Chapter 11: Gaseous exchange

Summary:
Air passes down the trachea and thorugh a branching system of airways in the lungs to reach the alveoli. The airways are lined by a ciliated epithelium with mucus-secreting goblet cells. The epithelium protects the alveoli by moving a carpet of mucus towards the throat where it can be swallowed. The alveoli are the site of gaseous exchange. A spirometer measures the tidal volume and vital capacity of the lungs. Tidal volume is the volume of air breathed in and then out. At rest it is about 0.5dm 3. Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air that can be breathed out after fully inflating the lungs. The pulse rate is identical to heart rate. Resting pulse rate is used as a measure of fitness since a low rate is associated with a large volume of blood expelled by the heart with each beat. Blood in the arteries is under pressure which can be measured using a sphygmomanometer. When the heart contracts, this pressure rises. The maximum pressure which corresponds to the emptying of the left ventricle is the systolic pressure. The maximum pressure in the arteries occurs when the left ventricle is relaxed and filling with blood. This is the diastolic pressure. The gaseous exchange system links the circulatory system with the atmosphere. It is adapted to: Clean and warm the air during breathing Maximise the surface area for diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and atmosphere Minimise the distance for this diffusion Maintain adequate gradients for this diffusion

Lungs
The lungs are the site of gaseous exchange between air and blood and they present a huge surface area to the air that flows in and out. They are in the thoracic (chest) cavity surrounded by an airtight space between the pleural membranes. Lungs are ventilated by the movement of the diaphragm and ribs.

Trachea, bronchi and bronchioles

Air ventilating the lungs passes through a branching system of airways. Leading from the throat to the lungs is the trachea. At the base of the trachea are two bronchi, which subdivide and branch extensively forming a bronchial tree in each lung. Cartilage in the trachea and bronchi keeps these airways open and air resistance low, and prevents them from collapsing or bursting due to pressure changes during breathing. In the trachea there are regular arrangements of C shaped rings of cartilage; in the bronchi there are irregular blocks of cartilage instead. The small bronchioles are surrounded by smooth muscle which can contract or relax to adjust the diameter of these tiny airways.

Airway
Trachea

Cartilage
yes

Goblet cells Smooth muscle

yes yes

Cilia
yes

Site of gas exchange

no

Bronchus
Terminal bronchiole Respiratory bronchiole

yes
no no

yes
no no

yes
yes no

yes
yes yes

no
no no

Alveolar duct
Alveoli

no
no

no
no

no
no

no
no

yes
yes

Warming and cleaning the air

As air flows through the nose and the trachea it is warmed to body temperature and moistened by evaporation from the lining, so protecting the delicate the inside surface of the lungs from drying out (desiccation). Particles larger than about 5-10m are caught on the hairs inside the nose and the mucus lining the nasal passages and other airways.

In the trachea and bronchi, the mucus is produced by goblet cells of the ciliated epithelium. The upper part of each
goblet is swollen with mucin droplets which have been secreted

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In the trachea and bronchi, the mucus is produced by goblet cells of the ciliated epithelium. The upper part of each
goblet is swollen with mucin droplets which have been secreted by the cell. Mucus is a slimy solution of mucin, composed of glycoproteins with many carbohydrate chains that make them sticky and able to trap inhaled particles. Mucus is also made by glands beneath the epithelium. Between the goblet cells are the ciliated cells. The continual beating of their cilia carries the carpet of mucus upwards towards the larynx.
Phagocytic white blood cells known as microphages patrol the surfaces of the airways patrol the surface of the airways scavenging small particles such as bacteria and fine dust particles.

Alveoli
Alveoli are at the end of the pathway between the atmosphere and the bloodstream. They have a very thin epithelial lining and are surrounded by many blood capillaries carrying deoxygenated blood. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged by diffusion. Alveolar walls have elastic fibres which stretch during breathing and recoil during expiration to help force out t he air.

Breathing rate and heart rate

The rate of supply of oxygen to the cells is determined by the rate and depth of breathing and by the rate at which the heart pumps blood around the body.

