Report Gain Improvment Using DNG Superstarte

Gain Enhancement of Microstrip Patch Antenna Using Dielectric DNG Superstrate
by Abdulbaset M. M. Ali
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Electrical Engineering
Approved By:
Dr. Jayanti Venkataraman-Advisor
Dr. Zhaolin Lu- Committee Member
Dr. Sohail Dianat- Committee Member
Dr. Sohail Dianat- Department Head
Department of Electrical Engineering Kate Gleason College of Engineering Rochester Institute of Technology Rochester, New York 2009
Acknowledgments To my parents and siblings To Dr. Mustafa Abushagur To my friends To Dr. Zhaolin Lu and Dr. Raj Mittra
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Abstract
As the trend continues towards miniaturizing integrated electronic circuits, the need to reduce the size of the antenna continues to be a challenge particularly for the microstrip antenna. Several techniques that have been successfully implemented for size reduction up to 75%, by a variety of methods such as cutting slots in the patch or reconfiguring its size using MEMS, etc. in conjunction with optimization techniques such as genetic algorithms or particle swarm. However, antenna size reduction comes at the expense of a reduced gain by a few dBs. Recently, materials engineered to have negative permittivity and permeability (DNG) or left handed materials (LHM) have been used as a superstrate to focus the radiated field. While most of the work to date has used metallic DNG material, implementing dielectric DNG materials has been limited to optical applications. Dielectric DNG materials have advantages over metallic DNG materials primarily for low losses and wider bandwidths since they are non-resonance structures. The present research uses a flat lens available in literature and developed in 2005 that has a negative refractive index in a certain frequency range as a superstrate for the microstrip patch antenna. It is a high dielectric material with a triangular lattice of holes drilled along its length. At first the superstrate has been analyzed using a finite difference time domain software tool (EM Photonics) for its left handed properties by exciting it with a point source and comparing the magnitude and phase of the electrical field in the transmission plane with that in the incident plane. It is shown that an image is formed at a distance about half the thickness of the slab. By comparing its behavior to that of a
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similar size slab without holes; it is conclusively shown that the slab with holes behaves as a DNG material. In order to use this DNG slab as a superstrate, the rectangular microstrip patch antenna has been designed to resonate at 31.5 GHz which lies in the same frequency range where the superstrate has a negative refractive index. At first the DNG has been analyzed for its lens behavior properties with respect to focusing the electric field. In order to optimize the field focusing, the edges of the DNG slab had to be scalloped. Another optimization that is very critical is the height at which the superstrate is placed over the antenna. This is done by calculating and maximizing the gain using a 3D finite element full wave solver (Ansofts HFSS). A gain enhancement of 3 dB to 4 dB for a single element has been achieved. The aperture field distribution for the optimized configuration has been plotted at selected heights. In addition, the E field distributions for the optimized configuration have been compared with E field distributions for the patch antenna without the DNG superstrate configuration. This comparison reveals that the field strength above the DNG superstrate is twice the value of the field for the antenna without a superstrate configuration. This further proves that the superstrate behaves as a DNG material. Finally, the proposed superstrate has been scaled to exhibit a negative refractive index at 10 GHz and integrated with an X band (10 GHz) patch antenna, and the same type of characterization steps described have been repeated. Simulation results of the scaled configuration are consistent with the original configuration; where a gain enhancement of 3dB has been achieved. This ensures the scalability and robustness of the design.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................. ii Abstract ................................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents .................................................................................................. v List of Figures ..................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 Motivation ................................................................................................... 1 Microstrip Patch Antennas- A Background ................................................ 2 Left Handed Materials (LHMs) .................................................................. 2 Description ........................................................................................... 2 LHMs Realization ................................................................................ 5
1.3.1 1.3.2
1.3.2.1 Epsilon Negative Material (ENG) Realization .................................... 6 1.3.2.2 Mu-Negative material (MNG) Realization .......................................... 7 1.3.2.3 Double Negative Material (DNG) Realization .................................. 10 1.3.3 LHMs Applications ............................................................................ 13
1.3.3.1 DNG Flat Lens (Metallic) .................................................................. 13 1.3.3.2 Microstrip Patch antennas and DNG ................................................. 15 1.4 1.5 Major Contribution of Present Work ........................................................ 18 Thesis Organization .................................................................................. 20
Chapter 2 Double Negative Material (DNG) as a Flat Lens .................................. 21 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Photonic Crystals A background ........................................................... 21 DNG Material Realization Using Photonic Crystals ................................ 22 Imaging using PhCs .................................................................................. 26 DNG Lens Simulation and Characterization ............................................ 30
2.4.1 Image Forming and Field Probing Analysis ........................................... 32 2.5 Study of the Structure without Holes ......................................................... 44
2.5.1 Field Probing .......................................................................................... 45 2.6 2.7 2.8 Analysis of Refractive Index Extraction ................................................... 54 Field Strength Probing .............................................................................. 57 DNG Structure Dimensional Scaling ........................................................ 60
Chapter 3 DNG Material as Superstrate for Microstrip Antennas ......................... 62 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Proposed DNG Superstrate ....................................................................... 62 31.5 GHz Antenna Design Criteria ........................................................... 64 DNG Superstrate Shape Optimization ...................................................... 68 Gain Enhancement .................................................................................... 69 Aperture Field Distribution ....................................................................... 76 Superstrate scaling to 10 GHz .................................................................. 80
Chapter 4 Conclusion and Future Work ................................................................. 85 4.1 4.2 Primary conclusions of present work ........................................................ 85 Future Work and Consideration ................................................................ 86
References ........................................................................................................... 87 Appendix (A) ...................................................................................................... 94
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List of Figures
Figure 1-1 Wave Propagation in Right Handed Medium ........................................ 3 Figure 1-2 Wave Propagation in Left Handed Medium ........................................... 4 Figure 1-3 Metallic Wire Mesh with Negative Dielectric Permittivity ................. 6 Figure 1-4 Geometries of Negative Permeability Material Unit Cell Based ........... 8 Figure 1-5 Effective Permittivity vs. Frequency Plot ........................................... 9 Figure 1-6 DNG Medium Unit Cells ................................................................... 11 Figure1-7 Transmission Line Model: . ............................................................... 12 Figure 1-8 Flat Lens Structure: ............................................................................. 14 Figure 1-9 SRR and TW DNG Superstrate Integrated with Patch Antenna ......... 16 Figure 1-10 SRR and CLS Superstrate Integrated with Diploe Antenna ........... 16 Figure 1-11 Illustration of a Geometric Configuration of a Patch antenna Loaded by DPS-DNG Substrate ......................................................................................... 17 Figure 2-1 Photonic Band Structures Illustrating Bandgaps ................................. 22 Figure 2-2 Dispersion Surfaces ............................................................................ 23 Figure 2-3 Normal Refraction and Negative Refraction . ...................................... 25 Figure 2-4 Dielectric Rods in Air (a) Square Lattice, (b) Triangular Lattice ........ 26 Figure 2-5 DNG Structure Geometry ................................................................. 29 Figure 2-6 (a)Photonic Band Structure of the PhC for TM modes(b) EFDCs..29 Figure 2-7 2-D Simulation Setup of the DNG Lens Surrounded by Air.............. 31 Figure 2-8 Field Probing Lines for the DNG Structure Characterization .............. 32 Figure 2-9 Magnitude and Phase of Ez at Center along the Longitudinal Direction ................................................................................................................. 33 Figure 2-10 Ez Magnitude and Phase at Lens Edges ............................................. 34 Figure 2-11 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 5.95mm away from Lens ....................... 35 Figure 2-12 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 10.95mm away from Lens ................... 36 Figure 2-13 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 15.95mm away from Lens .................... 37 Figure 2-14 Ez magnitude and phase at 20.95mm away from lens ....................... 38 Figure 2-15 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 30.95mm away from Lens ..................... 38 Figure 2-16 Ez magnitude and phase at 40.95mm away from lens ....................... 39 Figure 2-17 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 50.95mm away from Lens ..................... 39 Figure 2-18 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 60.95mm away from Lens ..................... 40
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Figure 2-19 Ez Magnitude Distribution for DNG Lens Configuration Illustrates Image Forming ....................................................................................................... 41 Figure 2-20 Phase Distribution for DNG Lens Configuration Illustrates Field Converging ............................................................................................................. 41 Figure 2-21 Imaging by a Flat slab of thickness D of Negative Index Material with n = 1 and Surrounded by Vacuum ..................................................... 42 Figure 2-22 Obtaining Refractive Index from Image Position and Structure Thickness (D) ......................................................................................................... 43 Figure 2-23 2-D Simulation Setup of the High Dielectric Slab without air Holes 44 Figure 2-24 Field Probing Lines for the High Dielectric Structure Characterization ..................................................................................................... 45 Figure 2-25 Magnitude and Phase of (Ez) at Center along the Longitudinal Direction ................................................................................................................. 46 Figure 2-26 Ez Magnitude and Phase at HD Slab Edges ....................................... 47 Figure 2-27 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 5.95mm away from HD Slab ................. 48 Figure 2-28 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 10.95mm Away from HD Slab ............ 49 Figure 2-29 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 15.95mm away from HD Slab ............... 50 Figure 2-30 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 20.95mm away from HD Slab ............... 50 Figure 2-31 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 30.95mm away from HD Slab ............... 51 Figure 2-32 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 40.95mm away from HD Slab ............... 51 Figure 2-33 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 50.95mm away from HD Slab ............... 52 Figure 2-34 Ez Magnitude Distribution in Incidence and Transmission Planes for HD Slab Configuration ..................................................................................... 53 Figure 2-35 Phase Distribution (in radians) for HD Slab Configuration ............... 53 Figure 2-36 : Left Phase Distribution without DNG Lens Structure ............. 55 Figure 2-37 Phase Plots at Distance (d) .55 Figure 2-38 Extracted Refractive Index for DNG Structure Using Phase Distribution ............................................................................................................. 56 Figure 2-39 Field Strength at Slab Edge (Transmission Plane) ............................. 57 Figure 2-40 Field Strength at 5.95mm from Slab Edge (Transmission Plane) ...... 58 Figure 2-41 Field Strength at 10.95mm from Slab Edge (transmission plane) ..... 59 Figure 2-42 Field Strength at 15.95mm from Slab Edge (transmission plane) ..... 59 Figure 2-43 Scaled up DNG Structure Geometry .................................................. 60 Figure 2-44 Ez Magnitude Distribution for X Band Scaled DNG Lens Illustrates Image Forming ....................................................................................................... 61
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Figure 2-45 Phase Distribution For X Band Scaled DNG Lens Illustrates Field Converging ............................................................................................................. 61 Figure 3-1 proposed DNG Superstrate for Microstrip Patch Antenna ................... 63 Figure 3-2 Antenna Reflection Coefficient (S11) in dB ........................................ 65 Figure 3-3 Patch Antenna VSWR vs. Frequency .................................................. 66 Figure 3-4 Polar Plot of the Antenna Gain in dB ................................................... 67 Figure 3-5 3-D Plot of the Antenna Gain dB ........................................................ 67 Figure 3-6 DNG Martial Structure: (a) Flat Edges. (b) Scalloped Top and Bottom Edges..................................................................... 68 Figure 3-7 Electric Field Plots at 30.7GHz: (a) Flat Edges structure has poor focusing. (b) Scalloped Top and Bottom Edges structure has poor focusing. ....... 69 Figure 3-8 DNG Superstrate directly Touching the Patch Antenna...................... 70 Figure 3-9 Gain Plot for DNG Superstrate Directly Touching the Patch ............. 70 Figure 3-10 Final DNG Superstrate Configuration with Pedestals to Mount the Structure ................................................................................................................. 71 Figure 3-11 Reflection Coefficient for Optimized Superstrate Height Configuration .......................................................................................................... 72 Figure 3-12 Gain Plot in dB (E-plane) ................................................................. 73 Figure 3-13 Final Design Configuration Directivity vs. Frequency ..................... 73 Figure 3-14 3-D Gain Plot .................................................................................. 74 Figure 3-15 HD Superstrate at Height of 0 .773mm Configuration...................... 75 Figure 3-16 Gain Plot for HD Superstrate without Air Holes............................... 75 Figure 3-17 Aperture Field Distribution at 0.773 mm above the Antenna ............ 76 Figure 3-18 Aperture Field Distribution with DNG Superstrate Configuration (at 10 mm above the Patch) .................................................................................... 77 Figure 3-19 Aperture Field Distribution at 10 mm above the Patch (patch only Configuration) ........................................................................................................ 78 Figure 3-20 Aperture Field Distribution at 10 mm above the patch (High Dielectric without Holes Superstrate Configuration) .................................. 79 Figure 3-21 Antenna Reflection Coefficient (S11) in dB ...................................... 81 Figure 3-22 Antenna VSWR vs. Frequency Plot .................................................. 81 Figure 3-23 Polar Plot of the Antenna Gain - E Plane (=90).............................. 82 Figure 3-24 Patch with Scaled DNG Superstrate configuration ........................... 83 Figure 3-25 Reflection Coefficient of 10GHz patch with DNG superstrate configuration........................................................................................................... 83
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Figure 3-26 Gain in dB .......................................................................................... 84 Figure 3-27 Aperture Field Distribution above the DNG Superstrate of 10GHz Configuration .......................................................................................................... 84
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Motivation
In recent years, the need to miniaturize electronic circuitry has shown a sharp and rapid increase. To meet this goal, smaller microstrip antennas have become an unavoidable choice. Several size reduction techniques have been developed to miniaturize antennas. Amongst these techniques is the implementation of optimization algorithms such as Genetic Algorithms (GA) and Particle Swarm (PS). In addition, techniques based on algorithms are preferable when there are many variables involved such as antenna design. Although good size reduction rates have been achieved as in [1]-[3], this comes at the expense of the antenna gain. Of interest is a technique to address this problem by enhancing the gain of the antenna. One way to enhance the gain is by integrating a selected material above the antenna; this material is an engineered material, does not exist in nature, and has simultaneous negative permittivity and permeability. Furthermore, this material has physical capabilities that can be used to focus the radiated field for the sake of antenna gain enhancement.
1.2 Microstrip Patch Antennas- A Background

