

Moving tables and carriages are normally driven either by a belt and pulley system or by a screw. In either case there is an equivalent inertia seen by the motor which depends on the moving weight and also on the pulley diameter or the pitch of the screw.

Calculating moment of inertia

The acceleration/deceleration torque depends only on two parameters - the moment of inertia of the entire system, including the motor, and the required acceleration rate. Whereas friction is resistance to movement, moment of inertia can be described as resistance to change in speed (i.e. acceleration or deceleration). Its a property of any mechanical component, and it depends mainly on weight; but in the case of rotating components it depends on shape as well. With circular or cylindrical parts like shafts and pulleys, material further from the axis of rotation has a much greater effect on inertia than material near the centre. A flywheel, for example, which is deliberately designed to have a high inertia to minimise speed changes caused by fluctuations in engine torque, has its mass concentrated near the edge. If it had uniform thickness, it would have lower inertia for the same weight. In high-speed positioning systems its essential to keep the total inertia to a minimum. Perhaps it goes without saying that you should concentrate on those components which make the major contribution to the total inertia, but its not always obvious which they are. In many leadscrew systems, for example, the screw itself is the dominant inertia rather than the load actually being moved (see example later).

W D

Fig 7.2 Belt-driven system

For a belt or chain-driven system: Equivalent inertia of weight W: Jw = WD2 4 (J in Kg.m2, W in Kg, D in metres) If the belt or chain has significant weight, add it to that of the moving carriage before doing the calculation. Remember to add the inertia of both pulleys (calculate as for a cylinder).

W
p

Rotating components
To calculate the moment of inertia of the rotating components in a mechanical system, we need to know both their shape and their weight. Fortunately most of these components like shafts, leadscrews, couplings and gearwheels approximate to simple cylindrical shapes. And since they are usually made either of steel or aluminium, we can come up with a simple formula based only on dimensions. Heres how to calculate the inertia of these components:

Fig 7.3 Screw-driven system

For a screw-driven system: Equivalent inertia of weight W: Jw = Wp2 (4x107) (J in Kg.m2, W in Kg, p = linear travel/turn in mm) Remember to add the inertia of the leadscrew, again calculated as for a cylinder.

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Dealing with friction torque

Unlike accelerating torque, friction torque is seldom easy to calculate. For a start it can be extremely variable, depending on factors such as lubrication and the degree of bearing preload. Proprietary positioning tables usually have a specified no-load or breakaway torque which is a useful starting point. With larger systems or custom-built assemblies its a good idea to measure the friction torque, making an allowance for variations during service and between one system and another. Use a torque spanner if possible, alternatively wind thread round a pulley or shaft and use a spring balance to measure the force needed to make it turn. The friction torque is then: T = WD x 4.9 (T in Nm, W is balance reading in Kg, D is pulley dia. in metres) For a screw-driven system, you can calculate the torque needed to overcome a linear force acting on the moving carriage (this may be friction or some other kind of thrust load).

Calculation of accelerating torque

Once the total system inertia has been worked out, the required accelerating torque is the product of inertia and acceleration rate: T = J x revs/sec2 x 2 (T in Nm, J in Kg.m2) Torque needed to overcome friction or other static loads must be added to this to get the total torque required.

Calculating shaft power

When you have selected a suitable motor, its worth while calculating the peak power required by the load and comparing this with the peak power available from the motor. This will confirm that the sizing is realistic and may help to avoid the inefficient solution in which the motor is only producing a fraction of its potential power output, usually by running at low speed. Power is the product of torque and speed: Shaft power: W = T x revs/sec x 2 (W in watts, T in Nm) Assuming a typical trapezoidal move profile, the peak power required by the load is the torque-speed product at the end of acceleration or beginning of deceleration. The peak power available from a stepper motor is approximately where the torque is down to 50% of its lowspeed value. Peak power from a servo occurs at the knee point of the peak torque curve.
A Speed

W
p

Fig 7.4 Screw driven system with friction

Torque due to linear force F: T = Fp 6284e (T in Nm, F in Newtons, p is the linear travel per turn in mm, e is the screw efficiency, e.g. 0.8) For a belt or chain drive system, the equivalent formula is:

F
Time

D
Fig 7.5 Belt driven system with friction
Torque due to linear force F: T = FD 2 (T in Nm, F in Newtons, D in metres) If the load moves vertically, the linear force F due to gravity is: F = 9.8W (F in Newtons, W in Kg)

100%

50% Torque Speed

The effect of a reduction ratio

Introducing a gearbox or toothed belt reduction system between motor and load can be a very useful technique because the reflected load inertia is reduced by the square of the gear ratio. This can help to match the load inertia to the motor inertia, and in the case of screw driven systems can sometimes be used to improve the dynamic performance or reduce the torque requirement (see example later). For a reduction system with a ratio N and efficiency e: Torque out = torque in x Ne Inertia at input shaft = load inertia N
2

Torque Speed Peak power points: A B C load, trapezoidial move stepper motor servo motor

Fig 7.6 Peak power points

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The peak power in the load must always be less than the peak power available from the motor (no more than about 70% in the case of a stepper). Torque and speed may be traded by changing the drive ratio, but power can never be increased.

Example application

100Kg 10mm 5mm in 120mS

Motion profiles
Motor sizing for high-speed positioning applications is frequently based on the equal thirds trapezoidal profile, in which acceleration, constant-speed motion and deceleration each occupy one third of the move time. This profile requires the lowest peak power during the move; a triangular profile, or one having a longer constant-speed segment, will both require greater peak shaft power for the same move time and distance.
V Speed V Speed

Motor Jm = 5Kg-cm2

Fig 7.8 Example leadscrew system

A table weighing 100Kg is driven by a steel leadscrew 40mm diameter and one metre long with a 10mm pitch. The load needs to move 5mm in 120mS. The motor has a rotor inertia of 5 Kg-cm2, and friction is negligible.

Time

t/3

Time

2t/3

Fig 7.7 Triangular & trapezoidal profiles

It is obviously a simple matter to calculate this optimum profile where the move distance is fixed, such as repetitive indexing in a packaging machine for example. The exception is the case where this would result in an excessive maximum speed, in which case a longer constant-speed segment will be needed. However in many positioning applications the move distance is variable, so the profile can only be optimised for one specific distance (it is not normal to change acceleration and velocity values as the move distance varies). Moves shorter than the specified distance will result in a shorter constant-speed segment or a triangular profile; longer moves will simply extend the constant-speed segment. In either case there will be no increase in the peak power if the acceleration and velocity values are unchanged. The triangular profile may be useful where torque is a limitation rather than speed - the triangle represents the minimum-torque profile for a given move, albeit at the expense of a higher maximum speed. The following comparison shows relative maximum velocity, acceleration rate and peak power for triangular and equalthirds trapezoidal profiles for a move of D revolutions in time t seconds.

Triangle

Trapezoidal

Change, trap/tri.
75% 112.5% 84%

Maximum velocity Acceleration rate Peak power

2D/t 4D/t2 Jx8D /t

2 3

5D/t 4.5D/t2 Jx6.75D /t

2 3

Using an equal-thirds move profile, how much torque will be needed? Reflected inertia of the table Jw = 100 x 102 4 x 107 = 250 x 10-6 Kg-m2 Inertia of the screw (a steel cylinder) Js = 761 x (0.04)4 x 1 = 1900 x 10-6 Kg-m2 Inertia of the motor (5 Kg-cm2) (remember 1 Kg-m2 = 104 Kg-cm2) Jm = 500 x 10-6 Kg-m2 Total inertia Jt = 2650 x 10-6 Kg-m2 Acceleration rate (distance=0.5 rev) A = 4.5 x 0.5 0.122 = 156 revs/sec2 Accelerating torque T = 2650 x 10-6 x 156 x 2 = 2.6Nm How would the torque be affected if the screw is only 70% efficient? The reduced efficiency will only affect the torque needed to accelerate the mass of the table, since the leadscrew itself is directly connected. However, reduced screw efficiency normally implies friction torque in the nut as well. Proportion of inertia from the table = 250 2650 = 0.094 Torque to accelerate table mass = 2.6 x 0.094 = 0.24 Nm New value with 70% efficiency = 0.24 0.7 = 0.34 Nm Increase in torque = 0.1 Nm New total torque demand T = 2.7Nm

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What happens if the slideways carrying the table have a friction coefficient of 0.2 (using the screw with 70% efficiency)?
Gravitational force due to table mass = 100 x 9.81 = 981 Newtons Friction force ( = 0.1) F = 981 x 0.2 = 196 Newtons Torque to overcome this force T = 196 x 10 6284 x 0.7 = 0.44 Nm New torque demand T = 3.14Nm

The maximum speed, acceleration rate and distance travelled by the motor remain the same. New torque demand T = 1225 x 10-6 x 156 x 2 = 1.23Nm

What is the new load/rotor inertia ratio?