Breathing rate and depth

Concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide remain constant whatever our level activity which is achieved by changing the depth and rate of breathing. At rest we need to ventilate our lungs with 6.0 dm3 of air per minute. About 0.35 dm3 of new air enters the alveoli with each new breath. In any case, it is impossible to completely empty the lungs. When the chest is compressed during forced exhalation, about 1.0 dm3 of air still remains in the alveoli and the airways. This volume is residual volume. A much larger volume, approx. 2.5 dm3, remains in the lungs after breathing out normally. When breathing deeply the lungs can increase in volume by as much as 3 dm3. As exercise becomes harder, breathing depth and rate increase in order to respond to changes in demand for gaseous exchange. The effect of exercise on breathing is measured by calculating the ventilation rate (the total volume of air moved into the lungs in one minute).

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Measuring lung volumes Ventilation brings about changes in lung volume which can be measured by a spirometer. A person breathes from a tube connected to oxygen-containing chamber floating on a tank of water. The movements of a chamber are recorded on a kymograph.

Two measurements can be obtained from the trace: tidal volume (normal 0.5 dm3) and vital capacity (normal for average men 4.6 dm3, women 3.1 dm3).

Pulse rate
Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped out from each ventricle during each contraction. Cardiac output is the total volume pumped out per minute. Pulse is the rhythmic contraction and expansion of the arteries with each beat of the heart. The pulse rate is identical to heart rate. The resting pulse rate is an indication of fitness.
At rest, the cardiac out put is about 5 dm3 of blood every minute. This can be achieved by having either large stroke volume with low pulse rate or a small stroke volume with a high pulse rate. The normal range of resting pulse rates is 60 to 100 bea ts per minute. The average in fit young adults is about 70, and falls with age. The pulse rate is higher during and after exerci se, and also after eating or smoking. It is at its lowest when people are asleep.

Blood pressure
During systole in the cardiac cycle both ventricles contract. Contraction of the left ventricle forces oxygenated blood out o f the heart to supply the body. The maximum arterial pressure during this active stroke is the systolic pressure and this is the pressure at which blood leaves the heart through the aorta. Elastic recoil of the aorta and the main arteries provides a head of pressure to maintain a steady flow of blood in the arteries towards the capillaries.

The minimum pressure in the arteries is the diastolic pressure. Its value represents the resistance of small arteries and capillaries to blood flow and therefore the load against which the heart must work. If the resistance is high, so is the diastolic pressu re (e.g. arteries not stretching very well).
Blood pressures are determined by a sphygmomanometer (values given in mm Hg). Typical blood pressures are: Systolic: 120 mm Hg Diastolic: 80 mm Hg Both pressures rise and fall during the day and change in the longer term with age.
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Both pressures rise and fall during the day and change in the longer term with age.
Measuring blood pressure The rubber cuff of mercury sphygmomanometer is inflated to 200 mm Hg (to stop the flow of blood to the brachial artery). A stethoscope is placed over the artery and cuff deflated gradually. The systolic pressure is the pressure when the heart beat is first heard as a soft tapping sound. The diastolic pressure is the pressure when sounds can no longer be heard.

Hypertension
Blood pressure is a measure of how hard the heart is working to pump the blood around the body. If systolic and diastolic blood pressures are high at rest, this indicates that the heart is working too hard at pumping blood. This condition is known as hypertension. The risks of cardiovascular diseases such as stroke and coronary heart disease increase considerably with blood pressures in excess of 140/90 (hypertension). The causes of high blood pressure are generally unknown. It occurs because of contraction of smooth muscle in the walls of small arteries and arterioles. Increase in the concentration of hormone noradrenaline may cause this because it stimulates arterioles to contract increasing the resistance of the blood vessels. Long-term hypertension causes a strain on the cardiovascular system. This can lead to heart failure which occurs when heart muscles weaken and are unable to pump properly. The condition is known to be closely linked to: Excessive alcohol intake Smoking Obesity Too much salt in diet Genetic factors

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