Microstrip antennas have attracted considerable attention since the 1970s [4]. Moreover, due the huge demand for smaller electronic devices and especially smaller portable communication devices, more and more small microstrip antennas are needed [5]. Microstrip antennas consist of a very thin metallic strip (patch) placed a small fraction of a wavelength above a ground plane. The patch and the ground plane are separated by a dielectric material (called the substrate). The microstrip patch antenna is usually designed as a broadside radiator (its pattern maximum is normal to the patch). This can be achieved by choosing the mode of excitation under the patch. The radiating patch shape may be square, rectangular, thin strip (dipole), circular, elliptical, or any other configuration. However, rectangular patches are more common. Microstrip antennas are usually fed using, microstrip line, coaxial probe, or aperture coupling [4].
1.3 Left Handed Materials (LHMs)
1.3.1 Description
The idea of Left Handed Materials (LHMs) dates back to 1967 , when Veselago considered theoretically electromagnetic plane wave propagation in a lossless medium with simultaneously negative real permittivity and permeability at a given frequency [6],[7]. In order to describe a Left Handed Material (LHM), we need to start with a description of a Right Handed Material (RHM) first. In general, materials have two unique parameters, permeability and permittivity that determine how the material will
interact with electromagnetic radiation, which includes light, microwaves, radio waves, even x-rays. A Right handed material is a material whose permeability and permittivity are simultaneously positive. Right handed materials are also called Double Positive Material (DPS) in the literature. If the direction of the electric field (E) and the magmatic field (H) are represented by the thumb and the index finger of the right hand respectively, then the middle finger gives the direction of propagation of the wave, if it is placed normal to both fingers. Additionally, in RHMs wave propagation or the energy flow represented by Poynting vector Pav= 0.5 Re [E x H*]) and the phase changes represented by phase constant (k= * ) are in the same direction [7]-[8], as shown in
Figure 1-1. Electromagnetic Waves propagation in all known natural materials follows the Right Hand Rule, with positive refractive indices [9].
Pav
Figure 1-1 Wave Propagation in Right Handed Medium On the other hand, a Left handed material (LHM) is a material whose permeability and permittivity are simultaneously negative. Left handed materials also called Double Negative Materials (DNGs). LHM as defined by Sihvola, is an engineered material that does not exist in nature which gains its material properties from its structure rather than
inheriting them directly from the material that it is composed of [10]. In such a medium, (LHM), if the direction of the electric field (E) and the magmatic field (H) are represented by the thumb and the index finger of the left hand respectively, then the middle finger gives the direction of phase changes of the wave (k= * ) if it
is placed normal to both fingers. In a LHM medium the energy flow (Pav= 0.5 Re [E x H*]) and the phase changes represented by phase constant (k) are in opposite directions (anti-parallel) as shown in Figure 1-2 [7], [8]. Propagation of type is called backward propagation.
Pav
Figure 1-2 Wave Propagation in Left Handed Medium
Considering the effect that the LHM has on the refractive index (n) defined by equations (1-1) to (1-5): = Where: = relative permeability of material =relative permittivity of material (1-1)
When both permittivity and permeability are negative, thus equation (1-1) takes the following from. (1-2) Which reduces to (1-3) Hence the refractive index becomes negative and is given by the following (1-4)
1.3.2 LHMs Realization

Due to a lack of experimental proof of Vassalages theory about LHM materials, his works were abandoned for 30 years, until Pendry et al demonstrated [11-13] the effectiveness of Veselagos theory. Although, Veselago predicted that it was essential for the material to have both the permeability and permittivity of the material to be negative or positive [14], Pendry et al have theoretically proven and experimentally realized a material with only one of the real parts of these parameters is negative[11]. A material with negative permeability or permittivity is called Single Negative material (SNG). When the permittivity (Epsilon) of a material is the only negative parameter then the material is named Epsilon Negative material (ENG). While, if the permeability (Mu) is the only negative parameter then it is called Mu-Negative material (MNG). The recent revival of interest in the DNG medium began when Smith, Schultz and Shelby, inspired by the work of Pendry et al [11-13], [15-16] constructed such a composite medium for the microwave regime [17]. Many research groups have been
inspired by this work and they are now exploring various aspects of this class of complex media, and several potential future applications have been considered [17].
1.3.2.1 Epsilon Negative Material (ENG) Realization

Thin metallic wires are one of the earliest structures that produce negative permittivity at a certain frequency band. This structure has been described by Pendry et al [15]. The structure consists of infinitely long parallel thin metal wires arranged in a square grid embedded in a dielectric medium as shown in Figure 1-3 [ 18].
>>a
Figure 1-3 Metallic Wire Mesh with Negative Dielectric Permittivity [18]
The dielectric medium used in Figure 1-3 is vacuum or air, the lattice unit or unit cell length is (a) and the radius of a single wire is (r << a). When plasma frequency for the
longitudinal plasma mode is equated by (1-5), then the effective permittivity (eff) can be written as in equation (1-6) [18].
/
(1-5)
Where: p= plasma frequency a= unit cell length (lattice unit) r= single wire radius c= speed of light in free space
(1-6)
Assuming the conductance tends to infinite (), effective permittivity can be approximated as
(1-7)
It is clear now that the effective permittivity is negative when the frequency is below plasma frequency ( < p) [18].
1.3.2.2 Mu-Negative material (MNG) Realization

In general, double Split Ring Resonators (SRR) is the most common structure for MNG material realization. The split cases the structure to resonate at higher frequencies as well as inducing a capacitive that enhances the magnetic effect produced by the structure [7],[18]. The current in the rings of this configuration does not find a closed path due to the splits; however, the current will still flow due to the strong capacitance produced by
the gap between the two concentric rings. Geometry of circular SRR are shown in Figure 1-4. Where: (r) is the interior radius of the inner ring , (g) is the SRR split dimension , (w) is the width of each ring , and (d) is the separation between the two concentric rings [18].
Figure 1-4 Unit Cell Geometries of Negative Permeability Material Based on Circular SRR [ 18 ]
The effective permeability for the SRR shown in Figure 1-4 in vacuum can be approximated as [18]
(1-8)
In addition, the resonance frequency (where ) and magnetic plasma frequency (where 0) are given by equations (1-9) and (1-10) respectively [18].
(1-9)
(1-10)
At resonance effects of the capacitive due the gap between the rings and the inherent inductive of the structure cancel out, thus eff has a resonant form as shown in Figure (1-5). The effective permeability is negative only over a certain frequency band between the resonance and magnetic plasma frequencies (see the shaded region in Figure (1-5)) [7],[18].
Figure 1-5 Effective Permeability vs. Frequency Plot [18] There are other structures used for realization of SNG materials such as complementary split ring resonator (CSRR), omega strucutres and Swiss roll structures. [18]
1.3.2.3 Double Negative Material (DNG) Realization
A great deal of research has been conducted for DNG realization in the last years and different DNG structure has been developed. DNG realization can be divided into three methodologies [19], resonant periodic metallic structures, periodic structure of series capacitors (C) and shunt inductors (L) loaded transmission lines, and dielectric photonic crystals (PhCs) structures. In the following section we restrict the discussion about the DNG materials realized using the first two approaches and their applications for microwave circuitries. Chapter 2 gives discussions about DNG materials realized using PhCs. The main key for realization of the first DNG structure in the microwave regime was the realization of SNG materials. By combining ENG structure (TW) and MNG structure (SSR ) Smith et al reported realization of one dimensional DNG material in 2000 [20]. In 2001 an extension of this structure to two dimensions was introduced and predicted to exhibit a negative index in two dimensions by Shelby et al [21]. Later Smith, Schultz and Shelby have experimentally proved 2- dimensional DNG realization [22]. In order to fabricate a double negative material with a negative refractive index the metallic wire strips and split-ring resonators are juxtaposed in a lattice structure such that both of these components are excited strongly, and affect the material parameters. Figure1-6 (a) shows a 1-D medium unit cell of a composite double negative medium (DNG) with both types of inclusions [7]. The SRRs are arranged so that the H field is
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parallel to their axis, while the wire strips are arranged so that the E field passes along their axis [7].
(a)
(b)
Figure 1-6 DNG medium unit cells (a) 1-D DNG Medium Unit Cell [11] (b) 3-D Unit Cell for Isotropic DNG medium [11] The 1-D unit cell of Figure 1-6 (a) builds-up an anisotropic 1-D DNG medium. However, to build an isotropic DNG medium a 3-D unit cell such as in Figure 1-6 (b) is needed.
Furthermore, another DNG material postulated by Eleftheriades et al. [23], and later by Caloz and Itoh [24]. This type of DNG is based on the transmission line theory. A periodic structure of series capacitors (C) and shunt inductors (L) has been used to model a left handed transmission line (LF-TL). A typical RH transmission line is consisted of a series inductor and shunt capacitor. However, Figure 1-7 shows a LH transmission line model with a reversed configuration shunt inductor and serial capacitor [18],[25]. For a lossless pure LH transmission line (see Figure 1-7) phase and group velocities can be
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obtained using propagation constant (k) and angular frequency () as follows[26]: The complex propagation constant and propagation constant k for pure lossless TL -as in Figure 1-7- are:
= j k = =
So phase velocity is
= <0
(1-11)
(1-12)
vp =
While group velocity is
=-
(1-13)
vg =
(1-14)
Equations (1-13) and (1-14) show that phase and group velocities in left handed transmission line are anti-parallel. The phase velocity vp (direction of phase propagation) is negative, whereas, the group velocity vg (direction of power flow or Poynting vector) is positive. This ensures the left handedness of such transmission line [26].
L=L. z C= C .z
z Figure1-7 Transmission Line Model:
0 Homogeneous LH TL [26].
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1.3.3 LHMs Applications

