MECE 211 Text Book

PREFACE
These notes were mainly arranged from the lecture notes and the books written by the
valuable scientists and teachers Ozay HSEYN, Yurdakul CEYHUN, Sleyman PENBEC
and Khaldun Abdullah. The first two of them were my teachers in 70s. I also added my
experience during my teaching period from 1984 to 1992 at the Military Academy (Kara Harp
Okulu).

These notes are prepared taken into account not only the electrical and electronics
engineering students, but also the mechatronics and control systems engineering students.

In modern systems engineering applications, computers are unforgivable parts of the
systems. Since they are working mainly in real time, state space approach is adopted as the
main tool for the analysis of the systems. Here only electrical systems are taken into account,
but this approach can easily be extended to analyse mechanical, hydrolic, biological,
economical and fiscal systems as well. In general, this approach is a main tool for the analysis
of dynamical systems that can be modelled by differential equations.

The organization of these notes is as follows: Chapter 1 is an introductory chapter for
the definition of modelling, formulation and solution for the analysis and design of dynamical
systems. In Chapter 2, mathematical models of ideal 2-terminal electrical components are
given. Chapter 3 gives the definitions of basic time functions or as we call them as signals
used in electrical systems as basic variables such as current and voltage. Also the more
advanced waveforms is studied in this chapter. Chapter 4 is devoted mainly to resistive
networks. The fundamental network theorems, Krirchoff laws, basic solution tecghniques
such as node, mesh and loop equation approaches for solving and analysing resistive circuits.
Chapter 5 gives the state space representation of electrical systems. In this chapter the Graph
theory that is used for the formulation of electrical systems in time-domain is given. Writng
the state equations and solutions of state equations are given in detail. Chapter 5 is one of the
main parts of these notes that gives the time domain formulation of electrical systems.
Chapter 6 explains the responses of the systems in time domain. Chapter 7 is an introductory
chapter for the transformation to the frequency domain. It gives the famous Laplace transform
technique. In Chapter 8, electrical system analysis in s-domain is given. This can be achieved
by using Laplace transform techniques for the formulation of electrical systems in s-domain.
Chapter 9 is the second main part of these nodes that gives the sinusoidal steady state
response of electrical systems. In this chapter, jw-domain analysis is introduced and both
constant and variable frequency responses of systems by the use of phasor representations and
frequency domain representations are teached. Also three-fhase systems are analysed. Chapter
10 is a chapter that gives the three-phase electrical systems and connection types. The
complex numbers are given in the Appendix.

Dr. Sedat NAZLIBLEK

Ankara, 2009-2010

i

INDEX

CHAPER 1

Introduction..................................................................................................................1
..
Contents........................................................................................................................1
1.1 System Concept................................................................................................2
1.2 System Classes..................................................................................................3
1.3 System Properties and Modelling.....................................................................4
1.4 Types of Formulation in Mathematical Modelling...........................................6
1.5 Dynamical System............................................................................................7
1.6 Types of Signals and Systems...........................................................................9
1.7 Difference Equations.......................................................................................14

CHAPTER 2...............................................................................................................17
Electrical System Components..................................................................................17
Contents........................................................................................................................17
2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................18
2.2 Mathematical Model of Ideal Linear Time-Invariant Two Terminal
Components.....................................................................................................18
2.2.1 Linearity...........................................................................................................19
2.2.2 Active Component...........................................................................................19
2.3 Basic System Components and Their Models.................................................19
2.3.1 Reference Directions........................................................................................20
2.3.2 Energy Dissipating Components......................................................................21
2.3.3 Power and Energy for Energy Dissipating Components..................................22
2.3.4 Energy Storing Components............................................................................23
2.3.5 The Types of Energy Storing Components......................................................24
2.3.6 Ideal Sources (Generators)...............................................................................26
2.4 Electrical Components.....................................................................................29
2.4.1 A General Electrical Two-Terminal Component Associated Reference
Directions for Terminal Voltage and
Current..............................................................29
2.4.2 Resistor, Linear Time-Invariant Electrical Energy Dissipating Component...31
2.4.3 Inductor (Coil), Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing Magnetic Energy
.........................................................................................................................35
2.4.4 Capacitor, Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing Electrical Energy......37
2.4.5 Ideal Sources...................................................................................................39

CHAPTER 3...............................................................................................................46
Basic Sysem Variables and Signals...........................................................................46
Contents.......................................................................................................................46
3.1 Basic System Variables and Signals................................................................47
3.2 Signal Types....................................................................................................48
3.3 Graphical Differentiation and Integration.......................................................50
3.4 Basic Signals...................................................................................................52
3.5 The Relation Betwee Basic Signals................................................................58
3.6 The Expression of Mixed Functions in terms of Basic Functions..................62
3.7 Exponential Function......................................................................................69
ii

3.8 Convolution Integral.......................................................................................70
3.8.1 Convolution with Unit Impulse Signal............................................................71
3.8.2 Impulse Response of Electrical System...........................................................72
3.9 Periodic Functions (Signals)............................................................................76
3.9.1 Types of Periodic Signals................................................................................77
3.9.2 Average Value of a Signal (Direct Current DC Components).....................77
3.9.2.1 Average Value of Simple Sinusoidal Signals..................................................78
3.9.2.2 Sinusoidal Signals with Direct Current (dc) Components...............................79
3.9.3 Effective (RMS) Value of a Signal..................................................................80
3.10 Odd Function and Even Function....................................................................83
3.11 Fourier Series Expansion.................................................................................85
QUESTIONS...............................................................................................................90

CHAPTER 4..............................................................................................................96
Fundamental Network Theorems.............................................................................96
Contents.......................................................................................................................96
4.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................97
4.2 Kirchoff Laws.................................................................................................97
4.3 Terminal Equivalence and Reduction Techniques.........................................98
4.4 Resistive Network Configurations..................................................................99
4.5 Resistors in Series-Parallel............................................................................104
4.6 - Y Circuits and Their Transformations.....................................................106
4.6.1 - Y Conversion...........................................................................................107
4.6.2 Y - Conversion...........................................................................................109
4.7 Network Theorems........................................................................................110
4.7.1 Superposition Theorem.................................................................................110
4.7.2 Thevenin and Norton Theorems....................................................................112
4.8 Maximum Power Transfer and Matching......................................................118
4.9 Loop and Node Equations.............................................................................119
4.9.1 Loop Equatins................................................................................................119
4.9.2 Node Equations..............................................................................................121

CHAPTER 5.............................................................................................................127
State Space Representation of Electrical Systems.................................................127
5.1 Graph Theory.................................................................................................128
5.2 Basic Concepts of the Graph Theory.............................................................128
5.3 System Graph and State Equations................................................................135
5.4 Solution of State Equations............................................................................147
QUESTIONS.............................................................................................................161

CHAPTER 6............................................................................................................166
System Resposes......................................................................................................166
Contents.....................................................................................................................166
6.1 Introduction....................................................................................................167
6.2 Order of a System...........................................................................................167
6.3 System Responses..........................................................................................168
6.3.1 Zero-Input Response......................................................................................168
6.3.2 Zero-State Response.......................................................................................168
6.3.3 Steady-State Response...................................................................................168
6.3.4 Transient Response........................................................................................168
iii

6.4 Responses for Various Inputs (Zero-State Response)...................................169
6.4.1 Step Response..............................................................................................169
6.4.2 Impulse Response........................................................................................170
6.4.3 Sinusoidal Response....................................................................................170
6.5 Responses for Various Order Systems........................................................172
6.5.1 Responses for First Order Systems..............................................................172
6.5.2 Responses for Second Order Systems.........................................................179

CHAPTER 7..........................................................................................................188
Laplace Transform.................................................................................................188
7.1 Introduction..................................................................................................189
7.2 Definition and Existence of Laplace Transform..........................................190
7.3 Laplace Transform of Basic Functions........................................................192
7.4 Properties of Laplace Transform..................................................................195
7.5 Inverse Laplave Transform...........................................................................208

CHAPTER 8...........................................................................................................221
Comlex Domain Analysis.......................................................................................221
s-domain Analysis...................................................................................................221
8.1 Introduction...................................................................................................222
8.2 Mathematical Model of Ideal Linear Time-Invariant Two-Terminal
Components in s-domain...............................................................................223
8.2.1 Basic System Components and Their Models...............................................223
8.2.2 Reference Directions......................................................................................223
8.2.3 Energy Dissipating Components....................................................................224
8.2.4 Energy Storing Components..........................................................................225
8.2.5 The Types of Energy Storing Components....................................................225
8.2.6 Ideal Sources (Generators).............................................................................227
8.3 Electrical Components...................................................................................228
8.3.1 A General Electrical Two-Terminal Component and Associated Reference
Directions for Terminal Voltage and Current ..............................................228
8.3.2 Resistor, Linear Time-Invariant Electrical Energy Dissipating Component.229
........................................................................................................................231
8.3.4 Capacitor, Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing ElectricalEnergy......233
8.3.5 Ideal Sources..................................................................................................234
8.4 Fundamental Network Theorems...................................................................235
8.5 Network Formulations....................................................................................243
QUESTIONS..............................................................................................................259

CHAPTER 9.............................................................................................................264
Complex Domain Analysis.......................................................................................264
j-domain Analysis..................................................................................................264
Contents.....................................................................................................................264
9.1 Introduction...................................................................................................265
9.2 Mathematical Model of Ideal Linear Time-Invariant Two-Terminal
Components in j-domain and Phasor representation..................................266
9.2.1 Phasor Represntation of Sinusoidal Signals..................................................266
9.2.2 Electrical Components...................................................................................267
iv

9.2.2.1 A General Electrical Two-Terminal Component and Associated Reference
Directions for Terminal Voltage and Current ..............................................267
9.2.2.2 Resistor, Linear Time-Invariant Electrical Energy Dissipating Component.268
9.2.2.3 Inductor (Coil), Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing Magnetic Energy
........................................................................................................................269
9.2.2.4 Capacitor, Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing ElectricalEnergy......271
9.2.2.5 Ideal Sources..................................................................................................273
9.3 Fundamental Network Theorems...................................................................274
9.3.1 Terminal Equivalence.....................................................................................274
9.3.1.1 Series Connected 2-Terminal Components....................................................274
9.3.1.2 Parallel Connected 2-Terminal Components.................................................276
9.3.1.3 - Y Connected 2-Terminal Components....................................................277
9.4 Complex Power.............................................................................................278
9.5 Maximum Power Transfer and Impedance Matching...................................280
9.6 Network Functions.........................................................................................282
9.7 Resonance......................................................................................................283
9.7.1 Series Resonant Circuit..................................................................................284
9.7.2 Parallel Resonant Circuit................................................................................285
9.8 Frequency Response.......................................................................................287
9.9 Logarithmic Plots of Frequency Response and Decibel Concept (Bode
Plots)...............................................................................................................292
9.9.1 Sinusoidal Response Summary......................................................................292
9.9.2 Frequency Response Curves..........................................................................293
9.10 Filters.............................................................................................................304
QUESTIONS..............................................................................................................308

CHAPTER 10...........................................................................................................327
Three-Phase Systems................................................................................................327
10.1 Introduction....................................................................................................328
10.2 General Three-Phase System..........................................................................328
10.3 Special Load Connections..............................................................................337
QUESTIONS..............................................................................................................338

APPENDIX...............................................................................................................340
Complex Numbers....................................................................................................340
A. Complex Numbers.........................................................................................341
A.1 Rectangular Representation...........................................................................343
A.2 Polar Representation......................................................................................343
A.3 Exponential Representation...........................................................................344
A.4 Exponential Form of Sinusoidal Functions....................................................345

CHAPTER 1 Introduction

1

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Contents

CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
Contents 1
1.1 SYSTEM CONCEPT ..................................................................................................... 2
1.2 SYSTEM CLASSES ...................................................................................................... 3
1.3 SYSTEM PROPERTIES AND MODELLING ............................................................. 4
1.4 TYPES OF FORMULATION IN MATHEMATICAL MODELLING ........................ 6
1.5 DYNAMICAL SYSTEM ............................................................................................... 7
1.6 TYPES OF SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS ....................................................................... 9
1.7 DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS ...................................................................................... 14


2

1.1 SYSTEM CONCEPT

System

An environment mapping input(s) to output(s) is called a system.

Where
Input: Force

Output: Response

A system according to the definition above is shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1. A system.

The system, here, is composed of one or more elements (or components) interacting
with each other. That is, a sytem is a set of elements:

} ..., , , {
2 1 n
E E E S

The inputs and outputs of a system are behaviours representing the forces and
responses respectively, and they are expressed as mathematical time functions.

Notation:

Heavy arrows represent multiple inputs and outputs, whereas single line arrows
represent single input and sinle output.

In Fig.1.2, a system having n inputs and m outputs is shown.

System
Inputs Outputs

3

Figure 1.2. n-input, m-output system.

1.2 SYSTEM CLASSES

The development of technology and changing the socio-economic life depending on it
give rise to the appereance of complex systems in recent years.

We may divide the systems into two general classes:

(1) Physical systems

(2) Socio-Economic systems

Physical System

A system realized by interconnecting devices and elements to each other is called a
Physical System. Examples are electrical, mechanical, chemical, optical, magnetic, hydrolic,
pneumatic, thermic etc.

Socio-Economic System

A system composed of activities of living societies is called Socio-Economic System.
Examples are financial, economical, commercial, etc.

Common Property between two Classes

Two classes of systems have a common property such that they are composed of finite
number of elements connected together with some interfaces.

System Element

A subset of a system having at least one input and one output is called a System
Element. } ..., , , {
2 1 n
E E E S E
i
i=1, 2, ..., n
Interface

A point connecting at least two system elements is called an interface.

Special case: Inputs and outputs are also considered to be interfaces.

In Figure 1.3, a general system and its elements and interfaces are shown.
System
Inputs
Outputs
x
1
x
2
x
n
y
1
y
2
y
m

4
Where

g
i
: input

c
j
: output

e
k
: element

a: interface

Figure 1.3. A general system.

1.3 SYSTEM PROPERTIES AND MODELLING

The systems in this context are systems which can be analysed and designed.

The meaning of analysed and designed is that the performances of them can be
measured numerically.

System Properties

A system should have the following properties:

(i) It should be composed of finite number of elements.

(ii) The connection points of the elements should be distinct.

(iii) Each element can be characterised totally independently from the other
elements connected to it.

Analytical approach for system analysis and design has three sequential steps (see
Figure 1.4):

Modelling, formulation, and solution

g
1

c
1

e
1

e
2

e
3

e
4

e
5

a
1
a
2

a
3

a
6


5

Figure 1.4. Analytical approach.

