Rachel Yates; Revision Notes; 28/09/2012.

Introduction to the Sciences of Music: Lecture 1: Sound.

Keyword
Sound wave

What is it?
A type of pressure wave caused by the vibration of an object in a conductive medium such as air. This object could be the human voice, or an instrument. This wave is an oscillation or vibration that moves in a direction, parallel to the direction energy or oscillation.

How does it work?

When the object vibrates, and oscillates, this wave can be interpreted in reality as sound. Not all of this sound is audible, though. The human ear can only detect 12Hz, to 20KHz. If a longitudinal wave is moving east, then the disturbance of particles will vibrate in parallel to the longitudinal wave, in a left and right motion.

Longitudinal wave

Transverse wave

In contrast to a longitudinal wave, a transverse wave moves in a perpendicular direction to the direction of energy or oscillation.

If the particles of moving in a left and right motion, then the transverse wave will move in a 90 degrees, up and down motion.

Compression and Rarefaction Frequency

This is a decrease in volume, from applied stress. This occurs in a medium such as air. This is the amount of times the oscillator vibrates, per second. Its measured in Hertz.

Rarefaction is the opposite to compression, reducing the mediums density. Wave-like patterns demonstrate the number of cycles of the repetitive waveform per second. Such patterns may include sound, electromagnetic waves, or electric signals.
High Frequency (shorter wavelength) Low Frequency (longer wavelength)

Amplitude Wavelength

This measures the amount, or magnitude of energy in a sound wave. This is the distance from one crest of a wave, to another. It is often designated the Greek letter, lambda ().

Rachel Yates; Revision Notes; 28/09/2012.

Period Hertz Pitch Speed of Sound Harmonics This is the amount of required for one oscillation or vibration to take place. This is the unit of frequency, measuring the number of cycles per second. As the frequency of the wave increases, the period decreases. The frequency is calculated by dividing the velocity (speed) by the wavelength ().

This is the actual sensation of frequency. A high frequency, will result in a high-sounding pitch, and a low frequency results in a deeper pitch. Pitch and frequency thus have a close relationship. 340 meters per second, in dry air of 20 degrees. The harmonic of a wave, is an integer (whole number) multiple of the fundamental frequency. If the fundamental frequency is 25Hz, then the frequency of the harmonics are 50Hz, 75Hz, 100Hz This is expressed as 2f, 3f, 4f

Overtones

An overtone is any frequency, higher than the fundamental frequency. When a string vibrates in halves, it generates double the frequency of the fundamental frequency, and thus, the second harmonic. The higher frequency, the weaker the overtone. This is the lowest frequency, produced by the instrument. Known as the first harmonic. The fundamental frequency is 440Hz per second.

Fundamental Frequency Sound spectrum

This is a visual representation of different frequencies, present in a sound. Most sound comprise of multiple, and complex oscillations. Sound spectrums are generated by microphones, computers and digital converters. A crescendo on a trombone:

Timbre

This is the character or quality that differentiates different types of sound: woodwind, brass, percussion etc. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. This applies to light, too. Audible sound has a frequency range of 20 to 20,000Hz and a range of wavelength from 20mm to 20m. Acoustic absorption is any materials ability to change the energy of sound waves, into another form. This is usually heat, as opposed to sound. This is when waves bend around relatively small objects, and/or out of small openings.

Frequency and pitch are independent of timbre. Instruments can be playing the same pitch, at the same volume, but it is their distinct sound that makes them identifiable. Porous materials tend to absorb sound, whereas coarse surfaces are likely to reflect sound.

Sound reflection

Sound absorption

Porous, insulating materials such as mineral wool or glass wool, are good for absorbing sound waves. Longer wavelengths, and thus lower frequencies, usually diffract more easily. E.g. A brass band could be heard round a street corner more so than a piccolo choir. The ears threshold of earing is dependent upon presence/absence of ear conditions, and age.

Sound diffraction

Threshold of hearing

The ears sensitivity is best at frequencies of 1kHz to 5kHz.