New inertia ratio = 725 500 = 1.45:1

How is the peak power affected?

New peak power W = 1.23 x 6.25 x 2 = 48 watts Here is a situation where increasing the screw pitch and introducing a reduction ratio has offered a significant improvement - the screw only rotates at half its previous speed due to the increased pitch, and the effect of its inertia is reduced by the reduction ratio. The torque and power required from the motor have both been reduced by 50%, and the load/motor inertia ratio is more favourable. Since the torque demand is now around half what it was before, using the same motor we could double the acceleration rate and reduce the overall move time by 30%. In practice of course the reduction components will also introduce some additional inertia and friction.

What acceleration & velocity values would you need to program?

Acceleration rate (from above) A = 156 revs/sec2 Velocity V = 1.5 x 0.5 0.12 = 6.25 revs/sec

Going back to the simple case with a perfect leadscrew & no friction, what is the peak power demand?
Peak power W = 2.6 x 6.25 x 2 = 102 watts

Relationship between shaft power, move distance and move time

The expressions in the last section showed that maximum velocity is proportional to D/t, and acceleration rate (therefore torque) to D/t2. Power is the product of torque and speed, and is therefore proportional to D2 and to 1/t3. From this we can conclude that to move twice the distance in the same time requires 4 times as much shaft power, and to move the same distance in half the time requires 8 times as much shaft power. The maximum power output of a motor is related to its size, and a motor capable of delivering 8 times the power will be very much larger. It will also have significantly more inertia which will increase the torque demand still further. So in practice the additional power required to halve the move time can be as much as 50 times. There are two important conclusions to be drawn here 1. Move time is a critical factor in system power requirements. Significant economies can be obtained by relaxing move time requirements where possible, and its always worth looking at other aspects of a machine cycle to see if savings can be made elsewhere. 2. A well-designed positioning system cannot be made to run significantly faster than its design speed. For example, with a system having a power margin of 20%, you would only expect to be able to trim around 5% off the move time by pushing everything to the limit.

What is the load/rotor inertia ratio?

Table + screw inertia Jw+ Js = 2150 x 10-6 Kg-m2 Motor inertia Jm = 500 x 10-6 Kg-m2 Inertia ratio = 2150 500 = 4.3:1

If we introduce a 2:1 reduction and double the screw pitch to 20mm, what happens to the torque requirement? (Ignore the inertia of the reduction system).
Reflected inertia of the table Jw = 100 x 202 4 x 107 = 1000 x 10-6 Kg-m2 The screw inertia will be the same as before. The inertia of the table plus the screw will now be reduced by the square of the reduction ratio. Table + screw inertia Jw+ Js = 2900 x 10-6 Kg-m2 Reflected inertia at motor = 2900 x 10-6 4 Kg-m2 = 725 x 10-6 Kg-m2 New total inertia (adding the motor) Jt = 1225 x 10-6 Kg-m2

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RMS torque calculation

When using a servo motor in intermittent duty applications, its possible to overdrive the motor for part of the operating cycle provided its given time to cool down afterwards. A typical intermittent duty rating is anything up to four times the continuous torque, and is usually limited only by the amount of current available from the drive. As long as the total heat produced during an operating cycle is no more than when the motor runs continuously at its rated torque, its safe to assume that the motor wont overheat. The main source of heat is resistive loss in the motor windings, which is proportional to current squared (remember W = RI2?) Since current and torque are directly related (from the Torque Constant), the heat generated is also proportional to torque squared. For example, at double the torque there will be four times as much heat produced. We therefore cant take a simple arithmetic average of the torque to calculate the total heat input during the cycle. We need to use a root-mean-square (RMS) average. The formula looks like this: Trms = T12t1+T22t2+T32t3+...... t1 + t2 + t3+ t4 +.....

slower the temperature rises. The thermal time constant is the time taken to reach 63% of the final temperature; it takes 3 time constants to reach approximately 95% of the final temperature, so after that things obviously change quite slowly. For our RMS heating calculations to be valid, its important that the complete operating cycle is short compared with the motors thermal time constant - 10% is a good guide. You can usually find the thermal time constant in the motor data, and it typically varies from 30 minutes for a small motor to 90 minutes for a large one. An operating cycle up to 3 minutes long should therefore be acceptable in most cases. In practice this would be quite a long cycle, so this is not a problem in the majority of applications.

Sizing mains transformers for positioning systems

Transformer-fed stepper and servo drives are normally specified with a standard transformer which will be adequate in all practical applications. In reality this means that the transformer is over-specified in the majority of cases. Nevertheless if the quantities involved are small, it is better to have a guaranteed working solution rather than spend a great deal of engineering effort optimising the transformer design in order to save a comparatively small amount of money. Where larger quantities are involved or where space is at a premium then an optimised design is more likely to be justified. However most positioning systems involving point-to-point moves can be tricky to size because the power changes significantly throughout the operating cycle.

Velocity

T1 T2 Torque (T) T3 t1 t2 t3 t4 (dwell)

The basic requirements of the transformer are: 1. To supply the long-term average power without overheating. 2. To supply the short-term peak demand without excessive voltage drop. The long-term average power requirement can be estimated once the RMS torque calculations have been done. When the transformer is delivering peak powers greater than its continuous rating for short periods (e.g. 2 seconds or less), a good guide to the required VA rating will be the greater of the following: 1 2 Peak load x peak load duration/total cycle time. 70% of the peak load.

Fig 7.9 Simple machine cycle

All were doing here is adding up the heat produced during each part of the cycle, dividing it by the total time and then taking the square root to get back to an equivalent continuous torque.

What happens with very long operating cycles?

If the torque exceeds the continuous rating for a long period, its obviously possible for the motor to overheat during this time even though the RMS torque is acceptable. For example, at double the continuous torque we are restricted to a 25% duty cycle (i.e. four times as much heat for a quarter of the time). If the torque is required for one second in a four-second cycle that sounds fine - but one hour out of every four hours seems like bad news, even though this is still a 25% duty cycle. So where is the dividing line? It comes down to the Thermal Time Constant of the motor. When current passes through a motor, the temperature follows an exponential rise. The larger the motor, the

For example, a peak load of 1000VA for a total of 400mS every 1.2 seconds would require a transformer rating of 1000 x 0.4/1.2 = 577VA. However, in this case the suggested rating is 700VA (i.e. 70% of the peak load). A drop in DC bus voltage caused by transformer regulation will affect the high-speed performance. The greatest drop will occur when the system is delivering maximum power, which coincides with the knee of the peak torque curve. This has the effect of rounding off the torque-speed curve so that it becomes impossible to operate right up at the knee point. Most proprietary transformers have a secondary voltage rating which is specified at full load current. This can result

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in an unacceptably high no-load voltage on a transformer with poor regulation. On Parker-supplied transformers the secondary voltage is specified as an open-circuit value, ensuring that the no-load DC bus voltage does not rise to a level which could damage the drive. A reduction in bus voltage at full load will degrade the high-speed performance but will not represent a threat to the drive.

100 CENTRE SPEED

80

Peak

DC bus drop reduces available torque & speed

60 % of maximum torque 40

20

Torque

Continuous

10

20

30 40 50 60 70 % of maximum speed

80

90

100

Fig 7.11 Variation of dynamic braking torque with speed

Speed

Fig 7.10 Effect of transformer regulation on servo performance

Typical transformer regulation figures depend on VA rating, but the following will be a useful guide:

In practice, the value of the load resistor is normally chosen to give maximum torque at half the maximum operating speed. This results in a braking torque of more than 80% of maximum over the top 75% of the speed range.