Although the physical realization of LHMs is traced to the beginning of the 2000s, their use has speared out to many scientific and technical fields in a short time. Realization of LHMs has enabled scientists to achieve unforeseen applications. For instance, in microwave circuitry and transmission line technology LHMs applications and implementations would include: phase compensators and sub-wavelength resonators, guided wave applications, filtering, electrically small antennas, perfect lens or superlens, and beam shaping. In the following section LHMs applications are discussed specifically for field focusing using metallic DNG lenses, and improvement of antennas performance [7], [13], [18], [25]-[27].
1.3.3.1 DNG Flat Lens (Metallic)

Among several applications of the LHMs are lenses with flat surfaces as considered by Pendry [13]. Unlike conventional lenses with curved surfaces, a flat slab of DNG material can be used as a lens to focus electromagnetic waves [28]. Different experiments have been developed to focus electromagnetic waves in the microwave range using flat lenses by several research groups such as in [29]-[30]. Most of the used configurations to build a flat lens are either periodically L-C left handed transmission line, or thin wire and SSR. However, Sanada, Caloz and Itoh have argued that the L-C left handed transmission line structure has some advantages over the thin wire and SSR configuration. Left handed structures based on transmission lines have wider bandwidth
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and lower loss [31]. Figure 1-8 (a) shows a 2-D unit cell (mushrooms structure) of a composite right-left handed (CRLH) transmission line. While Figure 1-8 (b) shows a negative refractive index (NIR) flat lens for field focusing. The lens is realized using a 5 by 21 mushrooms structure placed between a parallel plates waveguide (PPW) [31].
(a)
(b) Figure 1-8 Flat Lens Structure: (a) CRLH-TL Unit Cell Configuration (Mushroom Structure) [31]. (b) 2-D CRLH Structure Formed by Periodic Repetition of the Unit Cell [31].
Recently, flat lenses applications expanded further than focusing propagation waves, to include amplifying evanescent waves, overcoming diffraction limit due to subwavelength resolution. In addition, there is ongoing research about using flat lens for target detection and imaging [32].
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1.3.3.2 Microstrip Patch antennas and DNG

Different novel techniques have been developed dealing with the enhancement of patch antennas performance. For instance, the first widely implemented solution for gain enhancement is the use of an array of several antennas. Nevertheless, this method has two particular disadvantages concerning the feeding of the different antennas and also the coupling between each element of the array [33]. One of the recent solutions for patch antennas performance enhancement is based on the use of a (ENG) or (DNG) in the near environment of the antennas. With the use of a DNG slab above a patch antenna, as a superstrate the gain and directivity of the antenna are improved as well as overcoming problems encountered using an array of several antennas [33]. However, to the best of our knowledge, all proposed DNG superstrates in the literature are metallic structures, such as Split Ring Resonator (SRR) and Thin Wire (TW) combination [34]-[35], as in Figure 1-9 and Figure 1-10. Even recent work is still based on metallic structure for fabricating DNG materials as in [36]-[37]. These types of DNG superstrates need good arrangement to maintain the unit cell boundaries and lattice periodicity. In addition, the situation becomes harder when building structures of three dimensions. Furthermore, another disadvantage of these metallic structures is their tendency to become a high loss medium at high frequencies. However, dielectric DNG superstrates will overcome some of these limitations easily.
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Patch
DNG Superstrate
Figure 1-9 SRR and TW DNG Superstrate Integrated with Patch Antenna [34]
DNG Superstrate
Diploe Antenna
Figure 1-10 SRR and CLS Superstrate Integrated with Diploe Antenna [35]
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In addition, integrating antennas with LHMs as a substrate can improve the radiation efficiency. Using a LHM in its stop-band as substrate prevents the radiation into the substrate and hence suppresses the back lobe. Moreover, if an antenna is placed over a left-handed substrate the losses due to propagation of surface waves could be avoided [35]. Another advantage of using a DNG material in the substrate is phase compensation. Enghata has shown that a pair of DPS and DNG slabs could be used to build small resonators [38]. Since this hybrid structure supports forward and backward waves, the phase shift due to propagation in the DPS slab could be compensated by the DNG slab [39]. A potential implementing of this phase compensation is antenna miniaturization and bandwidth enhancement [39]. For instance, comprising a DNG material structure in a hosting substrate or on the ground plane has been used to miniaturize patch antennas as in [6], [39]. Furthermore, Figure 1-11 shows implementation of substrate DNG material for patch miniaturization [39].
Figure 1-11 Illustration of a Geometric Configuration of a Patch antenna Loaded by DPSDNG Substrate [39]
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1.4 Major Contribution of Present Work
The present work addresses gain enhancement of rectangular microstrip patch antennas using double negative materials (DNG) as a superstrate above the antenna to focus the radiated field. The DNG superstrate used in the present work is a high dielectric slab with a triangular lattice of air holes developed in [40]. The following summarizes the main contributions of this work.
1. A comprehensive study of the DNG structure has been done to demonstrate its properties as a flat lens and has been compared to a similar slab without holes. Using a point source, the electric field strength and phase distribution in transmission and incident planes for each case has been determined with EM Photonics and plotted. For the DNG structure it is seen that an image is formed in the transmission plane proving that it is a flat lens, whereas no image is formed for the slab without holes. Further a phase reversal in the transmission plane is noted for the DNG lens showing that it is indeed behaves like a material with a negative permittivity. For these reasons, in the present work, the DNG slab with the triangular lattice of air holes is implemented as a superstrate for a patch antenna to focus the radiated field and therefore enhance the gain. Furthermore, it is important to note that non metallic DNG materials are desirable since they have low losses even at high frequencies.
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2. Integration of the DNG superstrate and microstrip patch antenna resonating at 31.5 GHz has been analyzed through simulation using Ansofts HFSS. The integration requires the optimization of two parameters. First are the DNG edges, which need to be scalloped in order to achieve good electric field focusing. Additionally, the height which separates the DNG superstrate from the patch antenna has be optimized to maximize the antenna gain enhancement. Results of the final optimized configuration show a gain enhancement of 3 dB to 4 dB for a single element. This could lead to several dB gain enhancement for arrays.
3. In addition, to prove the left handed behavior of the slab with air holes, the aperture field distributions for the optimized configuration have been compared with the aperture field distributions for the patch antenna without a DNG superstrate configuration and another configuration of the antenna and a superstrate of high dielectric slab without holes. This comparison has been performed at selected heights and results reveal that the field strength above the DNG superstrate is the highest compared to its counterparts.
4. The structure has been successfully scaled to a lower frequency (10GHZ). By applying the same characterization criteria used for the original design, results indicate a gain enhancement of 3 dB to 4 dB.
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1.5 Thesis Organization
This work is divided into 4 chapters. The first chapter is an introduction and gives the motivation behind this work. A review about LHM materials and a summary of previous techniques used to enhance the gain of patch antennas is presented, specifically the work that has been done using DNG superstrates to enhance the gain of patch antennas.
Chapter 2 gives an overview about dielectric DNG materials, along with detailed characterization of the structure as a DNG lens. Chapter 3 is a detailed implementation of the proposed DNG superstrate for patch antennas. The DNG superstrate shape and its height above the patch optimizations are addressed in chapter 3. Finally; chapter 4 gives a conclusion of the work and a list of future work and considerations.
20
Chapter 2 Double Negative Material (DNG) as a Flat Lens