Modelling:

Mathematical representation of system elements is called modelling.

Mathematical model can be developed by isolating each element from the others.
(Fundamental axiom of the system theory)

There are two methods for obtaining a mathematical model:

(1) Experimental,
(2) Physical laws.

That is, mathematical model can be obtained either by applying a sequence of tests on the
isolated element or by utilizing known physical laws depending upon the physical nature of
the element, for example, Newtons law or Ohms law, etc.

System parameter

A quantity characterizing a system element is called system parameter (e.g.,
resistance R, capacitance C, inductance L, mass m, spring coefficient k, etc.)

Formulation

Formulation is a procedure to obtain system equations by use of the relations of
connections of elements and physical laws governing them.

System variables (State variables)

Unknown time functions within the system equation determining the behaviour
of the system are called system variables or state variables.

Its is important to select minimal dimension for mathematical equations.
Minimal dimensional equation is capable of determining all behaviour of the system.

Modelling
Formulation
Solution

6

Solution

The calculation of unknown system variables is called solution.

1.4 TYPES OF FORMULATION IN MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

There are three types of formulation in mathematical modelling:

(1) Algebraic equations.

(2) Differential equations.

(3) Difference equations.

Algebraic equation

An equation including only the system variables themselves is called an algebraic
equation in which system variables can be calculated only by algebraic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division).

Differential equation

An equation including system variables themselves and their derivatives is called a
differential equation in which system variables can be calculated by solving differential
equations.

Difference equation

An equation including system variables themselves and their shifted states in discrete
instances is called a difference equation in which system variables can be calculated by
recursively solving difference equations.

In this course, we mainly deal with these kind of equations.

Example 1.1

Some examples of algebraic, differential and difference equatios are given in the
following:

(1) Algebraic equation:

A x(t) = B

Where x(t) is the system variable, (A, B) .

(2) Differential equation


7
) ( ) ( ) (
0
t Ax t x t x
dt
d

Where x(t) is the system variable, A .

(3) Difference equation

x(k+1)=Ax(k), k=0, 1, 2, ....

Where
x(k) is the system variable at discrete instant k,

x(k+1) is the system variable at discrete instant (k+1).

A .

In all these equations A is a scalar parameter.

We gave examples of linear equations above. In real life, systems and the equations
describing them are in general non-linear equations. However, we linearize them during
analysis and design phases around the operating points.

1.5 DYNAMICAL SYSTEM

We can give a coarse definition for a dynamical system. It is not a complete definition,
but in general sufficient for most applications.

A system having elements storing some sort of energy is called a dynamical system.

Dynamical systems are formulated by either differential or difference equations
depending on the nature of system variables.

We can group the system equations into two types

(1) Linear equations,

(2) Non-linear equations.

Linear Equation and Linear System

If each term of an n
th
order equation includes only the first power of isolated (not
multiplied or divided by any other system variable) dependent variable and its derivatives (or
shifted ones), it is called a linear equation.

A system defined by the linear equations is called a linear system (a more formal
definition for a linear system will be given later in this chapter).
Linear systems can be divided into two types:

(1) Linear time-invariant systems,

8

(2) Linear time-varying systems.

If the parameters of system elements are not changing with time, these systems are called
linear time-invariant systems.

We call the systems having parameters changing with time as linear time-varying systems.

Non-linear Equation and Non-linear System

If an equation is not linear, it is called non-linear equation.

A system defined by a non-linear equation is called a non-linear system.

Example 1.2

Examples of mathematical models related to linear time-invariant, linear time-varying
and non-linear systems are given in the following:

(1) Linear time-invariant system:

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0
t bu t ax t x t x
dt
d

where a and b are scalar constants composed of system element parameters,
x(t) is system (or state) variable,
u(t) is the input (external force) variable of the system.

This equation is a first-order (since the derivative of the system variable has been
taken only once) linear time-invariant differential equation. It is time invariant, since a and b
are constant coefficients.

(2) Linear time-varying system:

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0
t x t a t x t x
dt
d

This is a first-order linear time-varying equation. Its time varying property comes from
the fact that the parameter a is also a function of t.

(3) Non-linear system:

) ( ) ( ) (
2
0
t ax t x t x
dt
d

This is not a linear system, since the variable at the right hand side is quadratic.

9

1.6 TYPES OF SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Here, we use the term signal for mathematical time functions.

Analog signal

An analog signal is a signal whose target set (amplitude) may assume continuous
range of values,

Target .

Quantized signal

A quantized signal is a signal whose target set (amplitude) may assume only finite
number of distinct values.

The process of representing a varible by a set of distinct values is called quantization,
and the resulting distinct values are called quantized values. The quantized variable changes
only by a set of distinct steps. A signal assuming quantized values in amplitude is called a
quantized signal.

A continuous-time signal

A continuous-time signal is a signal defined over a continuous range of time. More
formally,

Domain .

The amplitude may assume a continuous range of values or may asume only a finite
number of distinct values. Depending on it, we can classify the continuous time signals into
two groups:

(1) Continuous time analog signal,
(2) Continuous - time quantized signal.

Continuous time analog signal

A continuous time analog signal is a signal defined over a continuous range of time
whose amplitude can assume a continuous range of values. More formally,

Domain . and Target .

Continuous - time quantized signal

A continuous time quantized signal is defined over a continuous range of time but
whose amplitude is assuming quantized values.


10
Fig.1.5(a) shows a continuous-time analog signal, and Fig.1.5(b) shows a continuous-time
quantized signal.

Figure 1.5. Types of signals.

001
010
111
110
101
100
011
000
(a) Continuous-time analog signal
(b) Continuous-time quantized signal
(c) Discrete (Sampled data) signal
(d) Digital signal
t
t
t
t

11
A Discrete-time signal

A discrete-time signal is a signal defined only at discrete instants of time (that is, one
in which the independent variable t is quantized).

Discrete (Sampled data) signal

In a discrete time signal, if the amplitude can assume a continouos range of values,
then the signal is called a sampled data signal or shortly discrete signal.

A sampled data signal can be generated by sampling an analog signal at discrete
instants of time. It is an amplitude modulated pulse signal. Fig.1.5(c ) shows a sampled data
signal.

Digital signal

A digital signal is a discrete time signal with quantized amplitude. Such a signal can
be represented by a sequence of numbers, for example, in the form of binary numbers.

(In practice, many digital signals are obtained by sampling analog signals and then quantizing
them; it is the quantization that allows these analog signals to be read as finite binary words.)

Fig.1.5(d) depicts a digital signal. Clearly, it is a signal quantized both in amplitude
and in time. The use of the digital computer requires quantization of signals both in amplitude
and in time.

Here, we use the term quantization for only in amplitude and discretization for time.

Linear System

Lets take the system shown in Fig.1.6.

Figure 1.6 A system.

If x
1
gives y
1

and
x
2
gives y
2

then the system is linear if and only if, for every scalar and , the response to the input

x
1
+ x
2
gives y
1
+ y
2

This is called principle of superposition.

System
x y

12
As I said before, a linear system may be described by a linear differential equation or a
linear difference equation.

A linear time invariant system is one in which the coefficicents in the differential
equation or difference equation do not vary with time, that is, one in which the properties of
the system do not change with time. More formally,

A system in which the relationship (dynamical behaviour) between the input and the
output signals is unchanging with respect to time is called a time invariant system. For
example, if c(t) is the output vector in response to the input vector r(t) for a continuous
system, that is,

c(t) = S[r(t)]

then a time invariant system is characterized by the relationship

c(t-) = S[r(t-)]

for all and r(t).

In words, if c(t) is the response to r(t), then the systems response to the same input
signal applied seconds later is the same output delayed by seconds.

Notation:

In this course, scalar valued functions are written by small normal letters like x(t),
whereas vector valued functions by small boldface letters like x(t), vectors by boldface small
letters like v, and matrices by capital boldface letters like A.

Continuous and Discrete Systems

A system in which the characterizing signals (e.g. input and output signals) are all
continuous is called a continuous system. Most continuous systems are governed by
differential equations.

When the characterizing signals are all discrete type signals, the system is said to be
a discrete system. In general, a discrete system is characterized by difference equations that
relate the various input and output signals. As an example, any dynamical process
implemented by a digital computer is discrete.

Some systems posses both continuous and discrete signals. Such systems are referred
to as hybrid systems.


13
Sampling

The process of sampling is a very basic concept in digital control and data processing
theory.

In a very idealistic sense, a sampler is a device that transforms a continuous signal into
a discrete signal.

Let r(t) be the continuous input signal to a sampler as shown in Fig.1.7(a).

The output of this sampler will be a sequence of numbers, spaced in time, which
appear at sampling instances t
k
and have the values equal to the continuous input signal at the
sampling instances. A simple model of the sampler is shown in Fig.1.7(b), where the switch is
thought of as being open for all time except at the sampling indtances t
k
, when it closes
instantaneously to pass the input signal r(t). Normally, the sampling intervals are spaced
equidistant in time so that

t
k
= kT

where T is the sampling time (period).

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.7 Process of sampling.

Example 1.3

Let the input to the sampler depicted in Fig.1.7(a) be given by

r(t) = 2 + 3t + sin5t

Then its output will be a sequence of numbers that appear at times t
k
and have values

r(t
k
) = 2 + 3 t
k
+ sin5 t
k

Sample
r
r(t) r(t
k
)
t
k
r(t) r(t
k
)

14

1.7 DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

We shall concentrate our efforts toward studying systems that are characterized by
difference equations. A true discrete system is inherently representable by difference
equations.

In order to obtain a feel for what exactly a difference equation is, let us consider the
fololowing simple example. Suppose that it is desired to perform the operation of integration
numerically, that is, to evaluate

t
d r t c
0
) ( ) ( (1)

by some iterative technique. This may be desirable if the function to be integrated, r(t), has no
closed form integral, for example.

A standard technique is first to approximate the function r
a
(t) as shown in Fig.1.8.

The piecewise constant function r
a
(t) is given by

r
a
(t) = r(nT) for nT t < nT+T

Figure 1.8 Numerical integration process.

It is easy that Eqn.(1) is approximated by

kT
k
m
mT r T d r kT c
0
1
0
) ( ) ( ) ( (2)

=Tr(0) + Tr(1) + ... + Tr(k-1)

In fact, this is the ordinary definition of the integration process as T approaches zero. This
relationship requires the retention of all past values of r(mT) in order to determine the value
of the integral t=kT.

t
r
a
(t)
r(t)
T
0 2T 3T

15

A much simpler and systematic method is obtained by first determining

T kT
k
m
mT r T d r T kT c
0
0
) ( ) ( ) (

= Tr(0) + Tr(1) + ... + Tr(k-1) + Tr(kT)

and subtarcting Eqn.(2) from this expression, which gives

c(kT+T) c(kT) = T r(kT) (3)

Eqn.(3) is a first-order difference equation.

Now, it is necessary only to retain the previous value of the integral c(kT) and the
present sampled value of r(t) [i.e., r(kT)] in order to determine the value of the integral at
t = (k + 1)T.

Incidentally, this represents substantial savings in storage space of a digital computer is used
in evaluating Eqn.(1) and k is large.

The dynamics of this first-order difference equation work as follows:

1. One first notes the initial condition

0
0 ) ( ) 0 (
o
d r c

2. Next, one evalutaes Eqn.(3) first for k=0, then k=1, and so forth; that is,

c(T) = Tr(0) + c(0) = Tr(0) = c(1)

c(2T) = Tr(1) + c(1)

c(2T) = Tr(1) + c(2)

...............................

c(mT) = Tr(mT-T) + c(mT-T)

At each state of the iteration, the new value of c(mT) is evaluated by adding its previous value
to the new input r(mT-T) multiplied by T.

We can easily drop the computation time T and write a first order difference
equation as

c(k+1) + a c(k) = b r(k) (4)


16

A more general nth order, linear difference equation has the form:

c(n+k) + a
1
c(nk-1) + .... + a
n
c(k) =

= b
0
r(n+k) + b
1
r(n+k-1) + ... + b
n
r(k) (5)

In this case, one computes c(n+k) by retaining its previous values

c(n+k-1), c(n+k-2),..., c(k)

and the input sequence

r(n+k-1), r(n+k-2),..., r(k)

and then performs the multiplications and additions prescribed by Eqn.(5).

It is seen that the input signal

[Sequence of numbers ..., r(-1), r(0), r(1), ...]

influences in a definite way the output sequence of numbers c(k). This has ita obvious parallel
in continuous systems, where the input signal [e.g. r(t)=sint] influences the systems output in
a similar way.

The coefficients

a
1
, ..., a
n
, b
0
, ..., b
n

determine the characteristic of this input output dynamic behaviour. How one selects these
coefficients is one of the main topics of this course.

Nonanticipative System

A system in which the present output c does not depend on the values of the input r in
future time is nonanticipative.

Nonanticipative systems are characterized by the outputs being dependent completely
on present and previous values of the input signal.

Anticipative systems are physically nonrealizable, since the present output depends on
the future values of the input.

CHAPTER 2 Electrical System Components

17
CHAPTER 2

Electrical System Components

Contents

CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................. 17
Electrical System Components ................................................................................................. 17
Contents ................................................................................................................................ 17
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 18
2.2 Mathematical Model of Ideal Linear Time-Invariant Two-Terminal components .. 18
2.2.1 Linearity ............................................................................................................... 19
2.2.2 Active component ................................................................................................ 19
2.3 Basic System Components and Their Models .......................................................... 19
2.3.1 Reference Directions ............................................................................................ 20
2.3.2 Energy Dissipating Components .......................................................................... 21
2.3.3 Power and Energy for Energy Dissipating Components ...................................... 22
2.3.5 The Types of Energy Storing Components .......................................................... 24
2.3.6 Ideal Sources (Generators) ................................................................................... 26
Input power of a source: ....................................................................................................... 26
2.4 Electrical Components ............................................................................................. 29
2.4.1 A General Electrical Two-Terminal Component and Associated reference
Directions for Terminal Voltage and Current ...................................................................... 29
2.4.2 Resistor, Linear Time-Invariant Electrical Energy Dissipating Component ....... 31
2.4.3 Inductor (Coil), Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing Magnetic Energy ... 35
2.4.4 Capacitor, Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing Electrical Energy ........... 37
2.4.5 Ideal Sources ........................................................................................................ 39


18

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter we give the mathematical models of the ideal linear time-invariant two-
terminal (or 2-terminal) components. First, we give general two-terminal components, then
we focus on the electrical ideal linear time-invariant two-terminal components such as
resistor, capacitor and inductor. We can define a multi-terminal component such as a three-
terminal component, a four-terminal component and, in general a n-terminal component.
However, within this content, we will only give the two-terminal components in detail. The
components that we deal with in this book are ideal linear time-invariant components. The
properties of this type of components are as follows:

(1) They are lumped components, i.e., the electrical behaviour produced at their
terminals is lumped at a point. In other words, the electrical energy enters or leaves the
component at the terminals. Unlike a lumped component, Distributed components are also
available. However, they dont have definite terminals. Electrical behaviour is distributed
along the component. This type of components can be found mainly in microwave systems
such as wave guides, antennas etc. Distributed components are not a subject of this course.
We only concentrate on the lumped components in this book.

