Sr electrons are closer to positive cations Heat is applied even to exothermic reactions in order to increase molecules with >=Ea

Polar C-Br bond allows nucleophilic sub SO2 + 2H20 -> H2SO4

E-Z isomerism due to restricted rotation Groups absorb infrared rad. at different frequencies

- Tollens reagent - diamminesilver(I) made from AgNO3 + NaOH ---> Ag2O Ag2O + 4NH3 2[Ag(NH3)2]+ (COLOURLESS) + O2In presence of aldehyde, reduction: [Ag(NH3)2]+ + e- Ag + 2NH3 (SILVER MIRROR) Oxidation of aldehyde: RCHO + 3OH RCOO- + 2e- + 2H2O Fehlings solution: blue brick-red

Ban on CFCs was supported by chemists Ozone decomposition: O3 + Cl. --> O2 + ClO O3 + ClO --> 2O2 + Cl.

-- PCl5 as a test for alcohols: steamy fumes of HCl produced

C-X enthalpy decreases down the group - less suspectible to subs. by OH-

O-HS(=O)O-H(=O) -- CH2=CH2 + H2SO4 --> CH3CH2OSO2OH (intermediate) +H2O : CH3CH2OSO2OH + H20 --> CH3CH2OH + H2SO4 using Markovnikov's rule, the H in H-X in an unsymmetrical compound attaches to the C with the most H already attached to it addition pol: 2 or more molecules join together to form a chain; if alkenes are involved then the polymer's bonds are saturated -- 200 degrees, 2k atmo poly(ethene) -> plastic bags

-- If loss of e- occurs, orange to green colour change happens R-COH:excess R-OH and distill at formation R-COOH: reflux, excess K2Cr2O7

Dehydration of ethanol by Al2O3 catalyst

Mention RANGE

1) List all bonds 2) Identify characteristic bonds (small w.l. ranges and peak patterns) 3) C=O has a very sharp peak at 1680cm-1 to 1750cm-1 4) O-H (alcohols) has a higher absorption (left-shifted) than O-H (C'acids) 5) CHECK FINGERPRINT - match = same sub Oxidation of Iodine: Red sol -> (dark) grey ppt Oxidation ability falls (reducing ability increases) going down the group - bigger atoms, do not accept electrons as readily due to shielding effect decreasing attraction between outer energy level and nucleus Br is (l) at room temp.; I is (s)

Bond enthalpy is the heat change when 1 mol of a covalent bond in a gaseous state is broken to release its individual atoms under standard conditions HX(g), 298K, - steamy fumes Br - brown vapour I - purple vapour; red (s) I condensing at top of test-tube Strong attraction -> lots of heat energy evolved Br ions are oxidised to Br2 Br reduces S(VI) in H2SO4 to S(IV) in SO2 I reduces H2SO4 to H2S S(VI) -> S-2 H2SO4 + 8e- + 8H+ -> H2S + 4H2O

+NH3 to AgX: Ag+ + 2NH3 -> [Ag(NH3)2]+ [diamminesilver(I) ion]

Biofuel: from Biological resources 2C: 2x particles -> 2x collison frequency

-- Why use low pressure in reactions which favor high pressure? - It is cheaper in terms of energy and plant construction costs - In particular reactions ( ethene + steam) unwanted products are produced at high pressure ((poly)ethene) which also causes blockage in the reactants of the plant

SUBLIMATION - (s) -> (g) without any intermediate steps Orientation and energy of collision determine reaction feasibility

<T - <Espe Catalyst - speeds up r. but chemically unchanged at end

For exothermic reactions (heat output due to cooling (g) -> (l)), the change of equilibrium is to oppose the energy change

Standard enthalpy change - heat evolved or absorbed when a reaction takes place at standard conditions and in their standard states ...Formation: one mole of compound from constituent elements under standard conditions ...Combustion: burned completely under oxygen (- enthalpy because heat is released) Hesss law: entth. change is independent of the route in which the reaction takes place Bond dissociation enthalpies: (g)