2.1 Photonic Crystals A background
Photonic Crystals (PhCs) history can be dated back to Lord Rayleighs invention of gratings in 1887 [40]. Nevertheless, one century later Eli Yablonovitch and Sajeev John postulated that a periodic dielectric structure can have the property of photonic bandgap (PBG) for certain regions in the electromagnetic spectrum [40]-[42]. The photonic crystal is a periodic dielectric structure that can exhibit a forbidden band of frequencies
(bandgap) in its electromagnetic dispersion relation, in a way similar to electronic bandgaps in semiconductors [40], [43]. In addition, PhCs affect the propagation of electromagnetic waves in the same way as the electrons are controlled by the crystals [19]. Realization of the first band gap in a three-dimensional photonic crystal was achieved by Yablonovitch and Gmitter in 1989 [43]. This work inspired many research groups. Since then, PhCs have made remarkable contributions and applications in many fields. PhCs can be used for light emission efficiency enhancement, microwave antennas, building of compact optical switches, and micrometer-sized lasers. Additionally, PhCs enabled realization of unforeseen phenomena, such as negative refraction, superprism, self-collimation, and slowing light. Furthermore, by introducing appropriate defects in their structure photonic crystals can be utilized for high-Q cavities or light confinement along specific paths [40].
21
The propagation of electromagnetic waves in a PhC obeys Maxwells equations with the periodic boundary condition defined by the PhC structure. When a suitable structure is designed, photonic bandgaps will appear between two neighboring bands. regions in Figure 2-1 Shaded
show there is no propagation for frequencies falling within
bandgaps. Thus PhCs are considered insulators at bandgaps [44]-[45].
Figure 2-1 Photonic Band Structures Illustrating Bandgaps [40].
2.2 DNG Material Realization Using Photonic Crystals
Notomi, in 2000, theoretically proposed that negative refraction is achievable in some dielectric PhCs with unusual dispersion properties [46]. For a regular material the dispersion relationship can be expressed as [40]:
22
k = n / c
Where k = wave vector n = refractive index of the material = frequency c= speed of light in vacuum
(2-1)
The dispersion relationship of a regular material appears as an upward cone in k-space for 2-dimensional propagation as shown in Figure 2-2(a). Meanwhile, this cone can be projected into a series of outward-growing equi-frequency dispersion contours (EFDCs) with the increase of k value [9], [40]. Group velocity (v g ) in k-space in its general form can be equated as
v g = k (k)
same direction as phase velocity [9], [40].
(2-2)
Thus points from lower frequency to higher frequency, resulting in group velocity in the
Figure 2-2 Dispersion Surface [40]: (a) Normal/Positive Dispersion, (b) Negative Dispersion with Negative Effective Index
23
However, due to a complicated collective effect, the dispersion surface of a PhC may become a downward cone, which can be projected to a series of inward-growing EFDCs, as indicated in Figure 2-2(b). If we consider the dispersion in a regular material is positive, then the dispersion should be negative for a PhC having a dispersion surface with a downward cone shape [40]. At early stages of PhCs research some research groups reported negative index based on obtaining negative refraction. However, later more research showed this was not the case [9], [40]. Thus negative refraction does not ensure negative index realization or (DNG) material fabrication; although a negative refraction has been achieved. In the meantime, negative dispersion is classified into two categories. The first category is a negative dispersion with negative effective-indices. The second category is a negative dispersion with negative curvature dispersion [40]. In the first category the EFDCs are inward-growing and centered at the origin. So, group velocity is opposite to phase velocity, and a negative refractive index can be defined (see Figure 2-3 (b)). While for the second category the EFDCs are not centered at the origin, hence group velocity is not opposite to phase velocity as in Figure 2-3 (c). PhCs of this type have an angle- dependent refractive index [19], [40]. More details are available in [40]. Figure 2-3 gives a comparison between the normal refraction and both types of negative refraction [40].
24
Figure 2-3 Normal Refraction and Negative Refraction: (a) Normal Refraction [40]; (b) Negative Refraction by Negative Effective Index [40]; (c) Negative Refraction by Negative Curvature Dispersion [40]. The phase expression for outgoing wave function is is in a DPS medium, however it
in a DNG medium, where k is the propagation constant (k = n / c). The negative
refractive index of double negative materials effects phase velocity in a DNG medium as follows[26],[40]: Phase velocity in a DPS medium is
vp =
(2-3)
However it becomes negative (backward propagation) in a DNG medium
vp=
=-
(2-4)
25
2.3 Imaging using PhCs
Experimental demonstration of negative refraction and imaging using 2D PhCs has been reported at some microwave frequencies by Cubukcu, et.al, and Parimi, et.al, in 2003 and 2004 respectively [47]-[48] . In their configurations, 2D photonic crystals with square lattice ,see Figure 2-4 (a), have been formed by assembling short dielectric rods between two metal plates [9],[40]. However, the demonstrated negative refraction was not based on negative index, in fact it was based on negative curvature dispersion. Later the same configuration is reused but the dielectric rods are rearranged in a triangular lattice [49] as in Figure 2-4 (b), The resultant shape of the EFDCs for this photonic crystal is a rounded hexagon (not a perfect circle) [19].
Figure 2-4 Dielectric Rods in Air (a) Square Lattice, (b) Triangular Lattice
This led to an anisotropic refractive index and magnitude of the effective refractive index is angle dependent [19]. Meanwhile, the structure did demonstrate negative refraction index for some frequencies, but the refraction index magnitude is always smaller than one
26
[19]. Needless to mention, the interesting property of negative index materials to focus electromagnetic wave and light occurs for a refractive index of (-1) [19]. Another fabricating method by drilling air holes in a thin dielectric slab has been used [50]-[51]. In order to allow only a single mode in the vertical direction, the thickness of the slab has to be very small [9], [40]. By reducing the thickness the structure can be treated as a planer structure or as a 2- dimensional device with a small propagation constant, and the effective index method can be used for the structure numerical study [40]. However, Lu et.al, took the other direction by using a large vertical dimension till the vertical reflection can be ignored [9],[40]. Thus the flat slab (lens) behaves like a cylindrical lens [40]. In addition, a higher index contract is achievable since the bulk refractive index can be used instead of effective refractive index [9]. The triangular lattice has been chosen because its EFDCs are inward-going circular shapes, which can be used to obtain an isotropic negative refractive index [40]. In a personal interview with Zhaolin Lu, he explained some of the design process; the dielectric constant (r) of the slab needed to be in the range of (16) or higher so the first and second bands of the dispersion surfaces will not overlap. However, only fabric-able material with high dielectric can be chosen. This being the case, choosing appropriate material and lattice geometry is the first step of the design procedure. The ratio of the hole diameter (2r) to the lattice unit (a) is another design parameter that needs to be considered. Experimentally, it has been shown that 2r/a =0.7 gives good results and robust structure. Although higher ratio of hole diameter to lattice unit still can give good results, the resultant structure tends to be fragile. Furthermore, the circular holes are easier to fabricate than other shapes. To take the
27
advantage of PhC scalability, once a structure has been designed for a certain frequency there is no need to repeat the design procedure for another frequency. We need only to scale the structure by the ratio of the new frequency to the preliminary design frequency.
The rest of this work lies in the PhC design by Lu et.al, [9 ],[40], to achieve all-angle negative refraction with neff = -1. In the following sections a thorough study and
characterization of the structure has been developed. We simulated the flat lens imaging setup using the 2-D version of EMPhotonics- Finite Time Deference Mode (FTDM) tool. Then the magnitude and phase of the field in source and image planes are probed by processing EMphotonics results using Matlab. Furthermore, a scaled configuration to Xband range also have been tried and simulated.
The photonic crystal realized using a high dielectric slab with a triangular air lattice of holes and designed to operate with Transverse- magnetic (TM) mode. The slab material is a lossless material with dielectric constant (r) of 20, the diameter of the air holes is 2r
= 1.6mm, and the lattice constant is a = 2.3mm. The thickness of the lens is 11.9mm [9], [40]. The photonic crystal geometry is shown in Figure 2-5.
28
W= 110mm
a =2.3 mm
D=1.6mm
L= 11.9mm
a a
Figure 2-5 DNG Structure Geometry
Furthermore, the dispersion surfaces are calculated using the plane-wave expansion method for transverse-magnetic (TM) modes [40]. The resultant surfaces are plotted in Figure 2-6(a), note that the wave-vector is normalized to kn = ka/2, and the frequency to n = a/2c (c is the speed of light in vacuum). As indicated in Figure. 2-6 (a), the second band is curved downward. As a result the group velocity is opposite to the phase velocity and negative refraction is obtained [40].
Figure 2-6 (a) Photonic Band Structure of the PhC for TM modes [40]. (b) EFDCs close to the Intersection between the Second Band and the Light Cone. Red Circles are EFDCs and Green is the Llight Cone for n=0.236 [40].
29
In addition, the second band is projected into series of EFDCs in the neighborhood of the intersection between the second band and the light cone, see Figure 2-6 (b), these contours are inward-growing and centered at the origin. EFDCs projection shows that the intersection between the second band and the light cone takes place at n = 0.236. Since the shape of the contour at n=0.236 is approximately circular, one can consider the PhCs as isotropic medium with neff = -1. The - sign is traced to the opposite directions of the group velocity and the phase velocity [40], while the magnitude of neff comes from the EFDC radius ratio to that of the light cone. The demoralized frequency for the structure is 31GHz, and can be calculated [9],[40] as:
f = nc/a Where n = 0.236 a=2.3mm c= speed of light in free space
(2-5)
2.4 DNG Lens Simulation and Characterization
The PhC structure is simulated using EM Photonics for the sake of structure study and characterization as a DNG lens. Field amplitude and phase in source and image planes are probed at different positions and directions to analyze the structure behavior as a DNG lens and to locate the image position. Another simulation configuration (section 2.5) based on using the same high dielectric but without air holes is also studied and
30
analyzed to compare its behavior with the DNG structure and to show that a flat DPS material slab cannot work as a flat lens. Figure 2-7 shows a simulated 2-D model which rial 2 excited using a TM operating mode point source at 30.7 GHz. The point source is located at D/2 from the structure, where 2D is the slab (lens) thickness A large computation thickness. arge region is used (10o by 14 o) with perfect matched boundary conditions to eliminate any 14 reflections.
Y
70mm
Air region Incident plane Point Source at D/2
(0, 0)
-45mm
D= 11.9mm
45mm
Transmission plane
High Dielectric with air holes (Lens) Air region
-70 mm Figure 2-7 2-D Simulation Setup of the DNG Lens Surrounded by Air D
31
2.4.1 Image Forming and Field Probing Analysis
Magnitude and phase of the electric field in Z direction ( EZ ) is probed at the center line along the longitudinal direction , and along the transverse direction at different positions in both planes to obtain quantitative measurements of field magnitude and phase. These measurements give a good comparison between the field magnitude and phase in the incident plane and their counterpart in the transmission plane. Positions and directions of the first three transverse probing lines and the longitudinal probing line are shown in Figure 2-8 below. The transverse probing is continued with an increment of 5.95mm for the entire region.
Figure 2-8 Field Probing Lines for the DNG Structure Characterization
32
Magnitude and phase plots of (Ez) at center of the structure along the longitudinal direction are shown below in Figure 2-9. The probing line passes through the source as well as an expected image in order to compare their levels. The high peak in Figure 2-9 (a) indicates the source field magnitude at -5.95mm from lens edge (at -11.9mm from origin). The black rectangular area in the same Figure shows the lens region followed by a decline in the field amplitude then an increase in the field level to reach its maximum in transmission plane (one tenth of source level at 5.95mm from lens edge), after this region the field magnitude starts to decrease again. In addition, Figure 2-9 (b) shows the phase plot along the longitudinal direction at the center of the structure.
Ez (Mag) along "Y" DIRECTION (AT CEN TER )

1
Lens region
Mag
0.5
(a)
0 -80
-60
-40
-20
20
40
60
80
Y direction (mm ) PH ASE ALON "Y" DIRECTION (AT CEN G TER ) Phase (deg)
200 100 0 -100 -200 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
(b)
Y direction (mm )
Figure 2-9 Magnitude and Phase of Ez at Center along the Longitudinal Direction
33
The raise in the field amplitude around 11.9 mm from origin in the transmission plane gives an indication about image forming at this position. To analyze the situation thoroughly the field amplitude and phase is probed along the transverse direction in both planes to obtain field strength and phase progression. Figure 2-10 shows the magnitude and phase of Ez field at the edges of the lens. Magnitudes in both planes have fluctuations due to the scalloped adages of the lens. Note that the transmitted field phase (solid line) and the incident field (dashed line) are out of phase as in Figure 2-10 (b). This negative phase of the transmitted field indicate that the field is being focused.
Ez (Mag) at Lens edges

0.12 0.1 T ANSMIT ED R T IN ID C ENT
Mg a.
0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
(a)
50
x direction (m ) m Ez (phase) at Lens edges

1000
p a e (d g hs e)
500
T ANSMIT ED R T IN ID C ENT
0 -500
(b)
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
-1000 -50
x direction (m ) m
Figure 2-10 Ez Magnitude and Phase at Lens Edges
34
Figure 2-11 shows the magnitude and phase of Ez at source in incident plane and at 5.95 mm from lens edge (11.9 mm from origin) in the transmission plane. Magnitudes in both planes are their maximum at x= 0 mm. A close look at Figure 2-11 (a) and 2-9 (a) reveals that the maximum amplitude of Ez in the transmission plane is at 5.95mm from the lens edge. Phase plot in Figure 2-11 (b) shows that the field at this probing line is negative and completely out of phase with the incident field.
Ez (Mag) at 5.95 m away from Lens m

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -50 T RANSMITT ED INCIDENT
Mag.
(a)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (m ) m Ez (phase) at 5.95 m away from Lens m

1500 1000 T RANSMITT ED INCIDENT
phase (deg)
500 0 -500 -1000 -1500 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
(b)
x direction (m ) m
Figure 2-11 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 5.95mm away from Lens
35
Figure 2-12 shows the magnitude and phase of Ez at approximately one wavelength (o) from the lens edges. Magnitudes in both planes have declined below (0 .2) V/m. the amplitude of the field in the image plane now is almost one half of the field amplitude in the source plane. Phase probing in Figure 2-12 (b) indicates that phase progression is changing towards the positive direction. Note the direction of the phase over the range of X between 10mm. This means that the field starts to diverge after experiences a focusing process.