Resistance Value Calculation

The required load resistance per phase to produce the optimum braking torque can be calculated using the following formula: Load resistance = 0.013 x Inductance x No of motor poles x Max speed in rpm The inductance is the line-to-line value measured in Henrys, and the calculated load resistance will be the total circuit resistance in ohms including the motor resistance. Example: SEM HDX142C6-44S motor running at a maximum speed of 3,000rpm. From the motor data sheet: Line-to-line inductance = 2.3mH (phase inductance = 1.15mH) Line-to-line resistance = 0.2 (phase resistance = 0.1) No of poles = 6 The calculation gives a total load resistance per phase of 0.54. This includes the motor phase resistance of 0.1, so the external resistance required will be 0.44.

VA rating
100 - 500 500 - 1000 1000 - 1500 1500 - 2000 >2000

Typical regulation
8% 6% 4 - 5% 3 - 4% 2 - 2.5%

Dynamic braking of servo motors

Part of the information contained in this section has been kindly supplied by SEM Limited. In an emergency situation, when the motor needs to be stopped following a drive fault or loss of electrical power, dynamic braking can be used to minimise the deceleration time. This is achieved by connecting a resistive load across the motor terminals, forcing the motor to act as a generator and produce a braking torque. This torque will vary with motor speed, and will inevitably fall off as the motor reaches low speeds. The way in which the torque varies with speed is shown in Fig 7.11 - it reaches a maximum at a speed referred to as the centre speed. The maximum braking torque depends only on the motor, whereas the speed at which the maximum torque is produced depends on the value of the braking resistor. To decelerate the motor as quickly as possible, the resistor value must be chosen to create the greatest torque over the widest possible speed range. This requires a knowledge of the maximum operating speed as well as certain motor parameters.

Resistor Power Rating

To a first approximation, the required power rating for the load resistors can be estimated from the kinetic energy stored in the system. For example, taking a relatively severe condition where the load has an inertia of ten times the motor inertia: For the HDX142C6-44S the motor inertia is 0.00115 kgm2 Assuming a load inertia of 0.0115 kgm2 Total inertia = 0.0126 kgm2

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Total energy stored in the system at 3,000rpm = 0.5Jw

2

= 0.27 x Maximum speed in rpm x system inertia maximum braking torque

= 622 watt-seconds The time taken for the motor to slow down will depend on its maximum speed, the system inertia and the available braking torque. The maximum torque at the centre speed is given by: T = 3 Kt2 (L x No of poles) where Kt = torque constant per phase (rms) L = phase inductance The approximate time taken to slow down to 5% of maximum speed is given by:

For the HDX142C6-44S, Kt = 0.17 and the maximum torque (from the equation above) is 13 Nm (this means that the decelerating torque is in excess of 10Nm between 3000 rpm and 750 rpm). The calculation shows that the motor should come to rest in approximately 0.8s. Generally, power resistors have an overload rating of five times the normal wattage rating over a period of 5 seconds. As the time taken for the motor to come to rest is less than 1 second and the power to be dissipated over 5 seconds is 622/5 = 125 watts, 25-watt resistors should be adequate.

CONTACTOR U DRIVE V W E

MOTOR

0V

SV DRIVE A1 OUTPUT X10/14 1F X10/15

+24V
DYNAMIC BRAKE LOAD

Contactor supply

Relay 10nf 63V GND 24V screen X10/16 X10/10 X11/7

A1 output transistor in the OFF condition.

Fig 7.12 Typical dynamic braking circuit

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X-Code programming

An introduction to X-Code programming

X-Code is a command language devised by Parker specifically for motion control. It is used both in standalone controllers and in combined controller-drive products. X-Code is particularly simple and straightforward to learn; most of the commands use the initial letter or letters of their function name, for example A for acceleration and V for velocity. Although many X-Code products offer in excess of 150 commands, the majority of applications only make use of a handful of these. Most users therefore start by learning only the basic motion commands, together with the additional commands specific to their particular application.

is passed from one controller to the next and finally back to the PC. In this arrangement, each controller is given a different address to distinguish it from the others. The address is simply a number (usually starting from 1) which is set up on bit switches, jumper links or in software. In this way, commands which incorporate a specific address will only be accepted by the corresponding controller. All X-Code products have the ability to store complete motion programs within non-volatile memory, either as a built-in or optional facility. Once programmed it is therefore frequently possible to remove the RS232 connection. A stored program may then be selected and started by external signals or switch inputs, or it may be arranged to run automatically on power-up. Alternatively the indexerdrive may accept real-time X-Code commands via RS232 from a host controller such as a PLC or industrial PC.

A typical installation
Apart from the AC supply and motor cables, the only additional connection required for a basic indexer-drive installation is a 3-wire RS232 cable from the drive to a PC.

Basic motion commands

The following commands will be common to every application. They define the basic parameters associated with a move; in many positioning applications, the acceleration and velocity values will apply to every move and are defined only at the start of the program. The controller always uses the last-specified value for any parameter until such time as it is overwritten. V - Velocity, revs/sec A - Acceleration rate, revs/sec2 D - Distance, motor/user steps G - Go Example: V10 - set velocity to 10 revs/sec A150 - set acceleration rate to 150 revs/sec2 D4000 - set distance to 4000 motor steps G - go (i.e. make the move) Before going on to look at more commands, well look at the command format and review the different types of command and alternative operating modes for the controller.

RS232 cable

PC

Indexer/ drive

Motor

Fig 8.1 Single-axis RS232 connection

The PC can be set up as a simple terminal by making use of X-Ware, a software package supplied with X-Code products which also incorporates program storage and retrieval facilities as well as a program editor. The X-Code commands are simply typed on the PC keyboard and are transmitted to the controller as ASCII characters. Some notes on setting up and troubleshooting RS232 communications will be found at the end of this section.

Command format
All X-Code commands consist of upper case characters arranged as follows: [device address] [command] [numerical value] [delimiter] The device address is not always required (see below). The delimiter marks the end of the command and can be either a space (i.e. space bar) or a carriage return.

Multi-axis systems
X-code can be used where there are two or more controllers connected back to the PC. The RS232 connection is made using a daisy chain so that the signal

Example: 2V10 <space>

Command types
Commands can be grouped into different types according to whether they join a queue or take immediate effect, also whether they apply just to one controller or to all controllers in the system.
PC drive 1 drive 2 drive 3

Fig 8.2 RS232 daisy chain

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IMMEDIATE commands are executed as soon as they are received, regardless of what is going on at the time. An example is the command S which is to Stop. Not many commands come into this category.

Automation

X-Code programming

BUFFERED commands go into a first-in, first-out store or buffer and are executed in the order they are received. Each command will be completed before the next one starts. This means that a string of commands can be downloaded from the host PC without waiting for each one to finish. Theres a limit to the number of commands which can be stored, typically around 2000 characters. Examples of buffered commands are V for Velocity and G for Go. Most commands are buffered, and only buffered commands can be stored in memory for execution as a sequence. DEVICE SPECIFIC commands are executed by one controller or device only, as specified by the device address. Commands in this category must include an address; they are mostly commands which request information back, such as whether the drive is ready for a new command or busy, so its essential that only the correct axis replies. Commands which are defined in the manual as device specific wont be actioned without an address. An example is R for Report Status - this would have to be sent for example as 1R for axis 1. UNIVERSAL commands are executed by all devices in the chain. In this case there is no address included, so the command will be accepted by all axes. An example would be V10 which would set the velocity on all axes to 10 revs/ sec. However, most universal commands may be made device specific simply by including an address, for example 3V10 would set the speed on axis 3 only to 10 revs/sec.

The direction is assumed to be CW unless a minus sign is included, although you can include a plus sign for CW moves if you wish. In addition you can control direction by using H commands. The H command allows you to set or change direction without re-specifying the distance, and is also used in the Continuous Mode (where D values are ignored). H+ sets the direction CW H- sets the direction CCW H (with no sign) reverses direction from whatever it currently is

Example: D25000 G H- G Motor runs 25000 steps CW, then 25000 steps CCW.

Creating loops
Where a group of commands must be repeated a set number of times, or even repeated continuously, this is achieved simply by enclosing the commands within a loop. The Loop command L marks the beginning of the loop, followed by the number of times you want to go round it, e.g. L6. The finish of the loop is marked by the End command N.

