Digestive and Excretory System

Salivary amylase, in the mouth, hydrolyzes starch into simple sugars. Chewed food forms into a bolus which is pushed into the esophagus by swallowing and then moved down the esophagus by peristaltic action. This is like squeezing toothpaste from the bottom and sliding the paste up and through. No digestion occurs in the esophagus. The bolus moves into the stomach through the lower esophageal sphincter (cardiac sphincter) and enters the stomach. The stomach is lined with the Gastric Mucosa. Gastric Glands: 1) Mucous Cells secrete mucous to protect the epithelial lining of the stomach. 2) Chief Cells secrete pepsinogen which turns into pepsin, pepsin cleaves peptides. (protein degradation begins in stomach) 3) Parietal Cells secrete H-Cl, H+ comes from the Hydrogen from carbonic acid, and the resulting bicarbonic ion is expelled into the interstitial fluid, this results in the lowering of stomach pH and the raising of blood pH. Pyloric Glands (G-cells), secrete gastrin, a peptide hormone that stimulates parietal cells to secrete H-Cl. Major hormones that affect secretion of stomach juices are: acetylcholine, gastrin, and histamine. Acetylcholine increases secretion of all cell types. Gastrin and histamine only increase H-Cl secretion.

SMALL INTESTINE
90% of digestion occurs in the small intestine. Duodenum -> jejunum -> ileum. Most digestion occurs in the duodenum. Most nutrient absorption occurs in the jejunum and ileum. Slightly Acidic Chyme is squeezed out of stomach and into duodenum through the pyloric sphincter. Pancreas then acts as an exocrine gland releasing the enzymes trypsin, chymotrypsin, pancreatic amylase, lipase, ribunuclease, and deoxyribonuclease. All the enzymes secreted are released as zymogens! Trypsin is activated by enterokinase. Trypsin and chymotrypsin degrade proteins into small polypeptides. Pancreatic Amylase hydrolyzes polysaccharides into di- and tri- saccharides. Lipase degrades fats, specifically triglycerides. The fat in the interstitial fluid will tend to clump together reducing surface area. The secretion of bile by the gall bladder solves this problem. Bile is synthesized in the liver, and stored in the gallbladder. Bile increases the surface area of fat, doesnt digest it. Secretin, cholecystokinin, gastric inhibitory peptide are local peptide hormones secreted by the small intestine after each meal, these increase blood insulin levels.

LARGE INTESTINE
Contains: 1) ascending colon 2) transverse colon 3) descending colon and; 4) sigmoid colon Whenever you get a large intestine question on the MCAT, think water reabsorption. Profuse water loss in the form of diarrhea often results when there is a problem with the large intestine. There is a symbiotic relationship between humans and bacteria in the large intestine, we get our vitamins from them. Major functions of the large intestine are water reabsorption and electrolyte absorption. When this fails, diarrhea results. The E. coli in the large intestine produce vitamins K, B12, thiamin and riboflavin. Glucose is absorbed by a secondary active transport mechanism down the concentration gradient of sodium. The liver processes glucose rich blood and converts excess glucose in the glycogen. If the blood has low concentrations of glucose, liver with convert glycogen back into glucose. The Liver Functions to: Blood Storage the liver can expand to act as a blood reservoir for the body. Blood filtration kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up from intestines. Carbohydrate metabolism the liver maintains normal blood glucose levels. Fat metabolism the liver synthesizes bile from cholesterol and converts carbohydrates and proteins into fat. Forms most lipoproteins.

Protein metabolism the liver deaminates amino acids, forms urea. Detoxification detoxified chemicals are excreted by the liver as a part of bile or polarize to be excreted by kidney. Erythrocyte destruction Vitamin storage the liver stores vitamins A, D and B12. When the liver mobilizes fat or protein for energy, it produces acids called ketone bodies, this results in ketoacidosis.

RENAL PHYSIOLOGY
Kidney functions to excrete waste products, maintain homeostasis, and control plasma pH. Higher Osmolarity = Lower water concentration. Renal artery becomes the afferent arteriole which enters bowmans capsule to form the glomerulus. The effect arteriole leaves the Bowmans capsule forming a capillary network around the renal tubules, which then form a venule that empties into the renal vein which in turn empties into the vena cava. Proximal convoluted tubule is where 65% of all reabsorption and secretion occur. Glucose, small molecular weight proteins, + vitamins, drugs, and almost all N , Cl , and H2O. Descending loop of Henle reabsorbs water. Permeable to water. + + Ascending loop of Henle reabsorbs N , K , and Cl . Impermeable to water. Distant Convoluted Tubule is the area that is sensitive to two hormones, aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone. + + Aldosterone causes Na reabsorption in the DCT in exchange for K , this essentially dilutes urine. When sodium levels decrease in the blood, aldosterone is released to cause sodium reabsorption, blood sodium levels then begin to rise again. Anti Diuretic Hormone, ADH, causes water reabsorption, which essentially concentrates urine. Alcohol is an ADH inhibitor. In a Nutshell: filtration occurs in the renal corpuscle, reabsorption and secretion mostly occur in the proximal convoluted tubule.