0.2 T RANSMITT ED INCIDENT
0.15
Mag
0.1
(a)
0.05
0 -50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50

1500 1000 T RANSMITT ED INCIDENT
phase (deg)
500 0 -500 -1000 -50
(b)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (m ) m
36
As one can expect, when probing distance exceeds the image region, the field amplitude starts to decrease as shown in Figures 2-12 to 2-18 part (a). In terms of phase, both planes start to have same phase advance direction after the image region as in Figure 2-12, until they become identical when the probing distance from lens equals to 2o and larger as indicated in Figures 2-13 through 2-18 part (b). This shows that there is no longer any field focusing.

0.2 0.15 TRANSMITTED INCIDENT
Mag
0.1 0.05 0 -50
(a)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50

1500 1000 500 0 TRANSMITTED INCIDENT
phase (deg)
(b)
-500 -50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (m ) m
37

0.2 0.15 T AN R SMIT ED T INC EN ID T
Mg a
0.1 0.05 0 -50
(a)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50

1500 T AN R SMIT ED T INC EN ID T 1000
p a e (d g hs e)
(b)
500
0 -50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (m ) m
Figure 2-14 Ez magnitude and phase at 20.95mm away from lens

Ez (M ag) at 30.95 m away from Lens m
0.1 0.08 T AN R SMIT ED T IN ID T C EN
Mg a
0.06 0.04 0.02 0 -50
(a)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50

1000 800 600 400 200 0 -200 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 T AN R SMIT ED T IN ID T C EN
p a e (d g hs e)
(b)
x direction (m ) m
38

0.08 0.06 T AN R SMIT ED T IN ID T C EN
Mg a
0.04 0.02 0 -50
(a)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50

1000 800 600 400 200 0 -50 T AN R SMIT ED T IN ID T C EN
p a e (d g hs e)
(b)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (m ) m
Figure 2-16 Ez magnitude and phase at 40.95mm away from lens

0.07 0.06 0.05 T AN R SMIT ED T IN ID T C EN
Mg a
0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
(a)

600 T AN R SMIT ED T IN ID T C EN
p a e (d g hs e)
400 200 0
(b)
-200 -50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (m ) m
39

0.06 0.05 TRANSMIT TED INCIDENT
Mag
0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 -50
(a)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50

600 400 200 TRANSMIT TED INCIDENT
phase (deg)
(b)
0 -200 -50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (m ) m
Field distribution in Figure 2-19 shows that an image of the source has been formed in the transmission plane. The field distribution in the incident plane is the upper part of Figure 2-19 and the field distribution in the transmission plane is lower part of same figure. Focusing the incident field and forming an image of the source using this flat structure reveals that the structure has a negative refractive index. The phase distribution in Figure 2-20 shows a closed circle in the transmission plane which demonstrates that the wave converges to form an image and then diverges into far fields [9].
40
Ez Magnitude
Figure 2-19 Ez Magnitude Distribution for DNG Lens Configuration Illustrates Image Forming
Ez
Phase
Figure 2-20 Phase Distribution for DNG Lens Configuration Illustrates Field Converging
Converged Field Converged Field

41
As shown previously using field probing analysis and from the amplitude and phase distributions, an image is located at D/2 (5.95 mm) away from lens edge. The position of an image formed using a flat lens surrounded by air, as in the current case, can be used to find the refractive index of the structure by reversing Veselagos notation about flat lens. Veselago postulated that a flat slab of thickness (D) made of negative index material with n = 1 and surrounded by vacuum can focus radiation from a point source (P) placed at a distance (L < D) from one side of the lens to a point (P) located at a distance (DL) from the other side of the slab (see Figure. 2-21) [19].
DNG
Figure 2-21 Imaging by a Flat Slab of Thickness D of Negative Index Material with n = 1 and Surrounded by Vacuum [19].
42
The Figure below (2-22) shows the position of the point source and its second image in the transmission plane as function of the flat DNG structure thickness (D). Since the lens is surrounded by air (n=1) and the image is formed at D/2 for a source located at D/2, so the effective index of the lens which keeps all these results hold is -1 according to Veselago. Due to the DNG structure shape and geometry it is hard to localize the first. As shown field distribution plot (see Figure 2-19).
Figure 2-22 Obtaining Refractive Index from Image Position and Structure Thickness (D)
43
2.5 Study of the Structure without Holes

The same structure of the DNG lens is simulated again but without air holes this time, to compare the field and phase distributions and plots of this structure with their counterparts of the structure with holes. Figure 2-23 shows the EM Photonics 2-D 2 simulation setup of the high d dielectric slab without holes.
Y
70mm Air region Incident plane Point source at D/2
(0, 0)
- 45mm
D= 11.9mm
X
45mm
Transmission plane
High dielectric slab without air holes Air region
-70 mm Figure 2-23 2-D Simulation Setup of the High Dielectric Slab without Air Holes D A
44
2.5.1 Field Probing
The same electric field (EZ) amplitude and phase probing procedure used for the DNG structure is repeated for the high dielectric slab without the air holes configuration. The reason behind repeating the same probing criteria is to compare the field amplitude and phase plots for the DNG lens structure with the field amplitude and phase plots of high dielectric structure. Positions and directions of the longitudinal probing line and the first three transverse probing lines are shown in Figure 2-24 below. The transverse probing is he continued with an increment of 5.95mm for the entire plane.
60.95mm
Longitudinal Probing line Y Probing lines in Incident plane
50.95mm 40.95mm 30.95mm 20.95mm 15.95mm 10.95mm 5.95mm 0.1mm
0.1mm
5.95mm
Probing lines in
10.95mm
Transmission plane
15.95mm 20.95mm 30.95mm 40.95mm 50.95mm 60.95mm
Figure 2-24 Field Probing Lines for the High Dielectric Structure Characterization
45
Magnitude and phase of (Ez) at the center of the structure along the longitudinal direction is shown below in Figure 2-25. The high peak in the right side of Figure 2-25 (a) indicates the source field magnitude (at 5.95mm from slab edge). The black rectangular area in Figure 2-25 (a) shows the high dielectric slab region. Note that the field amplitude in the transmission plane is at its peak at slab edge and it declines continuously as distance from slab increases. This is unlike the DNG lens structure case where the field magnitude reaches its maximum value at D/2 from lens edge (see Figure 2-9 (a)). In addition, Figure 2-25 (b) shows the phase plot along the longitudinal direction at the center of the structure.
Ez (Mag) along "Y" DIRECTION (AT CENTER )

1
HD Slab region
Mag
0.5
(a)
0 -80
-60
-40
-20
20
40
60
80
Y direction (m ) m PHASE ALONG "Y" DIRECTION (AT CENTER )

200
PHASE (deg)
100
(b)
0 -100 -200 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
Y direction (m ) m
Figure 2-25 Magnitude and Phase of (Ez) at Center along the Longitudinal Direction
46
Field amplitude and phase probing along the transverse direction in both planes has been performed to examine the field strength and phase progression. Figure 2-26(a) plots the magnitude and phase of the electric field (Ez) at edges of the slab. Note that the transmitted field phase (solid line) and incident field phase (dashed line) are in phase for this structure- see Figure 2-26 (b).
Ez (Mag) at slab edges

0.1 0.08 TRANSMIT TED INCIDENT
Mag
0.06 0.04 0.02 0 -50
(a)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (m ) m Ez (phase) at slab edges

1500
phase (deg)
TRANSMIT TED INCIDENT 1000
(b)
500
0 -50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (m ) m
Figure 2-26 Ez Magnitude and Phase at HD Slab Edges
47
Figure 2-27 shows the magnitude and phase of Ez at source in the incident plane and at 5.95mm away from slab edge (11.9mm from origin) in the transmission plane. Considering Figure 2-25 (a) and 2-27 (a) together, reveals that the maximum amplitude of Ez in the transmission plane is not at 5.95mm from slab edge. Field in the
transmission plane is at maximum is right at slab edge. The phase plot in Figure 2-27 (b) shows that the field at this probing line has a positive phase and it is in phase with the incident field. Thus no phase reversal has been realized.
Ez (Mag) at 5.95 m away from slab m

1 0.8 TRANSMITTED INCIDENT
Mag.
0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -50
(a)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (m ) m Ez (phase) at 5.95 m away from slab m

1500 TRANSMITTED INCIDENT
phase (deg)
1000 500 0 -500 -50
(b)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (m ) m
Figure 2-27 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 5.95mm away from HD Slab
48
Furthermore, Figure 2-28 shows the magnitude and phase of Ez at approximately one wavelength from HD slab edges. Magnitudes in both planes have declined less than 0.2 (v/m). While, the phase plots as in Figure 2-28 (b) indicates that phase progression in both planes is still in the same direction.
Ez (Mag) at 10.95 mm away from slab

Mag.
0.1 0.05 0 -50
(a)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (mm) Ez (phase) at 10.95 mm away from slab

1500
phase (deg)
1000 500 0 -500 -50
TRANSMITTED INCIDENT
(b)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (mm)
Figure 2-28 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 10.95mm Away from HD Slab
The field amplitude continue to decrease as probing distance increases as shown in Figures 2-29 (a) to 2-33 part (a). In terms of the phase, both planes have the same phase progression direction as indicated in Figures 2-29 (b) through 2-33 part (b).
49

0.2 0.15 T RANSMIT TED INCIDENT
Mag.
(a)
0.1 0.05 0 -50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50

1500
phase (deg)
1000 500 0 -500 -50
T RANSMIT TED INCIDENT
(b)
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
x direction (m ) m

Mag.
0.1 0.05 0 -50
(a)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50

1500
phase (deg)
T RANSMIT TED INCIDENT 1000
500
(b)
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
0 -50
x direction (m ) m
50

Mag.
0.06 0.04 0.02 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
(a)

1000
phase (deg)
500
(b)
0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
x direction (m ) m

(a)
Mag.
0.04 0.02 0 -50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50

1000
phase (deg)
800 600 400 200 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
(b)
40
50
x direction (m ) m
51
Ez (Mag) at 50.95 mm away from slab

Mag.
0.04 0.02 0 -50
(a)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (mm) Ez (phase) at 50.95 mm away from slab