Operating modes
All X-Code controllers can operate in either of two basic modes - preset (normal) or continuous. MODE NORMAL (MN) - the move distance is predetermined using the D (Distance) command. This mode is used in all normal point-to-point positioning operations. MODE CONTINUOUS (MC) - in this mode the motor runs continuously at the specified velocity until it is stopped or a new velocity command is entered. Distance data set by the D command is ignored. Within the normal mode (MN) there are two further options: MODE PRESET INCREMENTAL (MPI) - here each move is performed as an increment, with the distance being set by the D command. In other words, the distance travelled is relative to the current position. MODE PRESET ABSOLUTE (MPA) - in this mode the D or distance data is interpreted as an absolute position relative to position zero. Therefore each move will be to a defined absolute position regardless of the current position. The controller calculates the required distance and direction of travel to achieve the new position. You can switch freely between the absolute and incremental positioning modes since the controller always stores its current absolute position.

Example: L20 D500 G N The motor will make 20 moves of 500 steps each. If there is no number included after the L command, the loop will run continuously. It can be stopped either with the S (Stop) command, which will abort any move in progress, or with the Y command which stops at the end of the current loop. With most controllers its possible to nest loops together, in other words you can have one or more loops inside an outer loop. However you must make sure that the number of N commands matches the number of L commands, even if they all come together. Example: L5 D1000 G L10 D200 G N N
Here each of the five 1000-step moves will be followed by the loop of ten 200-step moves.

Adding time delays

Its common to want to include a simple time delay between moves, for instance to allow for an external operation to be completed. This is achieved simply with the T (Time) command followed by the delay time in seconds.

Examples: T2 gives a 2 second delay T0.05 gives a 50mS delay L20 D500 G T0.5 N In the last example the T command adds a half-second delay between each move in the loop.

Using trigger inputs

The Trigger command TR allows you to specify a pattern on the controller inputs which will pass on to or trigger the next command. The input signal could come for instance from an operator pushbutton or a safety interlock switch. The options on the inputs are: 1 = input high 0 = input low X = dont care (input can be high or low)

Additional basic commands

Direction control
In the normal incremental mode you determine the direction of shaft rotation by the sign of the distance value. So D4000 will set a move of 4000 steps in the clockwise (CW) direction, while D-6000 will give a 6000-step CCW move.

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The input pattern is specified in the numerical order of the inputs. For example: TR01X - continue to the next command when input 1 is low and input 2 is high. Ignore whats happening on input 3. In fact you can ignore any trailing X values, so in this case TR01 would work just as well. Some controllers offer the option of alternative versions of the trigger command, i.e. TRE- trigger when inputs equal to specified pattern (equivalent to TR) TRN- trigger when inputs not equal to specified pattern

However the position has been captured as the switch edge is crossed and an accurate current position established. There are a number of options available with the homing routine which vary according to the type of controller. They include a choice of final approach speed and the ability to select which edge of the home switch is taken as the stopping position.

Programming complete motion sequences

A sequence is a series of commands that will be performed in the programmed order. The sequence can be initiated by a single command, making it easier to program repeated operations. Sequences can be stored in nonvolatile memory and then selected and initiated by trigger inputs without the need for an RS232 connection. This style of operation is particularly useful when the overall machine control is via a PLC. Note that only buffered commands can be used and stored in a sequence - by definition, immediate commands will be executed as soon as they are received and not stored in the command buffer. All sequence commands begin with X. XDn starts the definition of a sequence. For example, XD1 marks the beginning of sequence 1. XT terminates a sequence. Here is an example of a single sequence: XD1 A2 V10 D2000 G H- G XT XRn runs the sequence, so XR1 runs sequence 1. You can use the XR command to run a sequence from within another sequence, rather like a subroutine, for example: XD2 A2 V10 D2000 G XR1 XT In this case, sequence 2 incorporates sequence 1. (With certain controller types, XR acts like a GoTo rather than a GoSub, in which case it wont return to the primary sequence. Check with the User Guide when embedding XRs within a sequence). To change a sequence, the old one must first be erased. This is a safety feature that minimises the chance of overwriting a sequence by accident. XEn erases a sequence, i.e. XE2 erases sequence 2. To check what is programmed in a sequence, it can be returned to the terminal. aXUn uploads a sequence (this is a device-specific command so must always include the address). For example, 1XU3 returns sequence 3 to the controller from device number 1.

Using programmable outputs

The O (Output) command is used to turn programmable outputs on and off. It operates in a similar way to the input trigger command in that a required pattern is specified for the outputs. The options are: 1 = output on 0 = output off X = leave unchanged

Example: 2O1X1 - for axis address 2, turn on outputs 1 & 3 but leave output 2 unchanged. Again any trailing Xs can be ignored.

Going to the Home position

Most positioning systems not fitted with some form of absolute positioning device must move to a mechanical reference or home position on power-up. This is to establish where the mechanics are located and all subsequent moves will be relative to the home position. This position is normally determined by a switch or proximity detector. The Go Home command (GH) initiates an automatic return to the home position, beginning with a fast approach and usually followed by a slow search for the switch operating point. The number following the command represents the fast approach speed.

Example: GH5 - go home at 5 revs/sec. (a direction sign can be included) The approach pattern will resemble Fig. 8.3. During the final slow approach, the absolute position counter is reset to zero as the switch edge is detected. Depending on the controller type, the system does not necessarily stop at the home position - time may still be required for deceleration.

Fast return (n)

For further information

Final slow approach Home Switch

Fig 8.3 Typical home approach pattern

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This is only a brief introduction to X-Code, but it illustrates the simple nature of the language and the ease with which routine motion control functions can be programmed. Individual product User Guides provide comprehensive information on all the available commands and ways in which they can be used. If you are considering the use of any X-Code product, a copy of the User Guide can be made available on request.

Automation

X-Code programming

Alternative programming languages

6000 language
Parkers 6000 language has been developed from X-Code in order to provide convenient programming for multi-axis controllers. Whereas X-Code is ideal for standalone singleaxis systems, and has the capability of addressing multiple units via a daisy chain, 6000 Language simplifies the programming process within controllers with two or more axis outputs. 6000 Language generally uses longer mnemonics than XCode which allows them to be more descriptive. In addition, 6000 offers more advanced features than are available within X-Code, many of which relate to multi-axis control systems. These include contouring, cam functions, joystick control, teach operations and real-time data capture. The high-functionality error programming available with 6000 code allows for more efficient recovery from error conditions. 6000 is a very versatile, universal language which can be applied in an extremely wide range of applications. The extra capabilities of this language naturally demand increased processing power, therefore X-Code is more appropriate in low-cost systems with limited functionality requirements.

RS232 troubleshooting
Checking the terminal
Disconnect the RS232 cable from the terminal or computer. Identify pins 2 and 3 on the serial port - Fig. 8.4 shows the pin layout for 9-way and 25-way connectors. Then short pins 2 and 3 together. If the serial connector is female, use a paper clip to short out the pins. If its male, the blade of a small screwdriver can be used to connect the pins together. Now type some characters on the keyboard. If nothing appears on the screen, you may not be communicating with the correct port. Use your communications software to change the COM port and try again. If characters now appear or if double characters appear, remove the short between pins 2 & 3 and type some more. If characters still appear, either you are communicating with another device on COM port (such as a mouse or network card), or the local echo is switched on. Use your communications software to check that the local echo is turned off, and if so try changing the COM ports. When the terminal is operating correctly, single characters should appear with pins 2 & 3 shorted, and should not appear with the short removed. Pin: 2 3 Tx Rx 7 G Pin: 5 3 2 G Tx Rx

1 25 25 Pin Connector (Male)

COMPAX control language

The Compax is a fully-digital servo controller including the power stage. It uses its own unique programming language which has very BASIC-like commands. Unlike the other controllers in Parkers range, the Compax may be equipped with application-specific firmware which simplifies the programming of a range of advanced machine functions. These include time-based velocity profiling, cam generation, cutting on the fly, following, electronic gearbox and registration applications. By using dedicated firmware, programming these specific functions involves only the entry of a few parameters. The cam generation facility is particularly powerful, with a dedicated PC software package to simplify profile generation. There is an option to enter or leave the cam profile at any point for complex machine operations. Although rather less flexible than products using 6000 Language, Compax-based systems are much simpler to implement when a firmware option is available to suit the application. The event-driven programming not only simplifies and shortens programming time, it also minimises the amount of data that needs to be transferred. This means that Compax is particularly suited to systems employing Fieldbus communication. In addition to standard RS485 Fieldbus, it offers the option of Interbus-S, Profibus and CANbus. It is also equipped with Parkers HEDA (High-Efficiency Data Access) bus which provides very accurate time synchronisation (within 2.5S) between all axes in a system. This is combined with a sophisticated servo algorithm to give extremely high dynamic performance.