(2) They cannot be decomposed further into other 2-terminal components.

(3) They are idealized components that cannot be found in real life.

(4) The models, that is, mathematical equations (or we will call these equations as
terminal equations in subsequent chapters) that characterize the behaviour of these
components are independent of how the component is interconnected with other components
to form an electrical system. This is actually the axiom of the system theory. This property
implies that the various components can be removed either literally or conceptually from
the remaining part of the network and can be studied in isolation to establish the mathematical
models of their characteristics.

(5) They are linear, time-invariant components, therefore, they can be modeled as
linear algebraic and/or linear differential equations.

(6) These components will be passive that means that they do not amplify any
energy.

2.2 Mathematical Model of Ideal Linear Time-Invariant Two-Terminal components

The mathematical model of 2-terminal components constituting a system is the
building block of that system in design and analysis phases.

As it is mentioned in previous chapter, the mathematical model of 2-terminal
component can be created by using two methods called as the experimental method and the
mathematical method that uses physics laws.


19
Here we deal with, as is mentioned before, only linear and passive components. The
phrase that a component is linear means that the input-output relation of this component can
be represented by a linear equation. The definition of the linearity" is given in the following
paragraph.

2.2.1 Linearity

Lets assume that

x
i
i = 1,2,..., n inputs

y
j
j = 1,2,..., m outputs

If the following expressions are true then the system is linear:

x
i
+ x
2
+ ... + x
n
y
j
+ y
2
+ ... + y
m
(2.1)

a x a y (2.2)

Passivity means that the system does not amplify any energy. The mathematical
definition of the passivity is given below:

For a passive component, lets assume that

x(t) is the flow variable

y(t) is the across variable
and
p(t) = x(t) y(t) is the instantaneous power. If
t
p() d + W(t
0
) 0 (2.3)
t
0

then this component is called a passive component. Where W(t
0
) is the limited energy stored
initially inside the component.

2.2.2 Active component

An active component is an element that is not passive. That is, if it satisfies

t
p() d + W(t
0
) < 0 (2.4)
t
0

then it is called active component.

2.3 Basic System Components and Their Models

The representation of a basic 2-terminal component is shown in Fig.2.1.

20

As explained in Section 2.2, there are two fundamental variables of a 2-terminal
component. These are:

x(t) : flow variable

y(t) : across variable

2.3.1 Reference Directions

The directions of the flow and across variables as shown in Fig 2.1 are called the
reference directions.

The entering terminal of the flow variable is the positive (+) terminal of the across
variable and the opposite terminal is the negative (-) terminal of the across variable.

The flow variable and the across variable of a component are related to each other by a
function:

y(t) = f[x(t)] (2.5)

or
x(t) =g[y(t)] (2.6)

and

y(t) = y
A
y
B
(2.7)

where f(.) and g(.) functions can be algebraic or differential relations. Eqn. (2.5) and Eqn.(2.6)
are called terminal equations.

The fundamental components constituting systems are three types: They are:

(i) Energy dissipating components

(ii) Energy storing components

(iii) Energy producing components
A
B
+
-
x(t)
y(t)
Figure 2.1 .A basic 2-terminal component.

21
Now we will look at the mathematical models of these components.

2.3.2 Energy Dissipating Components

Energy dissipating component is a component that the relation between the flow
variable and the across variable is an algebraic relation. That is, the component having a
terminal equation as in Eqn (2.8) or Eqn (2.9) is called an energy dissipating component:

y(t) = a x(t) (2.8)
or
x(t) = b y(t) (2.9)

An energy dissipating 2-terminal component is shown in Fig.2.2.

If we call the flow and across variables of an energy dissipating 2-terminal component
as input and output respectively, then the input-output characteristic shows a linear property
(Fig.2.3).

Energy dissipating components can take various adjectives such as electrical,
mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, and socio-economic etc. depending upon the application
area. The energy dissipating basic physical 2-terminal components are shown in Table 2.1

A
B
+
-
x(t)
y(t) = a x(t)
Figure 2.2 Energy dissipating 2-terminal component
harcayan temel iki-ulu bir eleman.
x(t)
y(t)
Slope = a
Figure 2.3. Energy dissipating 2-terminal component characteristic.
0

22

Table 2.1. Basic energy dissipating 2-terminal physical components.

Type

Name

General

Electrical

Mechanical
(Linear)

Mechanical
(Rotary)

Hydraulic
or
Pneumatic

2.3.3 Power and Energy for Energy Dissipating Components

Power and energy in energy dissipating components are defined as in the following.

Instantaneous Power of Energy Dissipating Components

The instantaneous power is defined as

p(t) = x(t) y(t) (2.10)

= a x
2
(t) (2.11)

= b y
2
(t) (2.12)

A B
+
-
y(t) = a x(t)
x(t)
Resistor
A B
+
-
v(t) = R i(t)
i(t)
Resistor
A B
+
v(t) = K f(t)
f(t)
Damper
-
A B
+
v(t) = K (t)
(t)
Damper
-
A
B
+
p(t) = R g(t)
g(t)
Resistor
-

23

Dissipated Energy of Energy Dissipating Components

The energy dissipated in the energy dissipating components appears as heat
energy from the component.

t
w(t
0
, t) = p() d (2.13)
t
0

2.3.4 Energy Storing Components

Energy storing 2-terminal component is a component that the relation between the
flow variable and across variable is differential.
d
y(t) = a x(t) (2.14)
dt

0
= a x(t) (2.15)

or

d
x(t) = b y(t) (2.16)
dt

0
= a y(t) (2.17)

Instantaneous Power in Energy Storing Components

Instantaneous power is defined as:

p(t) = x(t) y(t) (2.18)

The energy stored from the time t
0
to t is:

t
w(t
0
,t) = p() d (2.19)
t
0

t
= x() y() d (2.20)
t
0

If initially an energy was stored inside the two-terminal component before t
0
, this
energy is stated as W(t
0
) and this value is added to the energy stored from the time t
0
to t :
t
w(t) = p() d + W(t
0
) (2.21)
t
0

24

Therefore, passivity condition for the component is:

t
w(t) = p() d + W(t
0
) 0 (2.22)
t
0

A two-terminal component that stores energy is a lossless component if

t=
p() d + W(t
0
) = 0 (2.23)
t
0

for all terminal flow and across variables such that

This means that basic two-terminal components that store energy do not dissipate
energy.

The basic energy storing components that we deal with are linear, passive and lossless
components.

2.3.5 The Types of Energy Storing Components

There are two types of energy storing basic 2-terminal components depending upon
the relation between flow variable and across variable. These are:

(i) Inductive components

(ii) Capacitive components

Inductive Components

An energy storing 2-terminal component in which the relation between the flow
variable and the across variable are as in the following are called the energy storing 2-terminal
inductive component. That is, the derivative of the flow variable is proportional to the across
variable:

d
y(t) = b x(t) (2.24)
dt

0
= b x(t) (2.25)

y
2
(t) dt) < 0
t
0

x
2
(t) dt) < 0 and
t
0


25

Inductive energy storing basic physical two-terminal components are shown in Table
2.2.

Table 2.2. Inductive basic two-terminal physical components.

Type

Name

General

Electrical

Mechanical (Linear)

Mechanical (Rotary)

Hydraulic
or
Pneumatic

(t)
A
B
+
p(t) =
g(t)
Inertia
-
A B
+
-
y(t) =
x(t)
Inductor (Inductance)
d 0
b x(t) =b x(t)
dt
A B
v(t) =
i(t)
Coil (Inductance)
d 0
L i(t) = L i(t)
dt
+
-
A
+
f(t)
Spring (Elastance)
-
v(t) =
d 0
K f(t) = K f(t)
dt
Spring (Elastance)
+
-
v(t) =
d 0
K (t) = K (t)
dt
d 0
R g(t) = K g(t)
dt

26
Capacitive Components

capacitive component. That is, the derivative of the across variable is proportional to the flow
variable:

d
x(t) = c y(t) (2.26)
dt

0
= b y(t) (2.27)

Capacitive energy storing basic physical two-terminal components are shown in Table
2.3.

2.3.6 Ideal Sources (Generators)

If the terminal variables of a component are independent from each other, or if the
followings are true

x(t) : a known time function

or
y(t) : a known time function

Then this 2-terminal component is called an ideal generator or ideal driver or ideal source.

Basic 2-terminal ideal sources are shown in Table 2.4.

In general, if the across variable is independent from the flow variable, then these
sources are called ideal across source. For example, the pressure between two terminals of a
hydraulic pomp is assumed to be independent from the flow through it, then this pomp is
considered as an ideal pressure source. Similarly, if two terminals of a bar do not reach each
other, then this bar can be considered as a constant amplitude approach source.

In general, if the flow variable is independent from the across variable, then these sources are
called ideal flow source. For example, when a piston type hydraulic pomp is driven with
constant speed, then it can be considered as an ideal flow driver.

Input power of a source:

p(t) = x(t) y(t) (2.28)

If the signs of x(t) and y(t) are opposite, then this power is related to the output energy.


27

Table 2.3. Capacitive basic 2-terminal physical components.

Type

Name

General

Electrical

Mechanical
(Linear)

Mechanical
(Rotary)

Hydraulic
or
Pneumatic

(t)
A
B
+
g(t) =
g(t)
Capacitor (Capacitance)
-
A B
+
-
x(t) =
x(t)
d 0
c y(t) =c y(t)
dt
i(t) =
d 0
C v(t) = C v(t)
dt
A
+
f(t)
Inertia
-
f(t) =
d 0
K v(t) = K v(t)
dt
Inertia
+
-
(t) =
d 0
K v(t)= K v(t)
dt
d 0
R p(t) = R p(t)
dt
+
-
A B
i(t)
B
A B

28

Table 2.4. Basic two-terminal physical sources.

Type

Name

General

Electrical

Mechanical
(Linear)

Mechanical
(Rotary)

Hydraulic
or
Pneumatic

+
-
y(t)
(t)
g(t)
-
A B
x(t) :known variable
or
y(t) :known variable
x(t)
Source(Generator)
Current source
A
+
f(t)
Force source
-
v(t)
-
i(t)
B
+
v(t)
A
B
Voltage source
Speed source
A
+
Torque source
-
w(t)
B
Speed source
+
A B
Flow source
Pressure source
A
A

29

2.4 Electrical Components

The main interest in our study is the electrical systems. Therefore, we have to look at
the electrical system components more closely than the others.

Directions for Terminal Voltage and Current

In general, an electrical two-terminal component can be represented as shown
in Fig.2.4.

The two-terminal component shown in Fig.2.4 may be a resistor, a capacitor, an
inductor, a source (generator or driver) or any two-terminal electrical component. For our
purpose, its nature is of no importance at present. From the power and energy points of view,
the meaning of the reference directions of the terminal voltage v and the terminal current i are
of fundamental importance. The reference direction for the terminal voltage is indicated by
the plus (+) sign and minus (-) sign located near the terminals A and B and the reference
direction for the terminal current is represented by an arrow flowing from (+) to (-) signs of
the voltage as shown in Fig.2.4.

Given the reference direction for the voltage shown in Fig.2.4, by convention, the
terminal voltage v is positive at time t (that is v(t) > 0) whenever the electrical potential of
terminal A at time t is greater than the electrical potential of terminal B at time t, with both
potentials being measured with respect to the same reference. If we call these two potentials
v
A
and v
B
, respectively, then

v(t) = v
A
- v
B
(2.29)

Given the reference direction for the current shown in Fig.2.4, by convention,
the terminal current i is positive at time t (that is i(t) > 0) whenever at time t a net flow of
positive charges enters the branch at terminal A and leaves it at terminal B.

The reference directions chosen as discussed above are called associated

The reference direction for the terminal voltage and the reference direction for
the terminal current are said be associated if a positive current enters the component at the
A
B
+
-
i(t)
v(t)
Figure 2.4 A general two-terminal electrical component and
reference directions of terminal variables.

30
terminal marked with a plus (+) sign and leaves the component at the terminal marked with a
minus (-) sign. When the associated reference directions are used, the component is said to
consume power at time t whenever the actual terminal voltage and actual terminal current
product yields a positive quantity, that is p(t) = v(t) i(t) > 0. If on the other hand, p(t) < 0,
then the component is said to deliver (supply) power at time t.

Definition: (Passive electrical component)

Let the terminal voltage v(t) and the terminal current i(t) of a two-terminal
component be defined for all t [t
0
, ) and let p(t) = v(t) i(t) be the instantaneous power of
this component. The two-terminal component is said to be a passive component, if for all
terminal voltage and current pairs, all initial t
0
and all time t [t
0
, )

t
w(t) = p() d + W(t
0
) 0 (2.30)
t
0

where W(t
0
) is an arbitrary finite energy initially stored in the component at time t
0

and

t t
w(t) = p() d = v()iv() d (2.31)
t
0
t
0

is the net energy delivered to the two-terminal component from the outside via its terminals.

Note that in defining passivity, the initial stored energy W(t0) must be taken into
account since it summarizes the effect of previously applied signals.

Definition: (Active electrical component)

A two-terminal component is said to be active if it is not passive. That is,
for all terminal voltage and current pairs, all initial t
0
and all time t [t
0
, )

t
w(t) = p() d + W(t
0
) < 0 (2.32)
t
0

Definition: (Lossless component)

A two-terminal component is said to be lossless if

t
w(t) = p() d + W(t
0
) = 0 (2.33)
t
0


31
for all voltage and current pairs such that

t
v
2
() d < (2.34)
t
0

and

t
i
2
() d < (2.35)
t
0

That is, informally, a two-terminal component is called lossless is all of the energy
introduced to it from the outside is ultimately returned from its terminals.

2.4.2 Resistor, Linear Time-Invariant Electrical Energy Dissipating Component

The component dissipating electrical energy is called resistor. The flow variable of the
resistor is called current i(t) and across variable is called voltage v(t). The schematic
representation of a resistor, its reference directions and input-output characteristic are shown
in Fig. 2.4.