800
phase (deg)
600 400 200 0 -200 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
TRANSMITTED INCIDENT
(b)
40
50
x direction (mm)
Based on the field and phase probing analysis of HD slab structure, one can conclude that the radiated field from the point source did not converge in the transmission plane as in the DNG lens configuration. Thus there is no image for the source has been formed in, see Figure 2-34. The simulated result agrees with the theoretical analysis of Snells low for DPS materials. Where, a flat DPS slab cannot work as lens and focus incident beams. Phase distribution, Figure 2-35, shows that the there is no phase reversal has been obtained.
52
Ez Magnitude
Point source
HD Slab
No Image
Figure 2-34 Ez Magnitude Distribution in Incident and Transmission Planes for HD Slab Configuration
Ez Phase
Figure 2-35 Phase Distribution (in radians) for HD Slab Configuration
53
2.6 Analysis of Refractive Index Extraction

One method that can be used to extract the refractive index (n) of the DNG lens structure is the phase distribution. By refereeing the phase in a medium with unknown refractive index (n) to the phase of another medium with known refractive index (n), we could extract the unknown refractive index. The relationship between the phase of a wave propagating equation (2-6). (2-6) Where: = phase n = the refractive index k = wave vector or the propagation constant d = distance (slab thickness). In the absence of the DNG lens (air only medium) the phase distribution at distance (d) is given by equation (2-7). in a medium and the refractive index of that medium is indicated in
o= nair kod = kod

Where: nair = 1 , ko = wave vector in free space In addition, the phase distribution in the DNG lens can be equated as (2-8).
(2-7)
lens= nlens kod
(2-8)
By placing a point source at the edge of the DNG lens in the incident plane and probing the phase at the edge of the lens in the transmission plane, we can get the phase distribution at distance (d) as in equation (2-8), where (d) is the lens thickness.
54
Moreover, by repeating the same setup but with the absence of the DNG lens we obtain the phase at distance (d) as in equation (2-7). Figure 2-36 shows the phase distribution for with and without the lens structures. In addition Figure 2-37 shows the phase probing plot at distance (d) from the source for both configurations
Phase(Ez )
3
Phase(Ez )
3
100 2 200
2
300
400 0 500
0
600
-1
-1
700 -2
-2
800 -3
-3
Figure 2-36 :
Left
Phase Distribution without DNG Lens Structure
Right Phase Distribution with DNG Lens Structure

Phase at DNG lens edge vs. phase in free space
1500 AIR DNG LENS 1000
500 p a e e .) h s (d g
-500
-1000
-1500 -50
-40
-30
-20
-10 0 10 x direction (mm)
20
30
40
50
Figure 2-37 Phase Plots at Distance (d)
:(
) air, (
) DNG Lens Structure
55
The refractive index of DNG structure can be extracted by referencing the phase at the edge of the DNG lens in the transmission plane to the phase at the same position when the medium is air only. In mathematical terms, by dividing equation 2-8 by equation 2-7, one can extract the refractive index.
lens / o = (nlens kod) / ( kod )

So the extracted refractive index is:
(2-9 )
nlens = lens / o
(2-10)
The extracted refractive index of the DNG structure using phase distribution is plotted in Figure 2-38. As shown in the figure the refractive index value is - 0.82 at center and it is slightly higher off center of the lens.
Refractive index at 30.7GHz

5 "n" Extracted from phase 4 3 2
Refractive Index
1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 x direction (mm) 20 30 40 50
Figure 2-38 Extracted Refractive Index for DNG Structure Using Phase Distribution
56
2.7 Field Strength Probing
In order to study the field focusing and strength of the DNG lens structure in the transmission plane. The field has been probed in the transmission plane and compared with two more configurations (HD without holes, and air only medium). Figure 2-39
shows the Ez amplitude at the slab edge. The only field distribution that combines the highest amplitude and most focused is the field distribution of the DNG structure (green line).
Ez (Mag) at Slab edges

0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 WITHOUT HOLES WITH HOLES AIR
Ez M ag
0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 -50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (mm)
Figure 2-39 Field Strength at Slab Edge (Transmission Plane)
57
Figure 2-40 plots the amplitudes of Ez at 5.95mm from slab edge in transmission plane. As shown in the plot the field transmitted through the DNG lens structure has increased to reach its maximum value, while amplitudes of Ez of the other two structures have decreased, compared to their value in the previous plot (Figure 2-39).
Ez (Mag) at 5.95 mm away from Slab

Ez M ag
0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
x direction (mm)
Figure 2-40 Field Strength at 5.95mm from Slab Edge (Transmission Plane)
Moreover, Figure 2-41 shows the amplitudes of Ez at 10.95mm from slab edge in the transmission plane. The field transmitted through the DNG structure starts to decrease. In addition, amplitudes of Ez of the other two structures continue to decrease.
58

Ez M ag
0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 -50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (mm)
Figure 2-41 Field Strength at 10.95mm from Slab Edge (transmission plane) Furthermore, amplitude probing at 15.95mm from slab edge in transmission plane reveals that field amplitudes DNG and HD slab structures start to have same pattern (see Figure 3-42).
0.07 0.06 WITHOUT HOLES WITH HOLES AIR
0.05
Ez M ag
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0 -50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
x direction (mm)
Figure 2-42 Field Strength at 15.95mm from Slab Edge (transmission plane)
59
2.8 DNG Structure Dimensional Scaling

The propagation of electromagnetic waves in a PhC obeys Maxwells equations with the periodic boundary condition defined by the PhC structure [40]. Since Maxwells equations are scalable, this gives a particular advantage to the photonic crystals structures. This advantage is their ( PhCs) scalability for possible applications from microwave to optical frequencies [40]. Consequently, the same PhC design can be either scaled down to nanometer dimensions for near infrared (NIR) or visible light applications, or scaled up to millimeter dimensions for microwave or millimeter-wave applications [40]. Of interest is a DNG lens that works at the X band range, particularly at 10 GHz. Thus, the DNG lens structure of 31 GHz has been scaled up to 10 GHz. Figure 3-43 shows the scaled DNG lens to operate at 10 GHz. Furthermore, the scaled structure is simulated using EM- Photonics to insure its lens behavior. Good agreement between the initial structure and the scaled structure in terms of field and phase distributions is achieved see (Figures 2-44 and 2-45). W= 138.15mm
L=35.91mm
a =7.06 mm, D = 4.91mm
a a
D
Figure 2-43 Scaled up DNG Structure Geometry
60
Source
Lens
Image
Figure 2-44 Ez Magnitude Distribution for X Band Scaled DNG Lens Illustrates Image Forming
Converged Field
Figure 2-45 Phase Distribution For X Band Scaled DNG Lens Illustrates Field Converging
61
Chapter 3 DNG Material as Superstrate for Microstrip Antennas

3.1 Proposed DNG Superstrate
By integrating a selected slab structure above the antenna or so-called superstrate some of the antenna parameters can be improved [52]. Recently, different DNG superstrate structures have been used to enhance antennas gain and directivity [33]-[34], [53]. Most, if not all, reported DNG superstrate structures are metallic, which associated with high losses. Mittra in [55], has argued that using a dielectric DNG superstrate might address this problem. Recently based on the present work we have reported a dielectric type DNG superstrate for patch antenna gain enhancement [55]. In this chapter the DNG structure explained in chapter 2 is used and studied as a superstrate for a microstrip patch antenna. For this study, a rectangular patch antenna has been designed and analyzed without superstrate. Then the same characterization criteria are repeated with the presence of the DNG superstrate. The results obtained from numerical simulations using Ansofts HFSS are encouraging and show a gain enhancement of 3.7 dB in the broadside direction.
62
Figure 3-1 shows the DNG superstrate integrated with patch antenna; the superstrate is placed so the electric field (E) lines are parallel with the air holes.
Figure 3-1 Proposed DNG Superstrate for Microstrip Patch Antenna
Results obtained with the DNG superstrate structure are further compared with the same superstrate structure but without hole. In addition, a study of aperture field distribution also has been conducted for different configurations to examine the effect of each configuration on field distribution. Finally, the DNG superstrate has been scaled to a different frequency and the same characterization analysis are repeated to evaluate the scaled version.
63
3.2 31.5 GHz Antenna Design Criteria
A good start for a microstrip patch design will have a width of o/2 and a length of d/2, where
d is wavelength in substrate material. The width of the patch controls the input
impedance and bandwidth of the antenna, while the length of the patch controls the resonance frequency [5], [56]. Designing a 3-D microstrip patch antenna to resonate at a particular frequency has become an easy task with help of simulation tools; such as Ansoft High Frequency System Simulator (HFSS) or Computer Simulation Technology (CST). Substrate dielectric constant (r) and height are usually given to the designer (predetermined). Thus the design can be optimized only in terms of the patch length and width. The model for a 31.5 GHz patch antenna is built in HFSS, with substrate size of 2 0 by 20 , permittivity (r) of 2.33, and height of 0.793mm (32 mils). Then a metallic patch is drawn on the substrate with the initial width and length dimensions (mentioned earlier). The patch length and width have been tuned for lowest reflection coefficient and highest gain and directivity. The resonance frequency of the antenna is adjusted through small changes in the length of the patch. HFSS is equipped with different tools for final tuning and optimization. HFSS final tweaking tools would include parametric sweeps, and the tuning tool. The final optimized patch and feed dimensions are 2.465mm by 3.47mm and 0.678mm by 3.519mm respectively.
64
Reflection coefficient (S11) in dB as function of the frequency is shown in Figure 3-2. Note that refection is at its minimum (-24.8 dB) at resonance frequency (31.5GHz) this ensures that the antenna works with high efficiency. In addition, the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio ( VSWR ) of the designed antenna is plotted against frequency in Figure 33. Moreover, Figure 3-3 shows the antenna bandwidth (1.35 GHz) over which the VSWR is below 1.25.
RIT
0.00
Curve Info
Reflection Coefficient
-5.00
Name m1
X Y 31.5000 -24.8275
dB(S(1,1)) Setup1 : Sweep1
-10.00 dB(S(1,1)) -15.00 -20.00
-25.00 26.00 28.00 30.00
m1
32.00 Freq [GHz]
34.00
36.00
38.00
Figure 3-2 Antenna Reflection Coefficient (S11) in dB
65
RIT
VSWR
5.00
HFSSDesign1
Curve Info VSWR(Lum pPort1) Setup1 : Sweep1
4.50 Name m1 VSWR(LumpPort1) 3.50 m2 m3 3.00 X Y
4.00
31.5000 1.1217 32.2000 1.2510 30.8500 1.2412
2.50
2.00
1.50
m 3 m 2
m1 32.00 Freq [GHz] 34.00 36.00 38.00
1.00 26.00
28.00
30.00
Figure 3-3 Patch Antenna VSWR vs. Frequency
Furthermore, the radiation pattern of the designed antenna in far field is plotted in dB as shown in Figure 3-4. The gain radiation pattern reveals that the main beam is normal to the antenna. The main beam is normal because the antenna is designed to operate as broadside radiator (maximum gain and directivity perpendicular to the patch). For sake of completion the 3-D radiation pattern in dB is shown in Figure 3-5.
66
Radiation Pattern
0 -30 30
3.00 -4.00
-60 60
-11.00 -18.00
-90 90
-120
120
-150 -180
150
Figure 3-4 Polar Plot of the Antenna Gain in dB ( ) E Plane (=90), ( ) H Plane (=0)
Figure 3-5 3-D Plot of the Antenna Gain dB
67
3.3 DNG Superstrate Shape Optimization
Several versions of this structure have been analyzed using HFSS. The first model is 11mm x3.7 mm x11.9 mm. and flat along all the edges; as shown in Figure 3-6 (a). The excitation for this structure is applied from top and bottom edges. However the structure did not yield good results. When the edge is cut half way across the holes, Figure 3-6(b), and the excitation is along these scalloped edges good results have been achieved. Figure 3-7 shows the eclectic field distribution plot for both structures at 30.7 GHz.
(a)
Figure 3-6 DNG Martial Structure:
(b)
(a) Flat Edges. (b) Scalloped Top and Bottom Edges.
68
(a)
(b)
Figure 3-7 Electric Field Plots at 30.7GHz: (a) Flat Edges Structure Yield Poor Focusing. (b) Scalloped Top and Bottom Edges Structure Yield Good focusing.
3.4 Gain Enhancement