1 9 9 Pin Connector (Female)

Fig 8.4 25-way & 9-way RS232 connectors Checking the RS232 cable
Reconnect the RS232 cable to the terminal and leave the other end free. Repeat the last exercise by shorting the pins on the remote end of the cable. If no characters appear, there is obviously a problem with the cable. If characters do appear, reconnect the cable to the device being controlled and try again. If there is no response, check that the echoback is switched on in the device. If there is still no response, try swapping the Rx and Tx connections and try again. Also check that there is good ground connection between the terminal and the device (pin 5 on a 9-way connector, and pin 7 on a 25-way). If you have reached this stage without success, check the manufacturers documentation on RS232 communication to see if it gives any further clues. As a last resort, contact the manufacturer for assistance.

Verifying correct communication

Once you have confirmed that characters are being echoed back from the device, try sending a command that will always produce a response. Typical examples would be 1R for X-Code products and !TAS for 6000-series products. If there is no response, check that the correct address is being used (e.g. try 2R, 3R etc.). Note that in certain products the address can be selected by software. It is also worth checking that communication has not been turned off at the device - send the command E to turn it back on.

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EMC installation principles

EMC, or electromagnetic compatibility, has been given a number of definitions. In simple terms it means that a piece of equipment neither generates excessive electrical noise nor is unduly sensitive to external noise. The basic intention of the European EMC Directive is to ensure that items of electrical or electronic equipment will operate in the same environment without disturbing each other. It also helps to restrict the rise in background interference created by the ever-increasing use of electronic controls. The installation requirements for EMC compatibility will vary with the particular product. Equipment which is CE-marked and certified as having inherent EMC compliance may be installed in any location provided that the installation instructions are followed. Other equipment intended only for use by qualified system builders requires additional measures to ensure EMC compliance and the general principles are outlined below.

Segregation
Never run Signal or Control cables in the same conduit with AC power lines, conductors feeding motors, solenoids etc. The cables should be run in metal conduit that is properly grounded. Also Signal and Control cables within an enclosure should be routed as far away as possible from contactors, control relays, transformers, and any other noisy components.

P-Clip Installation
The function of a P-Clip is to provide 360 degree metallic contact and thus a convenient means of ensuring a proper R.F ground. Install as close to the cable end as possible provided a suitable ground, backplane or earth stud is accessible. The use of brass or other inert conductive metal P-Clip is recommended.

Surge Suppression
Place surge suppression components, such as resistor/ capacitor filter or zener and clamping diodes, on all electrical coils.eg contactors.

External enclosure
In order to control radiated emissions, all drive and control equipment must be installed in a steel equipment cabinet which will provide adequate screening.

Opto Isolation
Isolation of remote signals with the use of solid state relays or opto isolators is recommended.

Filtering
Install an AC supply filter on the power input cable of the unit to suppress any power line interference. Mount the filter within 50mm of the drive or transformer, and run the input cable and any earth cable close to the panel. Try to arrange the layout of the drive and filter so that the AC input cable is kept away from the the filter output leads.

Motors, electrical installation

Although there are some well-accepted general guidelines, the electrical installation requirements tend to be specific to a particular motor type. The following comments therefore apply mainly to Parker servo motors, although many points will be relevant to other motor types as well.

Suppression
External Electromagnetic Interference suppression devices, such as ferrite absorbers should be installed on Signal and Control cables as close to the unit as practically possible.

Fitting the cables into conduits

The most common reason for encoder failure is incorrect rewiring after a cable has been removed, usually to feed it through a conduit.

Twisted Pairs
In the case of drives having differential inputs, it is preferable to use cable with twisted pairs in order to minimise magnetic coupling. This applies to both analogue and digital signals.

Screening
Use high quality shielded (screened) cables for all Signal and Control inputs. The shield (screen) pigtail connection should be made as short as possible. The connection point for the shield depends upon the individual application. Some of the recommended methods of connecting the shield, in order of effectiveness are; a) Connect the shield only at the panel where the unit is mounted to earth ground (protective earth). Using this method will reduce the overall loop area, and hence provide improved protection. b) Connect the shield to earth ground at both ends of the cable, usually when the noise source frequency is above 1 MHz. c) Connect the shield to common of the unit and leave the other end of the shield unconnected and insulated from earth ground.

Before you disconnect any individual wires, make an accurate sketch of the connections to any terminal strips or multi-way connectors. If twisted-pair cable is used, pay special attention to how the wires are paired. Since many of the pairs have one black wire, simply labelling the wire on a sketch as black is not sufficient to identify it. Its a good idea to slip a short piece of sleeving over each pair of wires as you disconnect them - this keeps the two wires together.
When preparing and stripping twisted-pair cable, always strip back sufficient of the outer sheath (at least 100mm) to be certain that you have the correct wires twisted together. Then fit a short piece of sleeving over the pair before cutting to the required length. When feeding the cable from an ML motor through conduit, its easier to disconnect the cable at the motor end. First remove the terminal box and sketch the connections as described above. You can then unscrew the terminals and pull the cable through the gland nuts.

Wiring stepper motors

Most stepper motors are supplied with short flying leads or, in the case of larger motors, a terminal box. How these are

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connected back to the drive depends very much on the application and the distance involved. If the motor is within 3m of the drive, the type of cable used is usually not too critical provided of course that it can carry the necessary current without overheating. If the distance is greater than this or the environment is electrically noisy, it may be better to use screened cable. Noise picked up by the motor cable is unlikely to affect the motor directly, but it will get conducted back into the drive and may cause problems at the signal inputs. Screened cable will also be necessary when EMC compliance is required.

the coupling must have sufficient compliance or flexibility to accommodate any misalignment without stressing the motor bearing. There are two types of misalignment that every coupling is certain to encounter to some extent. One is angular misalignment, which occurs when the two shafts are at a slight angle to each other. The other is radial misalignment, in which the shafts are parallel but not concentric - their axes are displaced. The coupling may also have to cope with axial movement due, for example, to thermal expansion.

Motors, mechanical installation

Mounting the motor - the pilot register
Many people think that a pilot register on the front of a motor is a nuisance. It means that if you try and mount the motor on a flat plate, you need to put washers between the motor flange and the plate to stop the flange from bending.

Angular error Radial error

pilot register

Axial movement
Fig 9.2 Angular and radial misalignment
A coupling designed for servo and stepper applications should accommodate any misalignment without introducing backlash (lost motion when changing direction) or torsional compliance (meaning the coupling can be twisted too easily). Backlash and excessive torsional compliance can lead to instability, making servo tuning extremely difficult and imposing a severe limit on performance. The number of coupling designs available today seems almost endless, so the next problem is deciding which type to use. Well concentrate on two designs which are suitable for a wide range of applications, the membrane coupling and the Oldham coupling. These couplings will accommodate both types of misalignment and have very little torsional compliance or backlash.

Fig 9.1 Motor pilot register

The pilot register is provided so that you can locate the motor concentrically with the load. This is particularly important when the motor is attached to something like a gearbox or an X-Y table. The register is intended to fit into a mating recess on the mounting plate - this is what locates the motor, not the mounting bolts. The pilot register is machined to a tight tolerance, typically 0.05mm. When you specify the mating recess, make the lower tolerance of the recess the same as the upper tolerance of the pilot. In other words, the largest pilot should just fit into the smallest recess. This gives the best location whilst guaranteeing that it will always fit. The depth of the recess must always be greater than the thickness of the pilot register so that the register cant bottom in the recess. If you must mount the motor to a flat plate and concentricity is not important, the best way is to use a machined spacer which accommodates the pilot. Since in this case you wont be using the pilot to locate the motor, the tolerance on the recess machined in the spacer is not critical.

Coupling the motor to the load

Why should you bother to use an expensive coupling when you could get away with a simple steel sleeve? No reason, provided you can guarantee that the motor shaft and the load shaft are perfectly aligned and that your steel sleeve is a perfect fit. In practice we seldom achieve perfection, so

Diagram by courtesy of Huco Engineering Ltd.