Kinetically stable - energy barrier is too high Standard conditions C - graphite allotrope

H + 2(805) + 436 = 1077 + 2(464) H = 1077 + 2(464) - 2(805) - 436 H = -41 kJ mol-1 -- Enthalpy of fusion - heat energy required to convert one mole of solid into a liquid at its melting point

Evaporation - most energetic particles have the energy to escape from the attractive forces within the liquid; this happens on the surface

Le Chataliers - DE disturbed by changing conditions, position equilibrium moves to counteract this change

This is to absorb the extra heat energy input - if, say, T was increased from equil. 500K to 700K Catalysts speed up the forward and background reactions to the same extent and speeds up the initial ascent to dynamic equilibrium

Production of ethanol

Oxidation (electron loss/increase in ox. number) - in an equation if the RHS has > () it has been oxidised:

(BALANCE chromium) Oxidation state of F is always -1 The more electronegative element in a compound is given a negative Ox. state Cr in Cr2O722x + 7(-2) = -2 x = +6

WATER is also produced; NaCl and NaClO (sodium hypochlorate) mixture sold as bleach Test for the halides AgNO3 + HNO3 {+NH3} [regulates ions which may give odd ppts] (dilute) Cl- : white {dissolves (aq), colourless} Br- :( pale) creamy {dissolves conc., colourless} I- : (pale) yellow {NOT dissolved by (aq) or conc.}

Electrolysis of Cl: OH- and Cl- ions in solution attracted to anode; H+ and Na+ to cathode. Re(an): Re(cat): + NaOH

Group 2 +H2O (>Solubility DOWN group): (g) -> MO + H2 (l) -> M(OH)2

Mg: sparingly soluble - Osmotic laxative Ca: WHITE ppt - agriculture as acid neutraliser Reaction increases because it becomes easier to lose electrons going down the group as IE decreases - this is due to extra shielding by lower energy shells weakening the attraction between the outer-shell electrons and the nucleus.

Metal extraction Ti: expensive and hard-to-obtain reactive metals such as Na and Mg; avoids contamination by TiC which is brittle Al: cost of electricity is the downside; metal produced is very pure however Fe: high electricity to generate >2000K

Waste heat released at top (used to heat incoming air to save energy) C, Fe2O3 (haemitite)/Fe3CO4 (magnetite) and CaCO3 at top Coolest T at top (650K) Air enters at bottom at 2000K Slag and Fe at bottom (correspondingly in layers)

Process - continuous 2C + O2 2CO 3CO + Fe2O3 2Fe + 3CO2 3C + Fe2O3 2Fe + 3CO (HOT) Slag [Calcium silicate] (cement) is CaSiO3 (CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3) which is an impurity is more volatile and can be tapped off on the first layer of the BF. It is important not to add a lot of

CaCO3 because it decomposes to cool the furnace. C and CO are used to extract Mg and Cu Titanium: Process - Batch Products are removed and the process is restarted as soon as the products are formed. Aluminium: Process Molten cryolite used Na3AlF6

Operation - 100kA and 5-6V

O2 reacts with C-anode CO + CO2

Economic: electricity (3 mol e-: mol of Al), Na3AlF6 used-up and requires replacement, anode replacement (C reacts with reduced O2) Env.: Mining Al2O3, transporting; pollution (CO2, CO, F), noise

RECYCLING: 5%, less (land-fill) dumping, no CO/CO2 as from ore

Tungsten Extraction agent: H 1000K

Greater the xo, the faster the reaction due to increasing electron density 1o subs 2o Elimi and subs - excess ethanol and high temp leads to Elim, >[OH-] 3o Elim

+NH3:

-- Ice has an open structure with lots of free space between bonds; liquid water occupies greater volume

monatomic atom clouds are harder to polarise Structures

Trigonal planars -

Tetrahedral -

Pyramidal -

Bent -

Trigonal bipyramidal (5 bond pairs) -

Square planar -

Ar = sum of relative m/z rel. abundance Total abundance

Mass spectrometry

Observations: - 5 isotopes - The total mass of these 100 typical atoms would be (51.5 x 90) + (11.2 x 91) + (17.1 x 92) + (17.4 x 94) + (2.8 x 96) = 9131.8 The average mass of these 100 atoms would be 9131.8 / 100 = 91.3 (to 3 significant figures).

Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula, but have a different arrangement of the atoms in space. Chain -> branching Position -> C-skeleton unchanged; new groups ADDED and positioned around the molecule Functional group -> belong to different homologous series Cycloalkanes - joined up in a ring; -2H:

Alkanes are insoluble in H2O The closer the e- pairs, the greater the reaction due to e- repulsion Therm Cracking uses a Zeolite catalyst - high p + T; high% of alkenes -- Catalytic cracking - slight p + high T - make motor fuels and aromatics Catalytic converters - NOx and CO -> N2 + CO2

IE: - charge - distance - Greater shielding Boron 2p electron is to be found further than s level electrons; screened by 1s2 and 2s2 shells Down the group - greater shielding despite increase in e- number so the attraction of the nucleus is felt less readily The lower the IE -> faster reactions as it lowers activation energy Repulsion makes e- easier to remove in 2px Ethene and propene are important in making plastics

Bonding

more e- -> greater van der Waals forces Hydrogen bonding due to presence of Lone pair H-X where X is very electronegative and leaves strong positive dipole on H Branching makes Vwal <attractive NO produced by reaction between N2 and O2 CaO is basic and is used to remove SO2 from engines A mesh causes a bigger surfae area for a reaction

NaCl has a CUBIC lattice structure

Graphite consists of Layers bonded covalently Vws between layers Conductivity is judged by delocalised e-

mass number = n of p + n of neu.

Catalytic cracking:

450-700 degrees; 70 atm.

- Bonding is HYDROGEN BONDING Showing (talangent) IM forces: - from lone pair to partial charge: both (deux) H and O le bonding covalent: partager au pair du electrons entre deux atomes - Tmel. Mg -> Tmel. Na: Mg is smaller Has more electrons in its sea of electrons- there is greater attraction Increase in molecular formula leads to stronger VDW -> > TB AR increases across

Suggest - state and relate Remove (Enlever)SO2 by reaction with CaO SO2 + CaO -> CaSO3

- homologous series CH2 progression

Structual isomer: same MR different structural formula Mean mass of 1 atom * 12 / mass of C-12 atom Metallic bonding:

4 2-d atom; 3 atoms forming a cubic lattice In ammonia, the lone pair attracts intermolecularly the H atom in another molecule Ionisation -> accelerate/deflect

Electronegativity: Ability to withdraw e- cloud unto itself Block indicates s-,p-,d-orbitals

IE (remove outer-shell electron increases across Increase in nuclear force n.r. decreases

Al deviates In higher-orbital <E to remove first energy electron

Zeolite and aluminosilicate catalyst used Lower fractions are more in demand and have higher value

carbon monoxide + 2Nitrogen oxide -> 2 carbon dioxide + nitrogen If I let go: - I will be in halcyon - my health will improve significantly - I will open the mind and learn things significantly faster - I will make a much deeper connection with everything Co-ordinate: both electrons provided by the joining atom S has lower IE because paired 3p-orbital e- repel

Going down the group n.r. increases due to shielding

Hydroxides and Sulphates for group 2: Solubility for hydroxides increases Decreases for sulphates: MgSO4 form a solution (test is BaSO4 which form white ppt in presence - indicating low solubility)

Free radicals: are atoms or groups of atoms which have a single unpaired electron. CH4 + ClCH3 + HCl

CH3 + Cl2CH3Cl + Cl

Accurate mass spectrometry: a way to deduce the compound using MR values of up to 4 decimal places Ba2+ + SO42- -> BaSO4 (insoluble) In Eq: M remains constant rates are equal C-neut -> no NET emission

Scrap Fe higher iron content Molten -> allows ions to flow Efile -> e- pair donor

Oxidising agent - e- acceptor