After optimizing the DNG structure for good field focusing it is implemented as superstrate (9.2mm x 3.9mm x 7.91628 mm) at different heights from the patch. Firstly, the DNG material is used as a superstrate directly touching the patch as in Figure 3-8. However, results obtained from this configuration are not encouraging. In particular, the refection coefficient S11has increased to -12.5 dB, while it is -24dB
69
for the antenna without superstrate. Moreover, the radiation pattern distorted severely as shown in Figures 3-9.
Figure 3-8 DNG Superstrate directly Touching the Patch Antenna

Radiation Pattern
0 -30
m 1
30
-1.00 -7.00 -60 -13.00 -19.00 -90 90 60
-120
120
-150 -180
150
Figure 3-9 Gain Plot for DNG Superstrate Directly Touching the Patch
70
Furthermore, an analysis of the DNG material as a superstrate in different configurations has been performed in order to examine its effect on the gain and radiation pattern. This analysis is based on the need to sandwich the DNG material between two DPS materials to operate it as a focusing medium. The need to sandwich DNG with DPS materials gives a good explanation why the field has not been focused and no gain enhancement achieved, when the DNG superstrate is directly touching the patch as in the last configuration. Good results have been achieved at a height close to the substrate thickness (0.773mm) as shown in Figure 3-10. The superstrate is mounted using pedestals to maintain the required height. In this configuration the reflection coefficient is improved by 1dB to reach 25.8 dB as plotted in Figure 3-11. However, there is a shift in the resonance frequency of the antenna from 31.5GHz to 30.35HGz. The new resonance frequency falls in the operating frequency range of superstrate structure as DNG material.
Figure 3-10 Final DNG Superstrate Configuration with Pedestals to Mount the Structure
71
Ansoft Corporation
S11(dB)
Curve Info
HFSSDesign1
dB(S(LumpPort1,LumpPort1)) Setup1 : Sw eep1
-5.00
dB(S(LumpPort1,LumpPort1))
-10.00
-15.00
-20.00
Name m1 X 30.4500 Y -25.8021
-25.00
m1
28.00
29.00 Freq [GHz]
30.00
31.00
Figure 3-11 Reflection Coefficient for Optimized Superstrate Height Configuration
In addition, the radiation pattern illustrates that field focusing and gain enhancement has been achieved at 30.35 GHz as in Figure 3-12. The solid line in Figure 3-12 shows the patch with DNG superstrate radiation pattern with gain enhancement of 3.8dB over the patch only radiation pattern ( the dotted line). The antenna directivity in (dB) versus frequency is also plotted, as in Figure 3-13, to examine the patch directivity profile after the DNG superstrate integration. As indicated in the figure, the maximum directivity is 9 dB at 30.35GHz.
72
Ansoft Corporation Name Theta

m1 m2 m3 0.0000 5.0000 0.0000
Ang 0.0000 5.0000 0.0000
Mag 8.9802 5.6243 5.2403
Radiation Pattern
HFSSDesign1
Curve Info dB(GainTotal) Imported Freq='31.5GHz' Phi='90deg'
0
m1
-30
m3 m2
30
dB(GainTotal) Setup1 : Sw eep1 Freq='30.35GHz' Phi='90deg'
3.00
-4.00 -60 -11.00 60
-18.00
-90
90
-120
120
-150 -180
150
Figure 3-12 Gain Plot in dB (E-plane) ( (

Ansoft Corporation
) Patch without Superstrate
) Patch with Superstrate at 0.773mm Height

Directivity vs. Freq.
HFSSDesign1
10.00
Curve Inf o Name X 30.3500 Y 9.1364
9.00
m1
m1
dB(DirTotal) Setup1 : Sw eep1 Phi='90deg' Theta='0deg'
8.00
7.00
dB irTotal) (D
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00 29.50
30.00
30.50 Freq [GHz]
31.00
31.50
Figure 3-13 Final Design Configuration Directivity vs. Frequency
73
Moreover, the 3-D plot of the final design radiation pattern illustrates a field focusing and gain enhancement the in broadside direction as shown in Figure 3-14 (a). The 3-D radiation pattern of the patch without superstrate is shown in Figure 3-14(b) for the sake of the comparison. This indicates that the dielectric material with holes does indeed behave as a DNG material providing a focusing effect and hence a gain enhancement. A configuration using the same dielectric material and dimensions as the DNG structure but without holes (see Figure 3-15) has been tried to compare it with the DNG structure. Resultant Radiation pattern of this configuration reveals a distorted antenna pattern. Where, the maximum radiation is not in the broadside direction as plotted in Figure 3-16.
Figure 3-14
3-D Gain Plot (a): DNG Superstrate Final Design (b): Patch without Superstrate.
74
Figure 3-15 HD Superstrate at Height of 0 .773mm Configuration

Ansoft Corporation Theta
0.0000 Ang 0.0000 M ag 3.0238
Radiation Pattern
0 -30 4.00 m 1 -2.00 -60 -8.00 -14.00 60 30
C HFSSDesign1 urve Info dB(G ainT otal)_1 Setup1 : Sweep1 Freq='31.3G z' P H hi='90deg'
-90
90
-120
120
-150 -180
150
Figure 3-16 Gain Plot for HD Superstrate without Air Holes
75
3.5 Aperture Field Distribution

The aperture field distribution has been studied at different heights from the antenna, to examine the effect of the DNG superstrate on the field distribution and antenna directivity. For this study the field distribution is plotted for the following configurations; patch only, patch with DNG superstrate, and patch with HD slab superstrate. The field distribution at height of 0.773mm from the patch for the patch without any superstrate configuration is plotted in Figure 3-17. This plot agrees with the regular aperture field distribution for patch antennas, where the maximum field amplitude is above the two radiating edges of the patch. The field distribution shown in Figure 3-17 is the incident field to the superstrate when the superstrate integrated with the patch.
Figure 3-17 Aperture Field Distribution at 0.773 mm above the Antenna
76
With the presence of the DNG superstrate we are interested in the aperture field distribution above the superstrate (10mm from the patch) to investigate the superstrate effect on the field distribution. In addition, to obtain a good comparison with the patch only configuration the aperture field at same height level is plotted with the absence of the DNG superstrate. Figure 3-18 shows the aperture field distribution of the Patch with DNG superstrate, and Figure 3-19 is the plot of aperture field of the patch only configuration.
Figure 3-18 Aperture Field Distribution with DNG Superstrate Configuration (at 10 mm above the Patch)
77
Figure 3-18 shows that the aperture field above the DNG superstrate has been focused in the center of the probing plane to reach a level of 2286 v/m (the small red circle in Figure 3-18). However, the aperture field for patch only configuration has not experienced any focusing, where the field strength is distributed evenly over most of the probing plane as indicated by the large red circle in Figure 3-19. In general, Figures 3-18 and 3-19
show that the aperture field strength above the DNG superstrate is almost double the aperture field for the patch only configuration.
Figure 3-19 Aperture Field Distribution at 10 mm above the Patch (patch only Configuration)
78
Furthermore, the aperture field of the DNG superstrate configuration has been repeated, but with holes in the high dielectric material. Results of this configuration show field focusing, but the focused field has been tilted from probing plane center and has lower strength than the patch with DNG superstrate configuration (see Figure 3-20). Table 3-1 summarizes the aperture field strength for all configurations and gives comments about the focused field direction and region.
Figure 3-20 Aperture Field Distribution at 10 mm above the patch (High Dielectric without Holes Superstrate Configuration)
79
Table 3-1 Aperture Field Distribution Analysis- Summary Configuration Field Strength (V/m) at Center 1,217 2.286 1,989 Comments
No- superstrate DNG superstrate HD superstrate
Field spread over large area(much larger than the patch size ) Field focused in the center over small area (less than the patch size ) Field focused but tilted from center
3.6 Superstrate scaling to 10 GHz
The DNG superstrate has been scaled to the X band frequency range (10 GHz); in order to examine the scalability of the structure as superstrate for an X band patch antennas. For this study a 10 GHz patch antenna is designed and characterized using HFSS. Then the patch is characterized again with the scaled DNG superstrate. The reflection coefficient (S11) in dB is plotted in Figure 3-21. The reflection
coefficient plot illustrates that the antenna resonance at 10 GHz is obtained. In addition, Figure 3-22 shows low VSWR value at 10 GHz which indicates good antenna efficiency.
80
Ansoft Corporation
S11
Curve Inf o
HFSSDesign1
0.00
dB(S(LumpPort1,LumpPort1)) Setup1 : Sw eep1
-5.00
d (S u p o ,L m P rt1 B (L m P rt1 u p o ))
-10.00
-15.00
-20.00
m1
Name
X 10.0500
Y -20.4498
m1
-25.00 9.50 10.00 10.50 Freq [GHz] 11.00 11.50 12.00
Figure 3-21 Antenna Reflection Coefficient (S11) in dB