The terminal equation of the resistor can be written as:

v(t) = R i(t) (2.36)

or
i(t) = G v(t) (2.37)

Where

R : resistance, Ohm ()

G : Conductance, Mho ()

i(t) : Current variable, Amper (A)

v(t) : Voltage variable, Volt (V)

A
B
+
-
v(t) = R i(t)

i(t)
R
Figure 2.4. Electrical resistor, its reference directions and the input-output characteristic.
i(t)
v(t)
Slope = R =1/G
0

32
Two Special Types of Resistors:

There are two special types of resistors:

(1) Open circuit,

(2) Short circuit.

Open Circuit:

A two-terminal component is called an open circuit if its terminal
current is identically equal to zero, whatever its terminal voltage may be. The symbol of an
open circuit, its mathematical model and v i characteristic are shown in Fig. 2.5.

The terminal characteristic of an open circuit is a straight line passing through the
origin of the v i plane with an infinite slope; that is R= or, equivalently, G = 0.

Short Circuit:

A two-terminal component is called a short circuit if its terminal
voltage is identically equal to zero, whatever its terminal current may be. The symbol of a
short circuit, its mathematical model and v i characteristic are shown in Fig. 2.6.

A
B
+
-
v(t)
i(t)=0
R=
Figure 2.5. Open circuit and the input-output characteristic.
i(t)
v(t)
Slope =
0
A
B
+
-
v(t) =0
i(t)
R=0
Figure 2.6. Short circuit and the input-output characteristic.
i(t)
v(t)
Slope = 0
0

33
origin of the v i plane with a zero slope; that is R= 0 or, equivalently, G = .

Power and Energy Dissipated in a Resistor

Power:

The instantaneous terminal power of a linear time-invariant resistor is

p(t) = v(t) i(t) (2.38)

= R i
2
(t) (2.39)

= G v
2
(t) (2.40)

When R is positive and the terminal variables are defined using the associated
reference directions, the instantaneous power is positive, i.e., p(t) 0. That is in such a
resistor, positive current will flow from the terminal with higher potential (+) to the terminal
with lower potential (-).

Dissipated Energy:

Since no energy can be stored in a resistor, the term W(t
0
) in Eqn.(2.30)
becomes zero and hence the passivity condition for resistors reduces to

t
w(t) = p() d 0
t
0

Dissipated energy as a heat in a resistor is

t
w(t) = p() d 0 (2.41)
t
0

t
=R i
2
() d 0 (2.42)
t
0

t
=G v
2
() d 0 (2.43)
t
0

It is clear from Eqn.(2.41) that the condition of passivity can be satisfied for all types of finite
terminal voltages and currents if R 0. Hence, we say that a resistor with positive resistance
is a passive component, and a resistor with negative resistance is an active component.
Furthermore we see from the definition of passivity that a passive resistor is also a lossy
(dissipative) component.


34

Average Power:

The power in a resistor is a function of time. The power seen in Eqn.(2.38) is
called instantaneous power. In practice, another type of power called average power is also
widely used. The average power is defined as follows:

1 t
2
P
av
= p() d (2.44)
t
2
t
1
t
1

If the voltage and current on the resistor are periodical signals (that will be defined in
Chapter 3 in detail), then the effective value (or Root Means Square RMS value) of them
are defined as:

1 T

V
eff
= [ v
2
(t) dt]
1/2
(2.45)
T 0

1 T

I
eff
= [ i
2
(t) dt]
1/2
(2.46)
T 0

In terms of effective values, the average power can be written as:

P
av
= V
eff
I
eff
(2.47)

= G V
2
eff
(2.48)

= R I
2
eff
(2.49)

Example 2.4.2.1

The terminal voltage across a linear time-invariant resistor whose resistance is 2 ohms
is given as v(t) = 10 sin t. Plot the waveforms of the terminal current, the instantaneous
power and the average power. Show that the average power can also be obtained by
determining the effective (RMS) value of the current and the voltage waveforms.

Solution:

Since

v(t) = 10 sin t,
then

i(t) = 1/R v(t) = 5 sin t

35
Now

p(t) = v(t) i(t) = 50 sin
2
wt

and

T T
av
watts dt t
T
tdt
T
P
0 0
2
25 ) 2 cos 1 ( 25
1
sin 50
1

P
av

Figure 2.7 Waveforms of voltage v(t), current i(t), power p(t) and P
av
.

2.4.3 Inductor (Coil), Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing Magnetic
Energy

A linear time-invariant two-terminal component storing magnetic energy is called an
inductor (or coil). The flow variable of the inductor is current, i
L
(t), and the across variable is
voltage v
L
(t).

A schematic representation of a linear time-invariant two-terminal inductor, its
reference directions and input-output characteristic on the i plane are shown in Fig.2.8.
Where is magnetic flux in terms of Weber.

The terminal equation of the inductor:

d
v
L
(t) = L i
L
(t) (2.50)
dt

0
= L i
L
(t) (2.51)

where

L : Inductance, Henry
p(t)
v(t)
i(t)
0
5
10
50
t
v(t), i(t), p(t)

36

Figure 2.8. Inductor and its i characteristic.

This inductor is called linear time-invariant because its i characteristic and the
relation (t) = L i(t) are linear and L is a constant (i.e., L does not depend on time).

The Energy Stored in an Inductor

The magnetic energy is stored in an inductor. Let (t) be the magnetic flux of the
inductor. Then the relation between the across variable v
L
(t) and (t) is

d
v
L
(t) = (t) (2.52)
dt

The relation between the flow variable i
L
(t) and (t) is

i
L
(t) = (1/L) (t) (2.53)

Energy equation:

t
w(t
0
,t) = v
L
() i
L
() d (2.54)
t
0

If we put v
L
(t) and i
L
(t) into Eqn.(2.54), and we arrange the limits of the integral
accordingly,

(t)
w(t
0
,t) =(1/L) d (2.55)
(t
0
)

= (1/2L)
2
(t) - (1/2L)
2
(t
0
) (2.56)

= (1/2) L i
2

L
(t) - (1/2) L i
2

L
(t
0
) (2.57)

The magnetic energy stored into the inductor by the time t
0
:

A
B
v
L
(t)
i
L
(t) +
-

i
0
Eim = L

37
W(t
0
) = (1/2) L i
2

L
(t
0
)

Then, the passivity condition for the inductor:

t
p() d + W(t
0
) = (1/2) L i
2

L
(t
0
) 0 (2.58)
t
0

The inductor being a basic two-terminal component storing energy is a lossless component.
That is,

t=
p() d + W(t
0
) = 0 (2.59)
t
0

such that

The meaning of this is that the basic two-terminal component, inductor, does not have
any energy dissipation.

The ideal basic two-terminal component that stores magnetic energy that is called
inductor is a linear, passive and lossless component.

2.4.4 Capacitor, Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing Electrical Energy

A linear time-invariant two-terminal component storing electrical energy is
called capacitor. The flow variable is the current i
C
(t), across variable is the voltage v
C
(t).

A schematic representation of a linear time-invariant two-terminal capacitor, its
reference directions and input-output characteristic on the q v plane are shown in Fig.2.9.
Where q is the electric charge in terms of Coulomb.

Figure 2.9. Capacitor and its q v characteristic.

A
B
+
-
i
C
(t)
v
C
(t)
C
q
v

i
L
2
(t) dt) < 0
t
0

v
L
2
(t) dt) < 0 ve
t
0


38

Since the q v characteristic q(t) = C v(t) is linear, and C is not depended on time,
this capacitor is called linear time-invariant capacitor.

The terminal equation of the capacitor:

d
i
C
(t) = C v
C
(t) (2.60)
dt

0
= C v
C
(t) (2.61)

where

C : Capacitance, Farad

The Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The electrical energy is stored in a capacitor. Let q(t) be the electric charge of the
capacitor. Then the realtion between the flow variable current i
C
(t) and the charge q(t):

d
i
C
(t) = q(t) (2.62)
dt

The relation between the across variable voltage v
C
(t) and the charge q(t):

v
C
(t) = (1/C) q(t) (2.63)

Energy equation:
t
w(t
0
,t) = v
C
() i
C
() d (2.64)
t
0

If we put v
C
(t) and i
C
(t) into the Eqn.(2.64), and arrange the limits of the integral accordingly,

q(t)
w(t
0
,t) =(1/C) q dq (2.65)
q(t
0
)

= (1/2C) q
2
(t) - (1/2C) q
2
(t
0
) (2.66)

= (1/2) C v
2
C
(t) - (1/2) C v
2
C
(t
0
) (2.67)

The electrical energy stored in the capacitor by the time t
0
:

W(t
0
) = (1/2) C v
2
C
(t
0
) (2.68)


39
The passivity condition for the capacitor:

t
p() d + W(t
0
) = (1/2) C v
2
C
(t
0
) 0 (2.69)
t
0
The capacitor being a basic two-terminal component storing energy is a lossless component.
That is,
t=
p() d + W(t
0
) = 0 3.61
t
0

such that

The meaning of this is that the basic two-terminal component, capacitor, does not have
any energy dissipation.

The ideal basic two-terminal component that stores electrical energy that is called
capacitor is a linear, passive and lossless component.
.
2.4.5 Ideal Sources

The Ideal Independent Voltage Source

A two-terminal component is called an independent voltage source or simply a
voltage source (driver), if it maintains a specified voltage v
s
(t) across its terminals whatever
its terminal current i(t) may be. Thus, the complete description of the voltage source requires
the specification of the function v
s
(t). If the prescribed voltage v
s
(t) is constant (that is, if it
does not depend on time), the voltage source is called a constant voltage source. The symbol
for the ideal independent voltage source and v i characteristic are shown in Fig. 2.10.

Figure 2.10. The symbol of an ideal independent voltage source and its v i characteristic.

i
C
2
(t) dt) < 0
t
0

v
C
2
(t) dt) < 0 and
t
0

A
B
v
0
v
s
(t)
v
s
(t)
+
-
i(t)

40
The v i plane characteristic of a constant ideal voltage source is a straight line
parallel to the i-axis with zero slope and as can be seen in Fig.2.10, it has a constant value
equal to v
s
(t) for all values of current i(t). This property can be interpreted as the ideal voltage
source having zero internal resistance. When v
s
(t). varies with time, for instance
v
s
(t). = V
s
sint , the characteristic is still a straight line parallel to the i-axis but the value on
the v-axis in accordance with the variation of the specified function of time. On the other
hand, when the terminal voltage of an ideal voltage source is zero, v
s
(t)=0. its characteristic
will be coincident with the i-axis with zero slope and it will effectively be a short circuit, that
is a component with zero resistance. In the physical world, there is no such component as an
ideal independent voltage source. There is always an amount of dependence of voltage on the
current. However, certain devices over certain ranges of current, approximate quite effectively
an ideal voltage source.

The Ideal Independent Current Source

A two-terminal component is called an independent current source or simply a
current source (driver), if it maintains a specified current i
s
(t) through its terminals whatever
its terminal voltage v(t) may be. Thus, the complete description of the current source requires
the specification of the function i
s
(t). If the prescribed current i
s
(t) is constant (that is, if it
does not depend on time), the current source is called a constant current source. The symbol
for the ideal independent current source and v i characteristic are shown in Fig. 2.11.

Figure 2.11. The symbol of an ideal independent currente source and its v i characteristic.

The v i plane characteristic of a constant ideal current source is a straight line
parallel to the v-axis with infinite slope and as can be seen in Fig.2.11, it has a constant value
equal to i
s
(t) for all values of voltage v(t). This property can be interpreted as the ideal current
source having infinite internal resistance. When i
s
(t). varies with time, for instance
i
s
(t). = I
s
sint , the characteristic is still a straight line parallel to the v-axis but the value on
the i-axis in accordance with the variation of the specified function of time. On the other
hand, when the terminal current of an ideal current source is zero, i
s
(t)=0. its characteristic
will be coincident with the v-axis with infinite slope and it will effectively be an open circuit,
that is a component with infinite resistance. In the physical world, there is no such component
as an ideal independent current source. There is always an amount of dependence of current
i
A
B
v
0
i
s
(t)
i
s
(t)
v
+
-

41
on the voltage. However, certain devices over certain ranges of voltage, approximate quite
effectively an ideal current source.

Problems

2.1 The waveform of a voltage applied to a resistor with 2 is shown in Fig.P2.1. Draw
the waveform of the current passing through the resistor.

Figure P2.1

2.2 The waveform of a voltage applied to a resistor with 10 is shown in Fig.P2.2. Draw
the waveform of the current passing through the resistor.

Figure P2.2

2.3 The waveform of a current passing through a resistor with 3 is shown in Fig.P2.3.
Draw the waveform of the voltage across the resistor.

Figure P2.3

v(t)
Volt
t
sec 0
1
10
v(t)
Volt
t
sec 0
1 2
2
i(t)
Amper
t
sec 0
1
1

42

2.4. Show that the two-terminal component having the following terminal equation is a
linear component.

v(t) = R i(t)

2.5. The terminal equation of a capacitor is given as

d
i(t) = C v(t)
dt

Show that this component is linear.

2.6. For the two-terminal component having a v-i characteristic as shown below (Fig.P2.4),

Figure P2.4

(a) Draw the symbol of the component and give reference directions for voltage
and current.

(b) i(t) = sint. Find v(t).

(c ) Calculate the power of the twterminal component [p(t)].

(d) Plot i(t), v(t) and p(t) on the same graphic paper.

2.7. For a two-terminal component having q-v characteristic as shown below (Fig.P2.5),

Figure P2.5

(a) Draw the symbol of the component and give the reference directions for the
voltage and the current.
10
1
v
i
0,1
1
q
v

43

(b) i(t) = sint. Find v(t).

(c ) Calculate the power of the twterminal component [p(t)].

(d) Plot i(t), v(t) and p(t) on the same graphic paper.

2.8. An inductor with the inductance of L=.5 Henry carries a current having a waveform
given in Fig.P2.6. Plot the voltage waveform across the terminals of the component.

Figure P2.6

2.9. If the waveform shown in Fig.P2.7 represents the voltage applied to a C=0.5 Farad
capacitor, determine the frequency in rad/sec i.e., and then calculate and plot

(a) The current i(t) through the capacitor,
(b) The instantaneous power p(t) delivered to the capacitor,
(c) The total energy w(t) stored in the capacitor over the time interval [0,t] second.

Figure P2.7

i(t)
Amper
t
sec
0
1 2
2
v(t)
t sec
0 1 2
3sint
3 V

44
2.10. If the waveform shown in Fig.P2.8 represents the current applied to a C=1 Farad
capacitor, calculate and plot the followings.

(d) The voltage v(t) through the capacitor,
(e) The instantaneous power p(t) delivered to the capacitor,
(f) The total energy w(t) stored in the capacitor over the time interval [0,t] second.