Fig 9.3 A typical membrane coupling

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Membrane couplings usually have two discs as shown. A single-disc version is also available but this wont tolerate any radial misalignment. Single-disc couplings are usually used in pairs with a floating shaft in between. A complete assembly consisting of two single-disc couplings plus a link shaft is known as a Cardan; it operates in the same way as the two-disc coupling except that the longer the link shaft, the greater the radial misaligment that can be accommodated. The three elements of the Cardan can usually be assembled in situ.

Other coupling types which are sometimes used in lowpower applications are the bellows and helical beam couplings. Bellows couplings are particularly good at accommodating axial movement and offer extremely high torsional stiffness. The helical beam coupler has the benefit of low cost but has relatively poor torsional stiffness and generates high bearing loads when misalignment is present. Both coupling types are more prone to eventual failure unless used well within their rating.

Attaching the coupling - clamping methods

Once the type of coupling is decided, the next question is how to attach it to the motor and load shafts. A bi-conical or Taper lock bush, used in conjunction with a key, is probably the favourite method. It maintains concentricity and grips the shaft over a large area, which is highly desirable where high torques and rapid reversals are involved. In this situation the key is used primarily as a safety device to prevent slippage in the event of an overload - its not being used to transmit the torque. Unfortunately, many couplings are too small to accommodate this type of bush. Clamps are probably the most common fixing for smaller couplings and are generally reliable if you use a threadlocking compound on the screws. This will act as a lubricant before it sets, reducing frictional losses and maximising the clamping force - but don't take too long tightening the screws! Use washers under the screw heads wherever possible.

Fig 9.4 An unsupported (floating) shaft

Membrane couplings can operate at high speeds, typically up to 25,000 rpm, and have a high life expectancy since there are no sliding parts. However they are more expensive than most other coupling types.

Diagram by courtesy of Huco Engineering Ltd.

Fig 9.5 A typical Oldham coupling

As the Oldham coupling has three separate elements, the two hubs can be fitted loosely to the shafts before assembly and the central disc dropped in once the motor and load shaft are in place. This can be very useful in situations with poor access. Similarly, the shafts can be uncoupled simply by loosening one of the hubs. The central disc is available in different materials to give the desired properties. For example, acetal gives a long life and good torsional stiffness; nylon gives good vibration absorption and quiet running. Since the disc is continually sliding, it gradually wears and introduces backlash so eventually it must be replaced. Oldham couplings cant be used on unsupported shafts. They are one of the least expensive types of coupling, but are intended only for operation at speeds up to about 3,000 rpm. Here are some typical figures showing how well each of the couplings can accommodate misalignment:

Fig 9.6 A leaf clamp and a pinch clamp Set screws

Set screw (or grub screw) fixings are another common method, but you should only use these for low torque applications. Dont tighten the set screw into the keywayyou can machine a dimple or a flat on the shaft, provided you take the same precautions as when shortening the shaft, and these are described later. One drawback with the setscrew is that, unlike a clamp, it makes a small recess in the shaft so that minor adjustment becomes almost impossible. It is essential that the coupling bore and shaft diameter are close-fitting when a set screw is used - the clearance should not be more than 0.025mm. This is because the set screw always forces the shaft to one side of the coupling bore, and a larger clearance can allow the coupling to pivot around the set screw, leading to rapid wear. Two set screws, 90 apart, are a significant improvement on just one and also double the torque which can be transmitted

Membrane
Max. Angular Misalignment Max. Radial Misalignment Max. Axial Movement 4 degrees 0.4mm 0.2mm

Oldham
1 degree 11% of coupling diam. 0.3mm

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(see table following). Forcing the shaft to one side of the bore also creates eccentricity, so you should use a coupling which will accommodate this. Always try to locate the setscrew as centrally as possible along the coupling or pulley length. The following table is a guide to the maximum recommended torque using couplings or pulleys attached by setscrews. The figures apply to a single setscrew and can be doubled if you use two screws 90 apart. Shaft dia. Screw Max. torque (mm) size (Nm) 6 M2 0.1 6 M3 0.2 11 M3 0.4 11 M4 0.8 15 M3 0.5 15 M4 1 15 M5 2

the resulting clearance allows the coupling to slide easily onto the shaft. However this small clearance will inevitably lead to some backlash (the keyways in both the shaft and the pulley should be deep enough to ensure that there is adequate clearance for the key). The best way to overcome this problem is to have a set screw in the coupling which clamps down into a dimple in the top face of the key. Another is to machine the key with a step so that its a tight fit into both keyways, but since this prevents the coupling from sliding easily onto the shaft, you must take great care not to damage the motor bearings. Applying a large axial load (for instance with a fly press) and hammering the coupling onto the shaft are among the commonest causes of bearing damage leading to premature failure. If a Taper lock bush is used, these problems dont arise because the bush slides onto the shaft very easily and theres no backlash because the bush clamps tightly round the shaft. Bear in mind that a 5mm key in a 15mm shaft transmitting a torque of 10Nm is subjected to a shearing force of about 30 MegaNewtons/m2. A badly fitted key will rock as the motor changes direction and, under this sort of force, it is not unheard of for the key to wear into a perfect cylinder which then reduces in diameter until the system fails.

Pinning
Drilling and pinning the shaft is a method which is occasionally used, but again its only suitable for low-torque applications. The hole considerably reduces the crosssectional area of the shaft and therefore the torque it can transmit. If the shaft already has a keyway, the situation becomes even worse. You should remember that the shear strength of a 3mm pin is only about 20-30% of that of a 3mm key. If you do opt for this fixing, you should take the same precautions when drilling the shaft as when shortening it, and these are described later. The comments on coupling/shaft tolerances when using set screws also apply to pinning.

Shaft tolerances
There is a popular theory that the coupling should be a very tight fit on the shaft and should be carefully installed using the largest available hammer. Its true that if the coupling is too loose, slight movement between the shaft and coupling will cause both components to wear and eventually fail. But bearings are relatively fragile components and ideally, the force used to fit the coupling should not exceed the maximum axial force, as taken from Fig. 9.10. Usually the upper tolerance of the shaft will equal the lower tolerance of the coupling bore, so there should always be a small clearance between the two. If youre unlucky enough to have a shaft on its maximum tolerance and a coupling on its minimum tolerance, you would have a size fit which would be very difficult to slide on. The easiest solution in this situation is to push a ring of cardboard or thin plastic over the shaft, to prevent dust from entering the bearing, and then run the motor while you hold a piece of carborundum paper round the shaft. Keep trying the shaft for size to make sure you dont take too much off.

Using adhesives
Its often beneficial to use an anaerobic adhesive such as Loctite between the shaft and the coupling. This type of adhesive cures in the absence of air. You should only use an adhesive in conjunction with one of the fixing methods listed above. If you use a thick high-strength adhesive it must be spread onto the shaft before assembly, whereas a thinner adhesive may be run into the gap after the coupling has been fitted. If you use an adhesive, youll find it almost impossible to remove the coupling without damaging the motor unless youve left sufficient room between the coupling and the motor to insert the jaws of a bearing puller. Another point to consider is that in the event of a failure, it may not be possible to repair the motor without undertaking an expensive rebuild.

Shortening the shaft

Its surprising how frequently users find it necessary to shorten a motor shaft. The problem can often be avoided if a little more thought is given at the design stage. If amputation is unavoidable, its essential that the shaft is supported in such a way that the motor bearing experiences no shock or strain. There must be no risk of swarf or coolant entering the bearing. Dont let the shaft get too hot - if it gets above 120C you run the risk of partial demagnetisation of the motor. Support the shaft on the motor side of the cut, as close to the cut as possible, using a vee block or clamp. The motor itself should be loosely supported to prevent strain on the bearing. Use a ring of adhesive tape or mouldable adhesive compound (such as Blue-Tack) to prevent coolant

Keys and keyways

Youve sent us the wrong key - it doesnt fit into the keyway. This is a common cry among those new to the business of fitting motors. A standard 3mm key, for example, is about 0.04mm wider than the shaft keyway and is intended to be filed to be a tight fit. So why doesnt the motor manufacturer make the keyway the right width in the first place? Well its all a matter of tolerances - the key should be a very tight fit in the shaft keyway because the coupling keyway is about 0.025mm larger than the one in the shaft. This is to make sure that once the key has been filed to fit the shaft keyway,

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or swarf from entering the bearing. Please remember that any form of shaft modification made after despatch from Parker invalidates the warranty in respect of the shaft, bearings, encoder or resolver.