Ansoft Corporation
VSWR
Curve Inf o
HFSSDesign1
10.00
VSWR(LumpPort1) Setup1 : Sw eep1
9.00
8.00
7.00 V W (L m P rt1 S R u p o )
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
Name m1
X 10.0500
Y 1.2098
2.00 m1 1.00 9.50 10.00 10.50 Freq [GHz] 11.00 11.50 12.00
Figure 3-22 Antenna VSWR vs. Frequency Plot
81
Moreover, the antenna characterization is continued to analyze the far field radiation. The radiation pattern of the patch is plotted in Figure 3-23. The maximum gain is achieved at 10.05GHz with 7.66 dB in the broadside direction.
Radiation Pattern
N e am m 1 Theta 0.0000 Ang 0.0000 M ag 7.6607 C urve Info
0 -30
m 1
30
dB(G ainTotal) Setup1 : Sweep1 Freq='10.05G z' P H hi='90deg'
2.00 -6.00 -60 -14.00 -22.00 -90 90 60
-120
120
-150 -180
150
Figure 3-23 Polar Plot of the Antenna Gain - E Plane (=90)
After characterizing the patch only configuration, the X band scaled DNG superstrate is integrated with the designed 10 GHz patch, as shown in Figure 3-24. The height between the patch and the superstrate is 0.773 mm. Then the configuration is characterized for antenna performance improvement.
82
Figure 3-24 Patch with Scaled DNG Superstrate configuration
The antenna resonance frequency is shifted down after adding the superstrate by 415MHz as shown in reflection coefficient plot, Figure 3-25. The radiation pattern of the antenna with superstrate, Figure 3-26, shows that the radiated field experiences focusing process and a gain enhancement of 3dB.
Ansoft Corporation
S11
Curve Inf o dB(S(LumpPort1,LumpP ort1)) Setup1 : Sw eep1
HFSSDesign1
-2.00
-4.00
d (S u p o ,L m P rt1 B (L m P rt1 u p o ))
-6.00
-8.00
-10.00
-12.00
Name m1 X 9.6350 Y -13.7180
m1
-14.00 9.50 9.75 10.00 Freq [GHz] 10.25 10.50
Figure 3-25 Reflection Coefficient of 10GHz patch with DNG superstrate configuration
83
Ansoft Corporation Name Theta

m1 m2 Name d( m1,m2 ) 0.0000 0.0000
Ang 0.0000 0.0000
Mag 10.7171 7.6607 Delta(Ang) 0.0000 Delta(Mag) -3.0564
Radiation Pattern
HFSSDesign1
Curve Info dB(GainTotal)_1 Setup1 : Sw eep1 Freq='9.635GHz' Phi='90deg'
Delta(Theta) 0.0000
0 -30
m1 10.00 m2
dB(GainTotal) Imported Freq='10.05GHz' Phi='90deg'
30
0.00 -60 -10.00 -20.00 60
-90
90
-120
120
-150 -180
150
Figure 3-26 Gain in dB (
) Patch without Superstrate ) Patch with Superstrate at 0.773mm Height
Furthermore, the aperture field above the 10 GHz superstrate is shown in Figure 3-27. It is notable that the aperture field distribution for the 10 GHz patch with the DNG superstrate has a similar distribution to the 31.5 GHz with the DNG superstrate antenna aperture field.
Figure 3-27 Aperture Field Distribution above the DNG Superstrate for 10GHz Configuration
84
Chapter 4 Conclusion and Future Work

4.1 Primary conclusions of present work
Gain enhancement of microstrip patch antenna has been achieved by implementing a dielectric DNG substrate above the antenna to focus the radiated field. The DNG structure has been studied and characterized thoroughly for the properties as a lens by exciting it with a point source and probing the electric field magnitude and phase in the incident and transmission planes. Study and characterization of the structure as a lens has shown that an image is formed in the transmission plane at distance about half the thickness of the dielectric slab. Furthermore, the lens structure has been compared with a similar slab without air holes and shown that no image is formed in the transmission plane. This ensures that the dielectric slab with air holes has a negative refractive index. This study has been done through EM Photonics- which is a FDTM simulation tool. A rectangular patch antenna has been designed to resonate at a frequency of 31.5 GHz which corresponds to the frequency at which the proposed DNG structure has a negative refractive index. Then the DNG slab is integrated as a superstrate above the patch antenna. This integration has been optimized for better field focusing and higher antenna gain. To optimize the field focusing, a DNG slab with scalloped edges is used. In addition, the height which separates the patch from the DNG superstrate is optimized for maximum antenna gain. The antenna design, integration with DNG superstrate, and optimizations has been performed through Ansofts HFSS, finite element 3-D
simulation environment. Results obtained are encouraging and show a gain enhancement
85
between 3 dB to 4dB.
This gain enhancement can readily address the gain drop
associated with the implementation of the size reduction techniques. Furthermore, it is important to mention that our DNG material has no metallic structures. A feature that can be important when considering losses; even at the high frequency applications. Another characterization criterion that has been implemented is the aperture field distribution. In order to show the uniqueness of the aperture field distribution above the DNG superstrate, we have compared the aperture field distribution of the antenna with the DNG superstrate with the field distributions of the antenna only and antenna with similar dialectic slab without holes. Results from this comparison shows that the antenna with the DNG superstrate has the highest field strength. Finally, DNG superstrate has been scaled to have a negative refractive index at the X band range (10 GHz), and the scaled structure has gone through similar characterization as the original design. Simulation outcomes of the scaled configuration are consistent
with the original configuration. This validates the scalability and robustness of the design.
4.2 Future Work and Consideration

The following are proposed extensions to the present work: 1. Extraction of permeability and permittivity of the DNG material using its frequency response. 2. Fabrication of the DNG material and experimental validation for gain enhancement. 3. Another variation in the design of the DNG which allows for a size reduction in the lattice structure.
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References
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Appendix (A) IEEE Standard Radar Band Classification Designation HF VHF UHF L Band S Band C Band X Band Ku Band K Band Ka Band V Band W Band mm Band Frequency 3 - 30 MHz 30 - 300 MHz 300 - 1000 MHz 1 - 2 GHz 2 - 4 GHz 4 - 8 GHz 8 - 12 GHz 12 - 18 GHz 18 - 27 GHz 27 - 40 GHz 40 - 75 GHz 75 - 110 GHz 110 - 300 GHz Wavelength 100 m - 10 m 10 m - 1 m 100 cm - 30 cm 30 cm - 15 cm 15 cm - 7.5 cm 7.5 cm - 3.75 cm 3.75 cm - 2.50 cm 2.50 cm - 1.67 cm 1.67 cm - 1.11 cm 1.11 cm - .75 cm 7.5 mm - 4.0 mm 4.0 mm - 2.7 mm 2.7 mm - 1.0 mm
94
International Telecommunications Union (ITU) Radar Band Classification Band Designation VHF UHF L S C X Ku K Ka V W mm Frequency 138 - 144 MHz 216 - 225 MHz 420 - 450 MHz 890 - 942 MHz 1.215 - 1.400 GHz 2.3 - 2.5 GHz 2.7 - 3.7 GHz 5.250 - 5.925 GHz 8.500 - 10.680 GHz 13.4 - 14.0 GHz 15.7 - 17.7 GHz 24.05 - 24.25 GHz 24.65 - 24.75 GHz 33.4 - 36.0 GHz 59.0 - 64.0 GHz 76.0 - 81.0 GHz 92.0 - 100.0 GHz 126.0 - 142.0 GHz 144.0 - 149.0 GHz 231.0 - 235.0 GHz 238.0 - 248.0 GHz
95
Band HF VHF UHF L S C X Ku K Ka mm
Military Radar Band Designations Frequency Wavelength 3 - 30 MHz 100 m - 10 m 30 - 300 MHz 10 m - 1 m 300 - 1000 MHz 100 cm - 30 cm 1 - 2 GHz 30 cm - 15 cm 2 - 4 GHz 15 cm - 7.5 cm 4 - 8 GHz 7.5 cm - 3.75 cm 8 - 12 GHz 3.75 cm - 2.50 cm 12 - 18 GHz 2.50 cm - 1.67 cm 18 - 27 GHz 1.67 cm - 1.11 cm 27 - 40 GHz 1.11 cm - .75 cm 40 - 300 GHz 7.5 mm - 1.0 mm
ITU Frequency Band Nomenclature ITU Band Designation Frequency Wavelength 1 ELF 3 - 30 Hz 100,000 km - 10,000 km 2 SLF 30 - 300 Hz 10,000 km - 1000 km 3 ULF 300 - 3000 Hz 1000 km - 100 km 4 VLF 3 - 30 kHz 100 km - 10 km 5 LF 30 - 300 kHz 10 km - 1 km 6 MF 300 - 3000 kHz 1 km - 100 m 7 HF 3 - 30 MHz 100 m - 10 m 8 VHF 30 - 300 MHz 10 m - 1 m 9 UHF 300 - 3000 MHz 1 m - 10 cm 10 SHF 3 - 30 GHz 10 cm - 1 cm 11 EHF 30 - 300 GHz 1 cm - 1 mm
96
Band Designation Acronyms Extremely Low Frequency (ELF)Super Low Frequency (SLF) Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) Very Low Frequency (VLF) Low Frequency (LF) Medium Frequency (MF) High Frequency (HF) Very High Frequency (VHF) Ultra High frequency (UHF) Super High Frequency (SHF) Extremely High Frequency (EHF)
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Gain Enhancement of Microstrip Patch Antenna Using Dielectric DNG Superstrate

Dr. Jayanti Venkataraman-Advisor

Dr. Zhaolin Lu- Committee Member

Dr. Sohail Dianat- Committee Member

Dr. Sohail Dianat- Department Head

References ........................................................................................................... 87 Appendix (A) ...................................................................................................... 94

1.2 Microstrip Patch Antennas- A Background

1.3 Left Handed Materials (LHMs)

Figure 1-2 Wave Propagation in Left Handed Medium

1.3.2 LHMs Realization

1.3.2.1 Epsilon Negative Material (ENG) Realization

1.3.2.2 Mu-Negative material (MNG) Realization

1.3.2.3 Double Negative Material (DNG) Realization

z Figure1-7 Transmission Line Model:

1.3.3 LHMs Applications

1.3.3.1 DNG Flat Lens (Metallic)

1.3.3.2 Microstrip Patch antennas and DNG

1.4 Major Contribution of Present Work

1.5 Thesis Organization

Chapter 2 Double Negative Material (DNG) as a Flat Lens

show there is no propagation for frequencies falling within

bandgaps. Thus PhCs are considered insulators at bandgaps [44]-[45].

Figure 2-1 Photonic Band Structures Illustrating Bandgaps [40].

2.2 DNG Material Realization Using Photonic Crystals

in a DNG medium, where k is the propagation constant (k = n / c). The negative

However it becomes negative (backward propagation) in a DNG medium

2.3 Imaging using PhCs

f = nc/a Where n = 0.236 a=2.3mm c= speed of light in free space

2.4 DNG Lens Simulation and Characterization

Air region Incident plane Point Source at D/2

High Dielectric with air holes (Lens) Air region

2.4.1 Image Forming and Field Probing Analysis

Ez (Mag) along "Y" DIRECTION (AT CEN TER )

Ez (Mag) at Lens edges

0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

x direction (m ) m Ez (phase) at Lens edges

Figure 2-10 Ez Magnitude and Phase at Lens Edges

Ez (Mag) at 5.95 m away from Lens m

x direction (m ) m Ez (phase) at 5.95 m away from Lens m

500 0 -500 -1000 -1500 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50

Figure 2-11 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 5.95mm away from Lens

Ez (Mag) at 10.95 m away from Lens m

x direction (m ) m Ez (phase) at 10.95 m away from Lens m

500 0 -500 -1000 -50

Figure 2-12 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 10.95mm away from Lens

Ez (Mag) at 15.95 m away from Lens m

0.1 0.05 0 -50

x direction (m ) m Ez (phase) at 15.95 m away from Lens m

Figure 2-13 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 15.95mm away from Lens

Ez (Mag) at 20.95 m away from Lens m

0.1 0.05 0 -50

x direction (m ) m Ez (phase) at 20.95 m away from Lens m

Figure 2-14 Ez magnitude and phase at 20.95mm away from lens

0.06 0.04 0.02 0 -50

x direction (m ) m Ez (phase) at 30.95 m away from Lens m

Figure 2-15 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 30.95mm away from Lens

Ez (M ag) at 40.95 m away from Lens m

0.04 0.02 0 -50

x direction (m ) m Ez (phase) at 40.95 m away from Lens m

Figure 2-16 Ez magnitude and phase at 40.95mm away from lens

0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50

x direction (m ) m Ez (phase) at 50.95 m away from Lens m

Figure 2-17 Ez Magnitude and Phase at 50.95mm away from Lens

Ez (Mag) at 60.95 m away from Lens m