Figure P2.8

2.11. If the periodic waveform shown in Fig.P2.9 represents the voltage applied to a C=10
-6

Farad capacitor, calculate and plot

(g) The current i(t) through the capacitor,
(h) The instantaneous power p(t) delivered to the capacitor,
(i) The average power Pav and the rms power Prms delivered to the capacitor.

Figure P2.9

i(t)
Amp.
t
sec 0
1
10
v(t)
Volt
t
sec
0
1 2
100
3 6
-100

45
2.12 The i characteristic of a linear time-invariant inductor is shown in Fig.P2.10a and
the current passing through it is given in Fig.P2.10b. determine,

(j) The voltage v(t) across the inductor,
(k) The instantaneous power p(t) delivered to the inductor,
(l) The average power Pav and the rms power Prms delivered to the inductor.

(a) (b)

Figure P2.10

i(t)
Amp.
0 1
2
3
3 6
t
sec
1 2 3
0
0.5
1.0
1.5

Weber
i
Amper
CHAPTER 3 Basic System Variables and Signals

46
CHAPTER 3

Basic System Variables and Signals

Contents

CHAPTER 3 ....................................................................................................... 46
Basic System Variables and Signals ............................... 46
Contents .................................................................................................................................... 46
3.1 Basic System Variables and Signals ........................................................................ 47
3.3 Graphical Differentiation and Integration ................................................................ 50
3.4 Basic Signals ............................................................................................................ 52
3.5 The relations between Basic Signals ........................................................................ 58
3.6 The Expression of Mixed Functions in terms of Basic Functions ........................... 62
3.7 Exponential Function ............................................................................................... 69
3.8 Convolution Integral ................................................................................................ 70
3.9 Periodic Functions (Signals) .................................................................................... 76
3.9 Sinusoidal Signal, Period and Frequency ................................................................. 80
3.10 Odd Function and Even Function ............................................................................. 83
3.11. Fourier Series Expansion ..................................................................................... 85
QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................ 90


47

3.1 Basic System Variables and Signals

As in studied in Chapter 2, we can discriminate a system into its building blocks in
any resolution. The basic elements of the systems are two-terminal components as seen in Fig.
3.1.

In this chapter we will look at the basic variable appear on the two-terminal
components.

There are two basic variables of a two-terminal component, namely:

x(t) : flow variable
y(t) : across variable

Both x(t) and y(t) are a time function.

These two variables are related to each other by a function:

y(t) = f[x(t)] (3.1)

or

x(t) = g[y(t)] (3.2)

Where f(.) and g(.) functions can be an algebraic or differential (integral) relations.

For discrete type systems, these variables are also discrete time functions:

y(k) = f[x(k)] (3.3)
or
x(k) = g[y(k)] (3.4)
In this study, we call these time functions x(t) and y(t) as signal. That is,

Time function = signal

And we will use these two terms equivalently throughout this study.

a
b
+
x(t)
x(t)
y(t)
Figure 3.1 Two-terminal component

48
In physical and socio-economic systems, flow and across variables can represent a
variety of events. Some basic variables are listed in Table 3.1 below.

Table 3.1. Basic flow and across variables of the systems.
System

Variable
Electrical Mechanical Hydraulic Economic Traffic
x(t) flow Current Force Flow rate Item flow Flow rate
y(t) across Voltage Speed Pressure Unit price Density

3.2 Signal Types

There are three types of signals in system theory. These are:

(i) Continuous signals

(ii) Piecewise continuous signals

(iii) Discrete signals

Continuous Signals

The mathematical definition of the continuous function is given below and its graphics
are shown in Fig.3.2.

If for all >0 there exist a >0, such that for t - t
0
< , there is x(t) x( t
0
)

< , the
signal x(t) is said to be continuous at t = t
0
.

That is, in continuous signals, if a small variation occurs in t, then a small variation
occurs in the signal x(t).

t
x(t)
t
0
t
x(t
0
)
x(t)
ekil 3.2. Continuous signal

49
Piecewise Continuous Signal

If in a signal there are finite number of discontinuities and the signal pieces are
continuous in between the discontinuities, then this signal is said to be piecewise continuous
signal.

A piecewise continuous signal is shown in Fig.3.3. Where at times t
1
, t
2
, and t
3

discontinuities can be seen.

Discrete Signal

If a signal has a certain value in some time instances and zero in the intervals between
these instanes, then it is called a discrete time signal. More formally, for a discrete time signal
H = { }
and
T = { }
where

H : Target domain

T : Definition domain (time domain).

A discrete time signal is shown in Fig. 3.4.

t
x(t)
t
1

Figure 3.3. Piecewise continuous signal
t
2
t
3

k
x(k)
-1
Figure 3.4. Discrete signal
0 1 2

50

3.3 Graphical Differentiation and Integration

In electrical systems, differentiation (derivative) and integration operations can be
encountered frequently. In this section, graphical differentiation and integration operations in
time domain will be given.

Differentiation or Derivative

Derivative gives a measure for the variation (increase or decrease) in a variable.

If we look at the Fig. 3.5, we see that if we proceed in t from time t , the value of the
signal increases from x(t) to x(t+t), i.e., a change in the value of the signal happens. If we
look at the rate of this change,

x(t)
= tan (3.5)
t

If t approaches zero, the hypotenuse AB becomes tangent to the signal at the time t.
In this case,

x(t)
lim = m (Tangents slope) (3.6)
t 0 t

This limit is defined as the derivative and can be written as follows:

x(t+ t) x(t)
= lim (3.7)
t 0 t

d o
x(t) = x(t)
dt
t
x(t)
t+t
Figure 3.5. Derivative operation
t

x(t)
x(t+t)
t

x(t)
A

B

Tangent


51

Integral

The integral of a signal in a certain time means that it is the area collected under the
signal up to that time t.

Lets take the signal in Fig.3.6. Lets look at the area under the signal from t = 0 to t.
The easiest way to determine this area is to divide the region under the signal into small
squares or into stripes having a width of and then count the small areas and summing them.
Since a stripe is a rectangle, its area simply is the multiplication of its width by length, i.e.,

A
i
= x(t
i
) t (3.8)

If we take the summation of the areas of all stripes,

n n
A
total
= A
i
= x(t
i
) t (3.9)
tn=t i=0 i=0

n t
A
total
=lim x(t
i
) t = x(t) dt (3.10)
tn=t t 0 i=0 0

In general the integral at time t:

t
y(t) = x() d (3.11)
t
0

In order to take into account the old history of the signal, it is taken as t
0
= - :

t
y(t) = x() d (3.12)
-

t
x(t)
t
n
= t
x(t
1
)
Figure 3.6. Integral operation
t1 t2
x(t
2
)
x(t
n
)
t
t
i

Ai

52

3.4 Basic Signals

In the analysis, synthesis and the design phase of the systems, three types of signals
are used frequently. These are:

(i) Unit Step Function (Signal)

(ii) Unit Ramp Function (Signal)

(iii) Unit Impulse (Dirac) Function (Signal)

3.4.1 Unit Step Function (Signal), u(t)

The Unit Step Function (Signal), u(t), is shown in Fig. 3.7 and it can be defined as:

(3.13)

If you notice that for t 0, the magnitude of the unit step function is constant and takes
the value of 1. For this reason this is called a unit step function.

Shifted Step Function, u(t-t
0
)

The function obtained by shifting the unit step function to the left or to the right in
time axis is called shifted step function and it is defined analytically as in the following
(Fig.3.8):

(3.14)

t
u(t)
1
0
Figure 3.7.Unit step function (Signal).
u(t) =

0 for t < 0

1 for t 0
u(t-t
0
) =
0 for t < t
0

1 for t t
0


53

Amplified Step Function, X u(t)

The step function whose magnitude is amplified to a certain level is called the
amplified step function and shown as in the following (Fig.3.9).

(3.15)

Both Shifted and Amplified Step Function, X u(t-t
0
)

The step function whose magnitude is amplified to a certain level and also shifted in
time axis is called the both amplified and shifted step function and shown as in the following
(Fig.3.10).

(3.16)

X u(t) =
0 for t < 0

X for t 0
Xu(t-t
0
) =
0 for t < t
0

X for t t
0

t
u(t- t
0
)
1
0
Figure 3.8.Shifted Unit step function (Signal).
t
0

t
Xu(t)
X
0
Figure 3.9. Amplified step function (Signal).

54

3.4.2 Unit Ramp Function (Signal), r(t) =t u(t)

The Unit Ramp Function written as r(t) = t u(t) is shown in Fig. 3.11 and is defined as
in the following.

(3.17)

r(t) =t u(t) =
0 for t < 0

t for t 0
t
r(t)=tu(t)
1
0
Figure 3.11.The Unit Ramp Function (Signal).
1
t
Xu(t- t
0
)
X
0
Figure 3.10.Both amplified and shifted step function (Signal).
t
0


55
Shifted Ramp Function, r(t-t
0
) =(t-t
0
) u(t-t
0
)

The function obtained by shifting the unit ramp function to the left or to the right in
time axis is called shifted ramp function and it is defined analytically as in the following
(Fig.3.12):

(3.18)

Amplified and Shifted Ramp Function, Xr(t-t
0
) =X (t-t
0
) u(t-t
0
)

The ramp function whose magnitude is amplified to a certain level and also shifted in
time axis is called the both amplified and shifted step function and shown as in the following
(Fig.3.13). Notice that the amplified ramp function has a slope greater than unity.

(3.19)

r(t-t
0
) =(t-t
0
) u(t-t
0
) =

0 for t < t
0

t-t
0
for t t
0

t
r(t-t
0
) =(t-t
0
) u(t-t
0
)
1
0
Figure 3.12.Shifted Unit Ramp Function (Signal).
t
0

Xr(t-t
0
) =X(t-t
0
) u(t-t
0
) =

0 for t < t
0

X(t-t
0
) for t t
0

iin
t
Xr(t-t
0
) =X(t-t
0
) u(t-t
0
)
X
0
Figure 3.13.Amplified and shifted ramp function (Signal).
t
0

t
0+1

t
0+1


56
3.4.3 Unit Impulse (Dirac) Function (Signal), (t)

The Unit Impulse (Dirac) Function (Signal), (t), is shown in Fig.3.14 and is defined
as in the following:

(3.20)

and

(t) dt = 1 (3.21)
-

The unit impulse function cannot be physically realizable, but it satisfies very
important benefits for the evaluation of the system behaviour and analysis.

The unit impulse function can be obtained mathematically by the use of the unit pulse
function defined below.

Unit Pulse Function, p
(t)

The Unit Pulse Function, p
(t), is shown in Fig.3.15 and defined as follows:

(3.22)

t
(t)
1
0
Figure 3.14.The Unit Impulse (Dirac) Function (Signal).
(t) =

0 for t 0

for t= 0
p
(t) =
0 for t <-/2

1/ for -/2 t</2

0 for t /2


57

If you notice that the area under the unit pulse function is 1. That is,

p
(t) dt = 1 (3.23)
-

In order to obtain the unit impulse function from the unit pulse function, the width is
taken to zero:

(t) = lim p
(t) (3.24)
0

The area stays constant and the value of 1 whether goes to zero. Therefore

(t) dt = 1 (3.25)
-

Hence the unit impulse function has been obtained.

Notice that the magnitude of the unit impulse function at t=0 is but the area under
it is 1. For this reason, this impulse function is called unit impulse function.

Shifted Impulse Function, (t-t
0
)

The shifted unit impulse function, (t-t
0
), is shown in Fig.3.16 and is defined as
follows:

(3.26)

p
(t)
0
Figure 3.15. Unit Pulse Function (Signal).
t
1/

-/2

/2

A = 1
(t-t
0
) =

0 for t t
0

for t= t
0


58

and

(t-t
0
) dt = 1 (3.27)
-

Amplified Impulse Function, X (t)

The impulse function whose magnitude is amplified to a certain level is called the
amplified impulse function and shown as in the following (Fig.3.17).

(3.28)

and

X (t-t
0
) dt = X (3.29)
-

3.5 The relations between Basic Signals

There are differential and integral relations between the basic signals. Now we will see
these relations.

3.5.1 The Derivative of Unit Step Function

Since the unit step function, u(t), has constant values from - to 0, and also from 0 to
+ (0 and 1 respectively) and it has a discontinuity at t=0,the only change in this function is
the change at t=0. Since the derivative is a measure of the change, the derivative of u(t) is
zero except at t=0. However, the amount of change at t=0 is infinity. Therefore we can
represent the change at t=0 by the unit impulse function (t):
X (t) =
0 for t 0

for t = 0
t
(t-t
0
)
1
0
Figure 3.16.Shifted Unit Impulse Function (Signal).
t
0


59

= (t) (3.30)

The derivative of the unit step function is the unit impulse function.

3.5.2 The Derivative of the Unit Ramp Function

The unit ramp function, r(t) = t u(t), is a straight line from - ile 0 and from 0 to +
it is a straight line with slope of 1. The function takes changing values for t 0. But, this
change is always the same for each interval. Therefore,

(3.31)

= u(t) (3.32)

The derivative of the unit ramp function is the unit step function.

3.5.3 The Integral of the Unit Step Function

Since the integral is the collection of the areas under the curve of the function as t goes
the infinity, the area is zero under the function u(t) up to t=0.For t0, at any time instance t, it
is the area of the rectangle between t=0 and this t. As t iproceeds to the right, the value of
the area of the rectangle increases linearly (Fig.3.17). Therefore,

u(t) =

0 for t < 0

1 for t 0
d o
u(t) = u(t)
dt
r(t) =t u(t) =
0 for t < 0

t for t 0
d o
r(t) = r(t)
dt
t
u(t)
1
0
Figure 3.17. Integral of Unit Step Function.
t

60

(3.33)

(3.34)

The integral of the unit step function is the unit ramp function.

3.5.4 The Integral of the Unit Ramp Function

In the unit ramp function, as t goes to + infinity, for each t, the integral is calculated as
the area of the triangle shaded. The increase in the amount of area is parabolic (Fig.3.18).
Therefore,

(3.35)

(3.36)

The integral of the unit ramp function is unit parabola.

t
u() d =
-

t
u() d =
0

t
1 d =
0

t

0
= t 0 = t u(t) = r(t)

t
u() d =
-

r(t) = t u(t)
t
r(t)
m=1
0
Figure 3.18.Integral of Unit Ramp Function.
t

t
r() d =
-

t
r() d =
0

t
2

0
= t
2
0 = t
2
u(t) =p(t)

t
d =
0

t
r() d = p(t)
-


61

3.5.5 The Integral of the Unit Impulse Function

The unit impulse function is a function whose area is 1 just at time t=0, but zero for all
other t values. The integral of this function for t0 is always 1(Fig.3.19).