Shaft fatigue
Its clear that any radial load will compress one side of the shaft and create tension on the other. As the shaft rotates, each individual element of the shaft experiences alternating tension and compression which can lead to metal fatigue. The vertical line on Fig. 9.9 represents the maximum radial load that can be applied half way along the shaft without risk of shaft failure through metal fatigue. You will need to halve this figure if the load is applied at the end of the shaft

clamp here sawcut Motor vee blocks rubber block

Axial bearing load

Motors are normally fitted with spring washers which apply a small axial load to the bearings all the time. This takes up any clearance between the balls and the races to prevent the balls from rattling, which would cause wear. A small amount of additional axial load does no harm, but once the load reaches a level where the balls are being forced into the races, the bearing will wear rapidly. Fig. 9.10 shows how the radial load must be reduced as the axial load increases. Both radial and axial loads are expressed as a percentage of the radial load Fr, which is the value read from Fig. 9.9 for the appropriate mean speed and required bearing life.
40 0 30 0 rpm 00 20 rpm 00 rpm
50,000

Fig 9.7 A motor shaft supported for cutting

Radial bearing load

Its not unknown for a motor to be returned with its shaft sheared either immediately before or behind the front bearing. Motors are also returned with bearings that have failed after only a few months. In almost every case of shaft failure, and most bearing failures, the cause is the same too high a radial load acting too near the end of the shaft. By far the most common reason for this is an overtensioned drive belt, often on a pulley which is overhanging the end of the shaft because the motor mounting plate is too thick.
radial load

10

00

rpm

40,000 Bearing life in 30,000 hours 20,000

Motor

axial load
10,000

shaft fatigue limit for ML3450B & ML3475B*

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Fig 9.8 Radial and Axial Load

High radial loads applied to the motor shaft will affect both bearing life and the likelihood of shaft failure.

Radial load (Newtons) half way along shaft *Shaft fatigue limit for ML3450A & ML3475A is 1000 Newtons

Bearing life
If there is a large radial force on the inner race of a bearing, this tends to crush the balls between the two races. This in turn results in scoring of the races, leading to uneven running and excessive wear. Figs. 10 is a graph of bearing life against radial load for a typical servo motor, assuming that the load acts half way along the shaft extension. Lifetimes are given for specific constant operating speeds, and you can use the curves as a guide to estimate bearing life for intermediate speeds. If the motor is accelerating or decelerating for a significant proportion of the time, work out the average speed over the whole operating cycle and use this figure. (A simple average is quite good enough here bearing life depends not so much on absolute speed as on the total number of revolutions). If the load is acting at the end of the shaft, you can expect the lifetime to be reduced by about 15%. These graphs assume that the axial load is less than 30% of the radial load.

Fig 9.9 Typical bearing life curves (Parker ML34 servo motors)
125% Fr

100% Fr Derated 75% Fr radial load 50% Fr

25% Fr 30% Fr 0 0 25% Fr 50% Fr Axial load Fr is the radial load from bearing life curve 75% Fr 100% Fr

Fig 9.10 Permitted radial load vs axial load (Parker ML34 servo motors)

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Drive belts
Tensioning a drive belt is frequently regarded as an art rather than a science, partly because there are no simple guidelines that can be applied. As a result, the tendency is to tension the belt as tightly as possible on the basis that this is the only way to get rid of the backlash. The consequence is rapid belt wear, reduced bearing life or even shaft failure. Nevertheless there is a more scientific approach which is strongly recommended. To estimate the correct belt tension, you need to know the peripheral force on the motor pulley (Fp) when the motor is producing maximum torque. You can calculate this force by dividing the maximum torque in Nm by the radius of the motor pulley in metres (remember to divide by the radius, not the diameter). A belt tension between 30% and 50% of Fp is normally used for short or stiff (inelastic) belts, whereas higher tensions (50-65% of Fp) are used for long or elastic belts. You should use the lowest tension that will ensure that the belt never becomes completely slack. If this happens, the belt teeth can start to climb up the pulley teeth and this will accelerate wear. The simplest way of tensioning a belt, assuming that the axis of one shaft can be moved freely, is to use a spring balance to apply a force of twice the required belt tension to that shaft.

Most stepper and brushless servo motors are rated at IP54, though to be strictly accurate this only applies from the flange backwards. In other words, the body of the motor is reasonably well sealed but there is no positive seal on the front bearing. In the majority of applications, the mounting surface gives a degree of protection to the bearing and for practical purposes an overall IP54 rating applies. However, if you mount the motor vertically with the shaft upwards, excessive condensation can form a pool in the bearing housing and enter the motor. In these situations you will need the additonal protection of a shaft seal. To improve the rating to IP65, a shaft seal is added and all metal-to-metal joints are fitted with gaskets. All shaft seals exert a frictional force on the shaft in some way so they will eventually wear out. However, most IP65 motors still have mild steel shafts (except for stepper motors which always have stainless steel shafts), and these will corrode in moist conditions. This accelerates the wear rate considerably. Therefore any steps you can take to keep moisture, coolant, fine dust, corrosive fumes etc. away from the motor are usually well worth the effort.

Table of ratings for 1st and 2nd IP numbers

1st: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 2nd: 1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8

2Fp

Protection against: No protection Objects over 50mm e.g. accidental touch by hand Objects over 12mm, e.g. fingers Objects over 2.5mm, e.g. tools & wires Objects over 1mm, e.g. small wires & tools Dust, limited ingress permitted (no harmful deposit) Total protection against dust Protection against: Vertically-falling water drops e.g. condensation Direct sprays of water up to 15 from the vertical Direct sprays of water up to 60 from the vertical Water sprayed from all directions, limited ingress permitted Low-pressure water jets from all directions, limited ingress permitted Strong jets of water, limited ingress (e.g. on shipdecks) Immersion between 15cm & 1m Long periods of immersion under pressure

Fig 9.11 Tensioning a drive belt

Another method is to measure the force needed to produce a known deflection in the centre of the belt span. No general guidelines can be given here because the deflection depends on an elongation factor determined by belt material and construction, and this factor can vary by 10:1 or more. However the belt manufacturer will usually provide a formula for this deflection. When installing a belt drive system, always mount the pulley as close to the motor as possible to avoid an excessive bending moment on the shaft.

Thermal considerations
Continuous torque (or stall torque) is the constant torque that the motor can deliver without overheating. This torque may be quoted with the motor mounted in three ways - on an infinite heatsink, mounted on a standard heatsink, usually with a thermal resistance of around 0.5C per watt, and not mounted on any form of heat sink. By far the most useful value is that quoted on a standard heatsink, as this is a good approximation to a typical mounting bracket. A very thick mounting bracket may allow you to increase the continuous torque by up to 20%; mounting on a thin plate may mean derating by 20%. Torques quoted on the other bases are of limited practical value. Good unobstructed vertical air flow, or better still forced cooling, will help to increase the continuous torque rating.

Vibration
Most of the problems caused by excessive vibration will be fairly obvious, such as screws working loose. One that isnt quite so obvious is the damage that vibration can cause to a stationary bearing. If a motor is subject to prolonged vibration, either in storage or even mounted on a machine but rarely used, the balls will gradually make very small dents in the race at the points of contact. This will cause the bearing to become noisy and lead to increased wear.

IP ratings
IP ratings are listed in the following table. The first IP number relates to protection against solid objects, and the second number protection against liquids.

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Stopping in an emergency
For safety reasons, its usually necessary to incorporate some form of emergency stop system into machinery fitted with stepper or servo motors. There may be several reasons for needing to stop quickly, the more obvious ones being: s To prevent injury to the operator if he makes a mistake or operates the machine incorrectly s To prevent damage to the machine or to the product as a result of a jam s To guard against the consequences of machine faults You should think about all the possible reasons for stopping to make sure that they are adequately covered. Standards which support the European Machinery Directive state that Emergency Stops must be hard-wired and must not depend on software or electronic logic.

For Category 1 applications we need to consider the best method of achieving a controlled stop prior to removal of power.