Rachel Yates; Revision Notes; 28/09/2012.

Phase This indicates a particular point in the cycle of a sound wave, measured as an angle in degrees. Phases can either be in-phase or out of phase.

In Phase

Two points in a wave cycle that have the same relevance; the same significance to the wave cycle as a whole. E.g. The first two peaks of the wave cycle. When two oscillators or vibrating objects have the same frequency, but a phase difference, this is known as out of phase (as opposed to in phase). This phase difference is measured in degrees, from 0 to 360. Out of phase

In Phase

Out of phase

Calculating how out of phase a wave is.

Phase cancellation

When sound waves have the same frequency, from the same oscillator, they often superimpose to form a greater, or lower amplitude. This is known as interference.

Waves with identical amplitudes may meet at a point of antiphase = destructive interference. This is known as phase cancellation.

Rachel Yates; Revision Notes; 28/09/2012.

Calculating harmonics 1. Determine the fundamental frequency, known as simply f (440 Hertz per second). 2. Multiply f by integers, starting at the number 2 up to 15. The fundamental frequency counts as harmonic number 1. 3. If the fundamental frequency is 10Hz, this would be harmonic #1. - Harmonic #2 would be 20Hz - Harmonic #3 would be 30Hz - Harmonic #15 would be 150Hz If the frequency of a note is 440Hz, then an octave higher is 880Hz, and an octave lower is 220Hz. This ratio is 2:1.

Calculating the frequency of an octave, higher or lower than a given sound. Sound power

This measures the amount of sound wave energy, per unit of time. It is measured in watts. A rocket engine = 1, 000, 000W. A trumpet = 0.3W.

Sound intensity

This measures the amount of sound wave energy, per unit of area, or space (w/m2). This is usually in a context of air. This is the physical pressure (N), that sound may have on a given surface area (m2). The symbol for sound pressure is pascal (Pa). This is the unit, used to measure the intensity of sound. Its symbol is dB. A decibel is one tenth of a bel. The smallest audible sound is 0 dB, being near total silence. A conversation is 60dB and a gunshot is 140dB. Exposure to 85dB for 8 hours can cause ear damage. E.g. 130 decibels means 130 decibels more than the threshold of hearing.

Sound pressure

Decibel

Decibel scale

Calculating decibels

One bel (B), is equal to ten decibels (dB). 1B = 10dB. The bel represents a ration between two power quantities of 10:1 (decibel is proportionate to bel). This identifies and catalogues the main sources of vibration, in creating sound. It is derived from Hornbostel and Sachs.

Musical instrument classifications

Rachel Yates; Revision Notes; 28/09/2012.

Aerophone The body of the instrument creates a column of air, which conducts sound. The source of vibration is long and thin = 1D. This is when a string is stretched under tension, between two points (1D). The membrane or skin of the instrument is stretched, thereby creating tension (2D). The properties of the instruments material itself, characterises the sound that it makes. There is no external tension. This determines the acoustic qualities of the instrument (3D). As the number of dimensions increases, the sound becomes more complex. This is when a loudspeaker vibrates, via electricity. This does not encompass the amplification of other types of instrument. An electric guitar remains a chordophone, because the string is the initial source of vibration. This is the pebble in water diagram. The waves disperse in concentric circles (known as the wave-front). The direction of the wave is always perpendicular (90) to the wavefront. In other words, the direction of energy is always perpendicular to oscillator. The reed stimulates, and excites the air molecules. Examples include the flute, clarinet or saxophone. Examples include the violin, lyre, or piano. Examples include the drums. Examples include the xylophone and glockenspiel.

Chordophone Membranophone Idiophone

Electrophone

Examples include the synthesiser and theremin. Sachs labelled these as radioelectric instruments.

Wave-front diagrams

Frequencies of:

Middle C = 261.626 Hertz.

Concert A = 442 Hertz

Objective characteristics
Frequency Amplitude Wavelength Spectrum Harmonically related partials Inharmonic partials

Perceptual properties
Pitch Loudness Pitch Timbre Pitched sound Unpitched/noisy sound