(3.37)

(3.38)

The integral of the unit impulse function is the unit step function.

3.5.6 The Properties of the Unit Impulse Function

(1) x(t) (t t
0
) = x(t
0
) (t t
0
)

(2)

(3)

t
(t)
1
0
Figure 3.19.Integral of Unit Impulse Function
Fonksiyonunun integrali.
The area seen is 1

t
()d =
-

t
() d = 1 for t0
0

= u(t)

t
()d = u(t)
-

x(t) (t) dt = x(0)
-

t
x() (t -) d = x(t)
-


62

3.6 The Expression of Mixed Functions in terms of Basic Functions

3.6.1 Expression of complicated signals with basic functions

In electrical systems, we have to deal with not only the basic function but also
complicated piecewise continuous functions. Therefore, we have to express them analytically
in a convenient way. We use the basic functions to define the complicated functions. Lets
give an example for expressing a complicated function in terms of the basic functions.

Example 3.1

Express analytically the unit pulse function in Fig.3.20 in terms of unit step functions.

Solution

The unit pulse function is composed of two shifted step functions (Fig.3.21). That is,

p
1
(t) = u(t) + [- u(t-1)]

= u(t) u(t-1) (3.39)

t
p
1
(t)
1
0
Figure 3.20 Unit Pulse Function.
1
t
p
1
(t)
1
0
Figure 3.21. Composition of unit pulse function.
1
t
-u(t - 1)
0 1
t
u(t)
1
0 1
- 1
= u(t) -u(t - 1)

63

Example 3.2

Express the function shown in Fig.3.22 in terms of basic functions.

Solution

The function x(t) shown is composed of three basic functions. These are:

r(t) ( Unit ramp function)

-r(t-1) (Shifted and inverted ramp function)

-u(t-1) (Shifted and inverted step function)

These basic functions and their summation are shown in Fig.3.23. When we sum the basic
functions r(t) and -r(t-1) we obtain a ramp for 0 t < 1 , and we obtain a step for t1. To
eliminate the step for t 1, we add a new step function namely u(t-1). As a result, we
express x(t) in terms of three basic functions analytically.

t
x(t)
1
0
Figure 3.22.
1
r(t)
Figure 3.23. The composition of the given function x(t).
t
-r(t - 1)
0
1
t
1
0
1
- 1
t
-u(t-1)
1
0
1
t
0
1
t
1
0
1
-1
+
+
=
=
x(t) = r(t) r(t-1) u(t-1)

64

Therefore, we can write the given function x(t) as follows:

x(t) = r(t) r(t-1) u(t-1) (3.40)

3.6.2 Representation of Signals by Step Functions Representing Definition Intervals

A complicated piecewise continuous function can be expressed in terms of only step
functions representing definition intervals. For example, the following expression shows the
time interval of 0t<1:

[u(t) u(t-1)] (3.41)

In general, the time interval t
0
t < t
1
can be represented as in the following:

[u(t-t
0
) u(t - t
1
)] (3.42)

When a function is multiplied by this expression representing this interval, we obtain
the piece of the given function in this interval. For example, if we are interested in the piece
of the function x(t) only for the interval t
0
t < t
1
given in Fig.3.24, then this piece can be
written as:

y(t) = x(t) [u(t-t
0
) u(t - t
1
)] (3.43)

t
x(t)
t
0

t
1

x(t
0
)
x(t
1
)
Figure 3.24. The representation of a signal in between t
0
t < t
1
in terms of step
functions.
y(t) = x(t) [u(t-t
0
) u(t - t
1
)]

65

Example 3.3

Determine the analytical representation of the signal shown in Fig.3.20 by using step
functions as time intervals.

Solution

Since the function is a signal that is only defined in the interval 0 t<1 and it is a line
passing through the origin with slope 1 , it can be written as

x(t) = t for 0 t<1 (3.44)

Therefore, we can represent the time interval by step functions as follows (Eqn. 3.45):

x(t) = t [u(t) u(t 1)] (3.45)

As a result, Eqn. 3.40 and Eqn. 3.45 are the representations of the same function.

Example 3.4

Determine the derivative of the pulse function p
1
(t) given in Example 3.1.

Solution

=

(3.46)

This operation is shown graphically in Fig.3.25.

Figure 3.25 The derivative of the unit pulse function.

d o
p
1
(t) = p
1
(t) =
dt
d
dt
[ u(t) - u(t-1)]
d
dt
u(t) -
d
dt
u(t-1)
t
p
1
(t)
1
0 1
= u(t) -u(t - 1)
t
1
0 1
(t) - (t - 1)
d o
p
1
(t) = p
1
(t) =
dt
(t) - (t-1)
d o
p
1
(t) = p
1
(t) =
dt

66

Example 3.5

Find

(1) Derivative, and

(2) Integral

of the function given in the Example 3.3.

Solution

(1) We can find the derivative of the function x(t) based on our preference on Eqn.
3.40 or Eqn.3.45. We will give both solutions here because of educational reasons.

(i) First way: Lets write the Eqn.3.40 again in the following:

x(t) = r(t) r(t-1) u(t-1)

Since the derivative operation is linear, we can get the derivatives of each term
separately as follows:

Hence

(3.46)

(ii) Second way: Lets write the Eqn.3.45 again in the following:

x(t) = t [u(t) u(t 1)]

Lets take the derivatives of both sides:

By using the multiplication property of the unit impulse function, we can write

d
dt
x(t) = u(t) u(t-1) (t-1)
d
dt
{x(t) = t [u(t) u(t 1)]}
= t [u(t) u(t 1)] + t [u(t) u(t 1)]
d
dt
d
dt
= 1 [u(t) u(t 1)] + t [(t) (t 1)]
= 1 u(t) 1 u(t 1) + t (t) t (t 1)]
d
dt
x(t) = r(t) r(t-1) u(t-1)
d
dt
d
dt
d
dt
x(t)

67
t (t) = 0 (t) = 0
and
t (t 1) = 1 (t 1) = (t 1)

(3.47)

As seen, both ways give the same result.

The function x(t) and its derivative d/dt x(t) are shown graphically in Fig.3.26.

(2) For taking integral of the given function, we can use Eqn.3.45.

Lets arrange the limits of the integration:

Since the step functions u(t) and u(t-1) are constant inside the given limits of the
integral, that is they are 1 within these time intervals, they can be taken out of the integral.
Then

d
dt
x(t) =
u(t) u(t 1) (t 1)

t
x() d =
-

t
[ u() u( -1)] d
-

t t
= u() d u( -1) d
- -

t t
= u() d u( -1) d
0 1

t t
= [ d ] u(t) [ d] u(t -1)
0 1
t
x(t)
1
0 1
= r(t) - r(t - 1) u(t-1)
t

1
0 1
= u(t) u(t-1) -(t - 1)
- 1
d
dt
x(t)
Figure 3.26 x(t) and its derivative d/dt x(t).

68

Lets take the integrals,

If we put the limit values, we obtain

(3.48)

The plot of the function obtained is shown in Fig.3.27.

Figure 3.27. x(t) and its integral.

t t
=
2
/2 u(t)
2
/2 u(t -1)
0 1

= t
2
/2 u(t) t
2
/2 u(t -1) + u(t-1)

t
1/2
0 1
t
x(t)
1
0 1
= r(t) - r(t - 1) u(t-1)

t
x() d
-


69

3.7 Exponential Function

Exponential function is one of the most important functions that we encountered
during this course. Because, the behaviour of the dynamical systems, i.e. the systems having
the elements that can store energy, is of the form of an exponential function.

The unit exponential function is defined as in Eqn.3.49 (Fig. 3.28).

0 t < 0
e(t) =
e
-t/
t 0

= e
-t/
u(t) (3.49)

ekil 3.28. The unit exponential function

A general exponential function is as in Eqn.3.50 (ekil 3.29) :

0 t < 0
x(t) =
X e
-t/
t 0

= X e
-t/
u(t) (3.50)

Figure 3.29. A general exponential function.

t
1
0
e(t)

t
X
0
x(t) = X e(t)


70

The definitions related to the exponential function are as follows:

X : Amplitude (Magnitude)

: Time constant

If we take the derivative of the exponential function at t = 0:

(3.51)

This expression is the slope of the tangent drawn to the curve at t = 0. The analytical
equation of this tangent is

y(t) = (-X/ ) t + X (3.52)

since the intercept of the tangent is X.

At time t = , the value of this tangent becomes zero, and this is the point where the
tangent crosses the horizontal axis. Therefore, the point where the tangents crosses the
horizontal axis is equal to the time constant .

The intersection point between the tangent line and the horizontal axis gives the point of time
constant. In applications, the time constant of a curve of behaviour obtained experimentally
can be determined by drawing a tangent to this curve at t = 0. The time constant in this case is
the intersection point of the tangent and the time axis.

In system theory, specifically in electrical systems, the time constant is a very
important concept. As we will see later, time constant is closely related to the eigenvalues of a
system matrix and cut-off frequency of the response of a system etc.

3.8 Convolution Integral

The convolution integral is a special kind of integral that can be met during analysis of
the behaviour of the systems in time domain. In Fig.3.30, a single-input and single-output
system block diagram is shown.

Figure 3.30. A single-input, single-output system.

d
dt
x(t) = - (X/ ) e
-t/
= - (X/ ) = m (Slope of tangent)
t = 0
System
h(t)
Input
Output

t
y(t) = h()x(t - ) d
-

x(t)

71
Where x(t) is the input of the system, y(t) is the output of the system and h(t) is the impulse
response of the system defining the system itself. The output of the system is related to the
input by the following integral,

t
d t x h t y ) ( ) ( ) ( (3.53)

or as it can be proven as in the following paragraph, Eqn.(3.53) also can be written as follows:

t
d x t h t y ) ( ) ( ) ( (3.54)

This integral is called the convolution integral.

To find y(t) from the integral of Eqn.(3.51), we need the values h() and x() for t
only, since the present values of y(t) cannot be effected by the future values of h(t)and x(t) .
Hence, the variable in Eqn.(3.51) will have t as the upper limit and if the functions h(t) and
x(t) are zero for t < 0 which is usually the case, the lower limit becomes zero and Eqn.(3.53)
reduces to

t
d t x h t y
0
) ( ) ( ) ( (3.55)

Introducing the change of variable =t , in Eqn.(3.55), we have

(3.56)

Letting = , we have

t
d x t h t y
0
) ( ) ( ) ( (3.57)

Which is the Eqn.(3.54) above. Thus, either Eqn.(3.55) or Eqn.(3.57) can be used in the
evaluation of the convolution integral for most of the electrical systems under study. Although
this integral plays an important role in obtaining the solution of electrical systems, our interest
here just from a mathematical point of view.

3.8.1 Convolution with Unit Impulse Signal

If the system input in Fig.3.30 is a unit impulse signal, then the output of the system
gives directly the system time response h(t). That is,

0
y(t) = - h(t )x() d =
t

t
h(t )x() d
0


72
If x(t) = (t)

Then

t
d t h t y ) ( ) ( ) (

= h(t) (3.58)

Hence, we can think the unit impulse function as the unity element in the convolution
integral operation.

3.8.2 Impulse response of Electrical System

In terms of systems (electrical systems), the result obtained by convolving a function
with a unit impulse signal is very important. When an unit impulse signal (t) is applied to the
input of the system, the output signal observed is y(t) = h(t) itself. The signal h(t) is called
the impulse response of the electrical system. As we will see later, this function becomes the
transfer function of the system in frequency domain.

Example 3.6

For the time functions ) ( ) (
1
t u e t x
t
and ) ( ) (
2
2
t u e t x
t
, obtain the
convolution integral, d t x x t x
t
) ( ) ( ) (
2
0
1
, using the two methods:

(i) Analytical method,
(ii) Graphical method

Solution

(i) Analytical Method

The convolution integral of the given functions by analytical method can be
obtained very easily using Eqn.(3.53). Hence, we have

t
t
d e e t x
0
) ( 2
) (

t
t t t
t e e d e e
0
2 2
0 ), 1 (
) ( ) (
2
t u e e
t t

(ii) Graphical Method

To evaluate the convolution integral graphically, again we make use of
Eqn.(3.53) which suggests that ) (
1
x and ) (
2
x must be plotted first, and then the second

73
function is shifted to the right until t as ) (
2
t x and their product must be taken. The area
under this product function for all values of t will then give the convolution integral. Fig.3.31
shows these steps.

The steps of the convolution integral is as follows:

- Fig.3.31a and Fig.3.31b are the graphs of ) (
1
x and ) (
2
x respectively,

- Convolve (fold) the second function and obtain ) (
2
x (see Fig.3.31c), which is the
mirror image of ) (
2
x ,

- Shift ) (
2
x from left to the right until t to obtain ) (
2
t x , (see Fig.3.31d where t is
in between 1<t<2),

- Multiply ) (
1
x and ) (
2
t x pointwise to obtain the curve of ) ( ) (
2 1
t x x (see
Fig.3.31e),

- The shaded area under this curve yields the convolution integral,

- Shift the second function ) (
2
t x continuously to the right until the product
function becomes zero. Fig.3.31f and Fig.3.31g show the product for t=4 and t>6 respectively
and the resultant convolution integral is shown in Fig.3.31h.

Example 3.7

Obtain the convolution integral of the functions ) (
1
t x and ) (
2
t x given in
Fig.3.32a and Fig.3.32b respectively using graphical method.

Solution

Using Fig.3.32a 3.32d, we see that for 0 < t < 2, the product, ) ( ) (
2 1
t x x
becomes a triangle of sides t as shown in Fig. 3.32e where the shaded area is
2
2
1
t . Hence, the
convolution integral x(t) is a parabola in this interval. For t 2 however, the product
) ( ) (
2 1
t x x is a triangle of sides 2 and hence the area under it has a constant value of 2.
The resulting convolution integral x(t) is shown in Fig.3.32f.

Alternatively, we can use Eqn.(3.55) instead of Eqn.(3.53) where ) (
1
t x and ) (
2
t x are
interchanged, giving the same convolution integral. Fig.3.32g Fig.3.32i show this alternative
way for the same example.