Using a full-torque controlled stop

Grounding the input to a servo amplifier operating in velocity mode will cause it to decelerate hard in current limit, in other words using the maximum available torque. This will create the fastest possible deceleration to rest, but can only be used with a velocity servo - the same technique cannot be used with a torque amplifier, since grounding the input will simply produce zero torque. In the latter case you will normally have to rely on a facility within the controller to achieve a rapid stop. If you are using a digital servo with step and direction inputs, cutting off the step pulses will also produce a rapid deceleration to rest but please see the warning at the end of this section. The situation is different for an open-loop stepper drive. You need to ramp the step pulse frequency down to zero in order to utilise the available torque. Simply cutting off the step pulses at speeds above the start-stop rate will desynchronise the motor and the decelerating torque will no longer be available. Many stepper and servo controllers are able to generate a rapid deceleration rate which is independent of the normal programmed rate, to be used only for overtravel limit and emergency stop functions. This deceleration should be set to the highest rate which the system can safely handle.

Methods of stopping the motor

There are several ways to bring a motor to a rapid stop. The choice depends partly on whether its more important to stop in the shortest possible time or to guarantee a stop under all circumstances. For instance, to stop as quickly as possible normally means using the decelerating power of the servo system. However, if the servo has failed or control has been lost for any reason, this is not an option open to you. In this case removing the power will guarantee that the motor stops, but if the load has a high inertia it may take an unacceptably long time to come to rest. If the load is moving vertically and can back-drive the motor, this introduces additional complications. In extreme cases where personal safety is at risk, it may be necessary to mechanically lock the system even at the expense of possible damage to the machine. The European standards describe two categories of Emergency Stop: Category 0 involves stopping by immediate removal of power using only hard wired electromechanical components. This is intended to be used where removal of power alone will ensure a fast and safe stop. Category 1 refers to a controlled stop with power maintained to the motor to achieve a rapid stop followed by removal of power once the stop is achieved. In Category 0 applications the situation is quite straightforward - the Emergency Stop circuit simply removes all AC power from the drives. On drives that incorporate a power dump circuit, a degree of dynamic braking may still be provided after you remove the power. However the power supply capacitors may take some time to decay and this can extend the stopping distance. A possible alternative is to disconnect the motor as well as removing the AC power, but this is not normally recommended. Not only is the time to stop dependent purely on load inertia and friction, but you can actually damage certain types of drive by disconnecting the motor under power. Emergency stopping by removal of AC power should only be considered where this alone will guarantee a rapid stop.

Using dynamic braking

Conventional servo motors will act as generators when driven mechanically. By applying a resistive load to the motor, a braking effect is produced that is speeddependent. Deceleration therefore tends to be rapid at high speeds, but falls off as the motor slows down. By careful choice of load resistor in relation to maximum operating speed, the motor can be made to produce substantial braking torque over a wide part of its speed range. A changeover contactor can be arranged to switch the motor connections from the drive to the resistive load, and it can be made failsafe by ensuring that braking occurs if the power supply fails. You can find more information on dynamic braking, including how to calculate the optimum load resistance, in an earlier section of this handbook.

Using a mechanical brake

Its very often possible to fit a mechanical brake either directly on the motor or on some other part of the mechanism. However, such brakes are usually intended to prevent movement at power-down and are seldom adequate to bring the system to a rapid halt, particularly if the drive is delivering full current at the time. Brakes can introduce friction even when released, and also add inertia to the system both effects will increase the drive power requirements. Nevertheless if a mechanical brake is required for other reasons, for example to prevent a vertical axis from falling or to lock the system while stationary, then it makes sense to utilise it as part of the emergency stop routine.

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Emergency stop control

Conventional electromechanical relays are generally the weak point in safety circuits. Their failure mode is indeterminate but is frequently with contacts welded together. Relays designed for use in emergency stop circuits have comprehensive protection against failure by means of redundancy (a duplicate relay which will operate if the primary relay fails), and cross-monitoring (additional contacts which prevent resetting if one relay has failed). They also incorporate positive guidance, which ensures that normally-open contacts cannot close before normallyclosed contacts have opened. To satisfy Category 1 requirements, a two-stage operation is needed in which a controlled stop is followed by removal of AC power. The first controlled-stop stage can rely ultimately on software and the use of electronic logic. The second stage must then guarantee the removal of AC power by means of hard wired electromechanical components. Dynamic braking may also be introduced at this point to assist a rapid stop in the event of controller failure. Emergency stop relays designed for Category 1 incorporate delay on de-energisation contacts which are inherently failsafe (see Fig. 10.1). Conventional delay-off timers cannot be used since they do not have the required fail-safe redundancy. delayed final isolation

Safety earth wiring

All equipment housed in a metal case and which carries AC line voltage must have a protective earth connection. Under fault conditions, this connection must be capable of handling any resulting fault current until such time as the overcurrent protection disconnects the supply. In practice this means that the cable used for the protective earth connection must be at least equivalent in current-carrying capacity to the mains supply cables. The protective earth connection can be made either by means of discrete copper conductors or by structural parts which are electrically connected together. If the earth connection is formed by structural components, make sure that they have a cross-sectional area at least equivalent to the copper conductor required to do the same job. It is not necessary for the protective earth conductors inside a cabinet to be insulated; if they are, the insulation should be green/yellow. Exempted from this are internal protective conductors in assemblies such as ribbon cables and flexible printed wiring. The terminal for the external protective earth connection to the machine should be identified with the letters PE (see Fig 10.2). Dont use the PE identification for any other terminals in the system - protective earth connections from other components such as motors should be identified with the symbol as shown in the diagram or the colour green/ yellow. Dont use the PE terminal for any other purpose, such as a 0v connection.

E-stop button

E-stop relay

Internal equipment

Servo drive/ controller instant 'stop' signal

Internal protective conductor

Fig 10.1 Two stage emergency stop circuit

motor

Protective earth for motor case

WARNING you should ensure that the deceleration rate used under emergency stop conditions can be handled safely by the system mechanics. If the peak torque available from your servo is well in excess of that normally used, there may be a risk of mechanical damage when decelerating in full current limit. This is particularly true if you are using a high-ratio gearbox.

PE terminal

External protective earth connection

Fig 10.2 Safety earth connections and symbols

Take particular care if there are any connectors or plugsocket combinations which can interrupt the protective bonding. The protective conductor circuit must only be interrupted after the live conductor circuit is broken, and must be re-established before the live circuit is restored. Further information on safety earth connections can be found in the Machinery Safety Standard BS EN60204-1 Part 1.

Further information
A booklet giving a great deal of useful information on many aspects of machine safety has been published by Pilz UK. It includes sections on European standards, risk assessment, components and wiring diagrams for many types of safety circuit. We gratefully acknowledge the permission of Pilz UK to make use of this information in the compilation of this handbook.

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Limit switches in safety-critical applications

In many low-power applications, the provision of overtravel limit switches is either a matter of operational convenience or a means of avoiding mechanical damage. In either case there is usually a choice of suitable switch types, depending on factors such as the available space and ease of incorporating an appropriate actuator. But in situations where safety is paramount, such as when failure to stop on a limit may cause personal injury, it is essential to use the correct type of switch and to wire it in an intrinsically-safe manner. We can divide machine limit switches into two broad categories - contacting and non-contacting. Contacting switches are normally conventional microswitches; noncontacting types include proximity detectors (capacitive, inductive or optical) as well as reed switches. All types can be used in non-critical applications, but mechanicallyoperated roller drive microswitches are inherently much safer than non-contacting types. Safety-critical applications require that limit switches are positive drive devices. This means that the switch contacts are directly coupled to the actuator via a non-resilient component, ensuring that the contacts are forced open even in the event of welding - there is no reliance on an internal spring to open the contacts. Dont use proximity switches which are more easily defeated. The switches must be arranged in such a way that they cant be overriden; use double switches if necessary. They should also be wired into the Emergency Stop circuit (in this case the Estop must be resettable even when the limit is still present to allow the system to be driven off). Limit switch input circuits are arranged so that a closed circuit is required for normal operation. This ensures that a limit condition will be detected if the connections to the limit switch are cut or become open-circuit. One side of the switch should be common to the DC supply (rather than to ground) - see Fig. 10.3. In this way a short-circuit to ground from either of the switch connections will create a limit condition even if the supply is taken out at the same time. + N.C. switch +

"
N.C. switch

Fig 10.3 Preferred and non-preferred limit switch connections

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