74

Figure 3.31. Steps showing the convolution integral of functions ) (
1
t x and ) (
2
t x
x
1
()

0
1
1
2 3 4
x
2
(-)

0
1
1
2 3 4
x
2
(t-)

0
1
1
2 3 4

x
1
(t)*x
2
(t)

0
1
1
2 3 4
x
2
(t-)
(c )
x
1
()

0
1
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x
2
(t-)
x(t)=x
1
(t)*x
2
(t)

t
0
1

2 3 4
5 6
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(i)
t
t
t

0
1 2 3 4

x
1
() x
2
(t-)

Area=x(t)
t
(h)
x
1
()

75
Alternative (1):

(a) (b)

(c ) (d)

(e) (f)

Alternative (2):

(g) (h)

(i)

Figure 3.32. Steps showing the convolution integral of functions ) (
1
t x and ) (
2
t x .

x
1
(t)

t
0
1

1
2 3 4
x
2
(t)

0
1
2
2 3 4
x
2
(-)
0 1
2
2 3 -2 -1

x
2
(t-)
0 1
2
2 3 4 -2 --1

t

0 1
x(t) =x
1
(t)*x
2
(t)
2 3 4 -2 -1

t
1
x(t)
t
0
1
2
2 3 4
1
2
t
2

x1(-)
0
1
2
2 3 4
-2 -1

1
x1(t- )
0
1
2
2 3 4
-2 -1

1
t
x(t)=x1(t-)x2()
0
1
2
2 3 4
-2 -1

t
t

76

3.9 Periodic Functions (Signals)

A function x(t) with the property

,.... 2 , 1 , 0 ), ( ) ( n nT t x t x (3.59)

is said to be periodic function where T is called the period of the function in seconds.

The portion of the curve x(t) in any interval T t t t
1 1
is called a cycle.

Each cycle repeats itself every T seconds and a number of cycles per second is called
the frequency f in units of Hertz and expressed as

T
f
1

An example of a periodic function is shown in Fig.3.33.

Figure 3.33. A Periodic signal.

Example 3.8

Express the periodic signal that is a rectangular wave shown in Fig.3.34 in
analytical form.

Figure 3.34. A periodic rectangular wave.

Solution

T n t T k n for X
T k n t nT for X
) 1 ( ) (
) (
n=0,1,2, (3.60)

where 0<k<1
t
0
x(t)
t
0
t
0
+ T
T
x(t)
t
X
- X
0
kT T
(k+1)T 2T
(k+2)T

77
3.9.1 Types of Periodic Signals

Periodical signals can take several names depending on their shapes in time domain,
for example, sinusoidal signal, square wave, triangular wave, sawtooth signal, etc. Fig.3.35
shows several periodical signals.

Figure 3.35. Some periodical signals in time domain.

3.9.2 Average Value of a Signal (Direct Current DC Component)

The average value or the direct current dc component of a signal represented in time
domain as x(t) is calculated from the area under the signal part in an interval of time [t
1
, t
2
]
which can be evaluated using the expression

2
1
) (
) (
1
1 2
t
t
av
dt t x
t t
x (3.61)

Notice that the average value, x
av ,
is not a function of time, it is just a number.

For periodic signals, the average value is calculated over a period. Since the function
repeats itself every period, this will also be the average value of the total signal. That is,

T t
t
T
av
dt t x
T
dt t x
T
x
0
0
0
) (
1
) (
1
(3.62)
(a) Sinusoidal wave
(b) Square wave
(c) Triangular wave
(d) Rectangular wave
t
t
t
t

78

Example 3.9

Find the average value (dc component) of the periodic signal given in Fig.3.36.

X

-X

Figure 3.36. A periodic signal.

Solution

It will be easy to calculate the average value directly from the areas under the
curves

x
av
= (1/T) [A
+
- A
-
]

= (1/T) [(X T)/2 - (X T/2)/2 ]

x
av
= X/4 (3.63)

3.9.2.1 Average Value of Simple Sinusoidal Signals

A simple sinusoidal signal can be expressed as either x(t) = X sin t
or y(t) = Y cos t. The average value of a simple sinusoidal signal can be seen easily from
Fig.3.37.

Figure 3.37. Sinusoidal signals and their average values.
+ +
y(t) = Y cos t
y
av
= (1/T) [A
+
+ A
+
- A
-
] = 0
-
t
+
-
x(t) = X sin t
t
x
av
= (1/T) [A
+
- A
-
] = 0
T
T
x(t)
t
0 T/2 T
+
-

79

3.9.2.2 Sinusoidal Signals with Direct Current (dc) Components

If a sinusoidal signal is lifted upward or downward without any degradation in
its shape, we said that it has a dc component or it has an average value different from zero. In
Fig.3.38, it is seen a sinusoidal signal with dc component which is decomposed into its
components. In analytical form, it can be expressed as follows:

x(t) = X + X sin t (3.64)

where the firs term is the dc component and the second term is the sinusoidal component of
the signal.

Figure 3.38. A sinusoidal signal with a dc component and the decomposition of it into its
components.

(a) A sinusoidal signal with dc component.
(b) dc component of the signal.
(c) Simple sinusoidal component of the signal..
2X
X
0
t
X
0
t
X
0
t

80

3.9.3 Effective (RMS) Value of a Signal

The average value of a signal can be used in some applications. However, sometimes
there is a need for another representing the signal. The Root Means Square (RMS) value or
effective value of a signal is also a useful figure in some applications. The effective or RMS
value of a signal can be expressed as in the following:

2
1
2
1 2
2
1
) (
) (
1
t
t
eff RMS
dt t x
t t
x x (3.65)

If x(t) is a periodic signal, then effective or Root Means Square RMS value of the
signal can be expressed as

T
x
eff
= [ (1/T) x
2
(t) dt]
(3.66)
0

3.9 Sinusoidal Signal, Period and Frequency

Sinusoidal signals are fundamental building blocks of periodical signals and are used
for representing the behaviour of a system or representing an information or carrying an
information.

The basic sinusoidal signals are the sine and cosine. Sinusiodal signals can be obtained
as follows:

Lets say that the point P, be a point in two-dimensional plane that is 1 unit away from
the origin of the coordinate frame (Cartesian coordinate system). Lets call the arrow pointing
this point from the origin as a Phasor. The length of the Phasor is 1 unit as well. Lets
assume that the point P rotates around the origin on the circle having the radius of 1 unit with
the angular velocity of rad/s. Now lets draw a time axis t perpendicular to the vertical axis
of the x-y plane and another time axis t perpendicular to the horizontal axis of the x-y plane.
Since the point P is the tip of the phasor, while the point P makes the circular motion, the
phasor rotates with the angular velocity of rad/sec. Now, while phasor rotates, lets plot the
projection of the point P on vertical axis for every t. Every t second, lets plot these projection
on y-t plane. By doing so, we obtain a time function. When we do the same procedure for x
axis, we obtain a time function on x-t plane. The function obtained on y-t plane is called sin
t and the function obtained on x-t plane is called cos t. The reason for calling these
functions as sine and cosine is that the phasor is the hypothenus, the projection on x axis and y
axis are the perpendicular edges of a right angled triangle. In this triangle, the phasor makes
an angle of t rad. At CCW direction. The projection on x axis with respect to this angle is
cos t and on y axis is sin t. By this way, we obtain sinusoidal functions. This process is
shown in Fig. 3.39. Where,

81

Figure 3.39. The process to obtain sinusoidal signals

y(t) = sin t

x(t) = cos t (3.67)

As seen, when t=0, the projection of the phasor on y axis is 0 and on x axis is 1.
When t=T/4 second, the projection of the phasor on y axis is 1 and on x axis is 0. In the same
way, when t=T/2 second, the projection of the phasor on y axis is 0 and on x axis is -1. When
t=3T/4 second, the projection of the phasor on y axis is -1 and on x axis is 0. When t=T
second, the point again comes to its starting point. This motion continues up to infinity. We
call this type of repetitive motion as periodical motion.

y
x
t
t
x
y
sin t
cos t
t=0
t=T/4
t=T/2
t=3T/4
t=T
1
0 0
0
1
-1
1
-1
-1
1
1
T T/2 T/4 3T/4
T
3T/4
T/2
T/4
P
w

wt

82
(1) Period

The P point starts at time t=0 and comes to the same point after
t=T seconds. It draws an angle of 2 radian (360) by this motion. The time passing for this
motion of the P point is called the period and it is represented by T. The unit of T is second,
and in short it is written as s or sec.

(2) Frequency

The number of repetition of one period time within 1 second is
called the frequency. It is shown by f and it is f=1/T. The unit of the frequency is 1/s or 1/sec
or Hertz.

If we look at the sahpes of sine and cosine signals, we see that they are the
same. However, the only difference betwen them is their starting point. If you notice that the
curve of cosine has started T/4 sec before the curve sine.

The relations betwen angular velocity and angle, and period and frequency are given
below:

(3) Angular velocity

= 2 f

= 2 /T (rad/s) (3.68)

(4) Angle

t = 2 f t

= (2 /T) t (rad) (3.69)

According to these definitions, for t=T/4, the angle t:

2 T 2
= = /2 rad = 90 (3.70)
T 4 4

Therefore, cosine leads to sine as 90. Hence,

sin ( t + 90) = cos t (3.71)

or sine lags the cosine 90. Hence,

cos ( t - 90) = sin t (3.72)

If the magnitude of the phasor is different from 1 and lets say it is A, and if it
makes an angle of CCW to horizontal axis at time t=0, the sinusoidal signals can be
expressed as below for t :


83
y(t) = A sin ( t + ) (3.73)
and
x(t) = A cos ( t + ) (3.74)
where
A : amplitude

: phase shift angle

The sinusoidal signals are the simplest signals. Lets write the sine and cosine
functions again :

x(t) = A sin t

= A sin 2 f t

= A sin (2 /T) t (3.75)

or
x(t) = A cos t

= A cos 2 f t

= A cos (2 /T) t (3.76)

3.10 Odd Function and Even Function

The periodic signals used in electrical systems can be classified as odd and even
functions depending upon their symmetry on the time domain. It is important and brings some
simplicity during the expansion of them into Fourier series. Here, we will define odd and even
functions.

(1) Odd Function

The function that is symmetric with respect to the origin is
called an odd function (Fig.3.40). An odd function is defined as:

x(-t) = - x(t) (3.77)

Figure 3.40. Odd function.

0 t
x(t)

84

(2) Even Function

The function that is symmetric with respect to the vertical axis is
called an even function (Fig.3.41). An odd function is defined as:

(3.78)

ekil 3.41. Even function.

If you notice that, x(t) = sin t is an odd function and x(t) = cos t is an even
function (Fig. 3.42).

(a) An odd function sin t.

(b) An even function cos t.

Figure 3.42. Sine and cosine functions.

x(-t) = x(t)
0
t
x(t)
t
x(t) = sin t
0
t
x(t) = cos t
0

85
3.11. Fourier Series Expansion

A periodic signal can be represented by the sum of an infinite number of sine and/or
cosine functions. Writing of periodic signals as a series of the terms sines and cosines is called
the Fourier series of this periodic signal. This expansion is very useful mathematical tool
during the development, analysis and the design process of the electrical systems

The reason for calling a sinusoidal signal as the simplest basic form is that it is the
fundamental building block or the element of the most complicated signals in electrical
systems. That is, if we say in the reverse order that they constitute a complicated periodic
signal coming together (algebraically added to each other). For example, a voice signal such
as the voice of a violin can be as shown in Fig.3.43. Lets assume that this signal repeats itself
infinitely, i.e., it is a periodic signal.

Figure 3.43. A periodic signal.

We can represent this signal, x(t), by the sum of infinitely many sinusoidal
signals. This representation is called the Fourier series expansion of this signal. Therefore,
this signal can be written as

x(t) = A
0
+ A
1
sin
1
t + B
1
cos
1
t + A
2
sin
2
t + B
2
cos
2
t + ...

= A
0
+ (A
i
sin
i
t + B
i
cos
i
t)
i=1

= A
0
+ (A
i
sin 2 f
i
t + B
i
cos f
i
t) (3.79)
i=1

Here, some of the coefficients A
i
s and B
i
s can be zero. The frequencies, f
i
s, are integer
multiples of each other. The sinusoidal signals which have frequencies that are integer
multiples of each other are called harmonic signals. The term A
0
is independent from the
frequency and time. This term is called the direct current (dc) component or average value of
the periodic signal.

x(t)
t

86
A practical example is given below to show the production of a periodic signal from
some basic sinusoidal signals.

Example 3.7.

Three microphones are connected to a summing amplifier as shown in Fig. 3.44. These
microphones are producing the sinusoidal electrical signals x
1
(t), x
2
(t), and x
3
(t). Our aim is to
plot the signal, y(t), produced at the speaker.

x
1
(t) = 5 sin 2 t

x
2
(t) = 3 sin 2 2t

x
3
(t) = 1.5 sin 2 4t

Figure 3.44. Summing of three harmonic signals.

Solution:

The output of this system at the speaker is

y(t) = x
1
(t) + x
2
(t) + x
3
(t)

= 5 sin 2 t + 3 sin 2 2t + 1.5 sin 2 4t (3.80)

If we plot each of the signals coming from the microphones and add them point by
point for each t, we can obtain the output signal y(t). This summation process is shown in
Fig.3.45. As an example, lets take the instant t
1
= 1/16 s:

At t
1
= 1/16 s, x
1
, x
2
and x
3
values are

x
1
(t
1
) = 5 sin 2 t
1
= 5 sin 2 (1/16) = 1.96

+
x
3
(t)
y(t)
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
Summing
amplifier)
Microphones
Speaker

87

x
2
(t
1
) = 3 sin 2 2 t
1
= 3 sin 2 2(1/16) = 2.35

x
3
(t
1
) = 1.5 sin 2 4 t
1
= 1.5 sin 2 4(1/16) = 1.50

The value of the output signal at t
1
= 1/16 s is the sum of these three values of the input
signals:

y(t
1
) = x
1
(t
1
) + x
2
(t
1
) + x
3
(t
1
) (3.81)

y(1/16) = x
1
(1/16) + x
2
(1/16) + x
3
(1/16)

y(1/16) = 1.96 + 2.35 + 1.50 = 5.81 (3.82)

When this operation is repeated for each t, we obtain the plot of y(t).

Figure 3.45. Obtaining a periodic signal from elementary sinusoidal signals.

x
1
(t)

x
2
(t)

x
3
(t)
y(t)
t
t
t
1

t1 = 1/16

5.81

1.5

3.0

5.0

-5.0

-3.0

-1.5
0

f
1
= 1 Hz, T
1
= 1 s
f
2
= 2 Hz, T
2
= 1/2 s
f
3
= 4 Hz, T
3
= 1/4 s

t second

88
As seen in Fig.3.46, the signal y(t) at the output of the speaker is a strange
periodic signal. This is called a waveform. Note that this is a signal composed of three
elementary sine signals. More formally, it is the algebraic sum of three sinusoidal signals. It is
also possible that the reverse operation of this process can be achieved. That is, we can obtain
the elements of this complicated periodic signal y(t). This process is called the Fourier series
expansion of the periodic signal y(t). In this course, we will learn how a periodic signal is
expanded into its elementary sinusoidal components by means of electrical circuits. These
circuits will be called the filters.

As a conclusion, we can say that periodic signals that we meet are the algebraic
sum of the elementary sinusoidal signals.

We classified some of the signals as odd and even functions. The reason for
this classification is the ease of obtaining their Fourier series expansions. Lets see this below.

(1) Fourier Series Expansion of Odd Functions

The Fourier series expansion of an odd function is composed of
only sine terms. If the signal has a dc component, it is also seen in the sum. The harmonics of
the sine terms are odd frequencies. As an example, the Fourier series expansion of the saw
tooth signal given in Fig. 3.40 is as follows:

x(t) = A
0
+ A
1
sin
1
t + A
3
sin
3
t + ...

= A
0
+ (A
i
sin
i
t)
i=1(odd numbers)

= A
0
+ (A
i
sin 2 f
i
t) (3.83)
i=1(odd numbers)

Figure 3.46. An odd function saw tooth signal.

(2) Fourier Series of Even Functions

The Fourier series of even functions is only composed of cosine
terms. If the signal has a dc component, it comes another separate term. The frequencies of
the cosine terms are even harmonics. As an example, the Fourier series expansion of the
triangular waveform is as follows:

x(t) = A
0
+ A
2
cos
2
t + A
4
cos
4
t + ...
x(t)
t

89

= A
0
+ (A
i
cos
i
t)
i=2(odd numbers)

= A
0
+ (A
i
cos 2 f
i
t) (3.84)
i=2(even numbers)

Figure 3.47. An example of an even function that is the triangular signal.

In this section, we only used single sided Fourier series, but in mathematics a double
sided Fourier series expansion is available.

x(t)
t

90
QUESTIONS

1. Give the definition of a two-terminal component and its two basic variables.

2. Give the definition of energy and power of a two-terminal component.

3. Give the definition of a continuous signal.

4. Give the definition of piece-wise continuous signal.

5. Give the definition of discrete signal.

6. Give the definition of unit step function (signal).

7. Give the definition of unit ramp function (signal).

8. Give the definition of unit impulse (Dirac) function (signal).

9. Give the definition of unit pulse function (signal).

10. Write the expression of the function given in Fig.P.3.1 below:

(a) In terms of basic functions such as steps, ramps, impulses, etc.

(b) In terms of unit steps representing intervals in time domain such as [u(t-t
a
)
u(t-t
b
)].

Figure P.3.1

11. Write the analytical expression of the function given in Fig.P.3.2 below in terms of the
representation of intervals by step functions.

Figure P.3.2

12. For the signal graphics given in Fig.P.3.3 below.

(a) Write the analytical expression,

1
0 1 2
f(t)
t
0 1 2
x(t)
t
Exponential function (where =1)

91
(b) Find the derivative of it by graphical method and write its analytical expression

Figure P.3.3

13. Write the analytical expression of the signal in Fig.P.3.4 and obtain its integral and
plot the integral of it in an appropriate scale.

Figure P.3.4

14. For the signal given in Fig.P.3.5 below

(a) write the analytical expression of it,

(b) obtain the derivative of it and plot it with an appropriate scale,

(c ) obtain the integral of the given signal and plot it in an appropriate scale.

Figure P.3.5

15. Plot the given function in an appropriate scale

x(t) = - (t) + e
(t-2)
u(t) + t [u(t-2) u(t 3)] - (t-3)

1
0 1 2
x(t)
t
3
3
2
3
1
0 1 2
x(t)
t
- 1
1
0 1 2
x(t)
t
- 1
- 2
2
3

92
16. For the signal given in Fig.P.3.6 below,

(a) Write its analytical expression by using step functions as representing time
intervals,

(b) Obtain its derivative (both graphical and analytical),

(c ) Obtain its integral (both graphical and analytical).

Figure P.3.6


(a) write its analytical expression,

(b) obtain its integral (both graphical and analytical).

Figure P.3.7


(a) write its analytical expression,

(b ) obtain its derivative (both graphical and analytical).

Figure P.3.8

1
0 1 2
x(t)
t
1
0 1 2
x(t)
t 3 4
t
1
0 1 2
x(t)
3
2

93

(a) write its analytical expression in terms of step functions representing time
intervals,

(b ) obtain its derivative (both graphical and analytical),

(c ) obtain its integral (both graphical and analytical).

Figure P.3.9

20. Plot the signal given below with an appropriate scale and determine its time constant.

x(t) = 2 e
0,2 t
u(t)

21. Plot the following signal with an appropriate scale.

x(t) = 0,1 sin (t /6) u(t)

22. Plot the following signal with an appropriate scale.

x(t) = [ 2 + sin (10 t + 30 )] u(t)

23. The signal x(t) is given in Fig.P.3.10 below. Plot all the signals from top to down with
the same scale including the given signal x(t) as being at the top.

(a) x( t)

(b) u(t) + x(t)

(c ) 3 x(2t)

Figure P.3.10

t
1
0 1 2
x(t)
- 1
3
- 1
t
1
0 1 2
x(t)
3 4

94
24. Plot the signal whose analytical expression is given below:

x(t) = t
2
[u(t) u(t-1)] + (t 1)[u(t-1) u(t-2)] + [u(t-2) u(t-3)] 2[u(t-3) u(t-4)]


(a) find its period,

(b) find its average value,

(c ) find its effective (rms) value.

Figure P.3.11

26. Write the analytical expression of the sinusoidal signal given in Fig.P.3.12 below.

Figure P.3.12

27. For the signal in Question 27,

(a) find the average value of it,

(b) find the effective (rms) value of it.

28. Determine the parity (even or odd) of the following periodic function in Fig.P.3.13:

Figure P.3.13
t
1
0 1 2
x(t)
3 4
-1
1 3 0
x(t)
t
1
1,5
1 0
x(t)
t
1

95

29. Determine the parity (even or odd) of the following periodic function in Fig.P.3.14:

Figure P.3.14

30. Determine the dc component of the following periodic signal in Fig.P.3.15:

Figure P.3.15

31. Write the first harmonic term of the following signal in Fig.3.P.16:

Figure P.3.16

32. Write the dc component and the main (first) harmonic term of the following signal in
Fig.P.3.17:

Figure P.3.17

1 0
x(t)
t
1
1 0
t
1
2
x(t)
2
t
1
0 1 2
x(t)
3 4
-1
t
1
0 1 2
x(t)
3 4
-1
-1 5
CHAPTER 4 Fundamental Network Theorems

96
CHAPTER 4

Fundamental Network Theorems

Contents

CHAPTER 4 ......................................................................................................................... 96
Fundamental Network Theorems .................................................................................... 96
Contents ................................................................................................................................ 96
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 97
4.2 Kirchoff Laws .............................................................................................................. 97
4.3 Terminal Equivalence and Reduction Techniques ................................................... 98
4.4 Resistive Network Configurations ........................................................................... 99
Example 4.1 ........................................................................................................................ 102
4.5 Resistors in Series-Parallel ..................................................................................... 104
4.6 Y Circuits and Their Transformations ............................................................. 106
4.6.1 Y Conversion ............................................................................................... 107
4.6.2 Y - Conversion ............................................................................................... 109
4.7 Network Theorems ................................................................................................. 110
4.7.1 Superposition Theorem ...................................................................................... 110
4.7.2 Thevenin and Norton Theorems ......................................................................... 112
4.8 Maximum Power transfer and Matching ................................................................ 118
4.9 Loop and Node Equations ...................................................................................... 119
4.9.1 Loop Equations .................................................................................................. 119
4.9.2 Node Equations .................................................................................................. 121


97

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we will give fundamental network theorems by the use of only
resistive networks. These theorems can easily be extended to the RLC systems represented in
complex frequency domains such as s-domain and jw-domain.

First of all, we will develop terminal equivalence and basic reduction techniques. We
will give basic resistive circuits such as parallel resistive circuits, series resistive circuits and
delta-wye ( -Y) circuits and their transformations. Then, we will introduce basic network
theorems such as, superposition and substitution theorem, Thevenins and Nortons theorem.
Third, we give the condition for maximum power transfer. In this chapter we also give the
concept of symmetry and balanced networks.

As a second part of this chapter, overall resistive network solution methods will be
defined. These include the establishment of mesh formulation and node formulation in matrix
form.

4.2 Kirchoff Laws

4.2.1 Kirchoff Voltage Law (KVL)

The Kirchoff Voltage Law states that in an electrical closed loop, the algebraic sum of
the voltages is zero. An example of an electrical closed loop consisting of n+1 2-terminal
elements is shown in Fig.4.1. Here, the following equation is true:

- V
0
+ V
1
+ V
2
+ . + V
n
= 0 (4.1)

Loop current

Figure 4.1 An electrical closed loop consisting of n 2-terminal components

In Eqn.(4.1), we take the voltages having + signs in the entering point of the loop
current as positive and the voltages having signs in the entering point of the loop current as
negative. We can easily take the reverse of them. In this case, there will be no change to the
result.

-
+
V
0
A
B
+ -
V
1
+
-
V
2
+ -
V
n
N
0
N
1
N
2 N
n

98
4.2.2 Kirchoff Current Law (KCL)

The Kirchoff Current Law states that in an electrical nodal point, the algebraic sum of
the currents is zero. An example of an electrical nodal point consisting of n+1 2-terminal
elements is shown in Fig.4.2. Here, the following equation is true:

- I
0
+ I
1
+ I
2
+ + I
n
= 0 (4.2)

Figure 4.2 An electrical nodal point consisting of n+1 2-terminal components

In Eqn.(4.2), we take the currents entering to the node as negative and the currents
awaying from the node as positive. Since the equation is algebraic, we can reverse the signs
without any effect to the result.

4.3 Terminal Equivalence and Reduction Techniques

In this section, we shall introduce the concept of terminal equivalence.

We say that two networks are terminal equivalent if their corresponding terminal
equations are identical. It should be understood that this equivalence is defined only at the
terminals. According to this definition, two 2-terminal networks are said to be terminal
equivalent if their characterization in terms of port currents and port voltages are identical.
Here, a port is a structure having two terminals.

Suppose we are given a network. In general, this network can be replaced with
infinitely many different networks N
i
such that each N
i
is terminal equivalent to the original
network N
0
at its terminals.

We will refer to the process of obtaining an equivalent network having less number of
components than the given network as a reduction process (Fig.4.3).

Nodal Point A
I
0
I
1
I
2
I
n
N
1
N
0
N
2
N
n

99
We will discuss some of the basic equivalent networks obtained through reduction
processes.

Figure 4.3 Terminal equivalence and basic reduction of networks

4.4 Resistive Network Configurations

4.4.1 Series Connected Resistors

Let the 2-terminal component R
i
, i=1, 2, , n in Fig.4.4 be a 2-terminal resistor. The
network of Fig. 4.5a then reduces to that of Fig.4.5b where each resistor has a terminal
equation:

V
i
= R
i
I
i
(4.3)

Note that since the resistors are dissipative elements and do not store any energy, the initial
energy is zero, so V
i0
= 0, therefore the equivalent resistor between the 2-terminal port is

R
eq
= R
1
+ R
2
+ + R
n
(4.4)

(a) (b)

Figure 4.4 (a) A series resistive network. (b) Its equivalent.

Eqn.(4.4) can be obtained as follows:

From KVL, we can write

V
0
= V
1
+ V
2
+ . + V
n
(4.5)
Given network Port
Terminal A
Terminal B
Port
Terminal A
Terminal B
Reduced network
-
+
V
0
A
B
-
V
1
+ -
V
2
+
-
V
n
R
1
R
2 R
n
Req

I
0
-
+
V
0
A
B
I
0

100
The terminal equations of each resistor is as in Eqn(4.3). Putting the terminal equations in
Eqn.(4.5), we obtain

n n
I R I R I R V ....
2 2 1 1 0
(4.6)
However,
I
0
= I
1
= I
2
= . = I
n
(4.7)

Now, Eqn.(4.6) can be written as

0 2 1 0
) .... ( I R R R V
n
(4.8)

then, Eqn.(4.8) have the form of

0 0
I R V
eq
(4.9)

Therefore, we can say that the equivalent reduced network has a resistor having an equivalent
resistance as follows:

n eq
R R R R ....
2 1
(4.10)

4.4.2 Parallel Connected Resistors

Let the 2-terminal component R
i
, i=1, 2, , n in Fig.4.6 be a 2-terminal resistor. The
network of Fig. 4.5a then reduces to that of Fig.4.5b where each resistor has a terminal
equation:

V
i
= R
i
I
i
(4.11)

Note that since the resistors are dissipative elements and do not store any energy, the initial
energy is zero, so V
i0
= 0, therefore the equivalent resistor between the 2-terminal port is

1/R
eq
= 1/R
1
+ 1/R
2
+ + 1/R
n
(4.12)

(a) (b)
Figure 4.5 (a) A parallel resistive network. (b) Its equivalent.


From KCL, we can write

I
0
= I
1
+ I
2
+ + I
n
(4.13)

I
0
+
-
V
0
I
1
I
2
I
n
R
1
R
2
R
n Req

-
+
V
0
A
B
I
0
A
B

101
The terminal equations of each resistor is as in Eqn(4.3). Putting the terminal equations in
Eqn.(4.13), we obtain

n
n
R
V
R
V
R
V
I ....
2
2
1
1
0
(4.14)
However,
V
0
= V
1
= V
2
= = V
n
(4.15)

Now, Eqn.(4.14) can be written as

0
2 1
0
)
1
....
1 1
( V
R R R
I
n
(4.16)

then, Eqn.(4.16) have the form of

0 0
1
V
R
I
eq
(4.17)

Therefore, we can say that the equivalent reduced network has a resistor having an equivalent
resistance as follows:

n eq
R R R R
1
....
1 1 1
2 1
(4.18)
or
n eq
G G G G ....
2 1
(4.19)

4.4.3 Voltage Divider Network (VDN)

A voltage divider network (VDN) is a network with a voltage source and a series
connected components network as shown in Fig.4.6.

Figure 4.6 A voltage divider network

A VDN is a useful configuration for relating the component voltages to the input
voltage source voltage as follows:

-
+
V
0
A
B
+ -
V
1
+ -
V
2
+ -
V
n
N
0
N
1
N
2 N
n

102

0
V
R
R
V
eq
i
i
i=1,2, , n (4.20)


i i i
I R V (4.21)

From Eqn.(4.7), we can write

0
I R V
i i
(4.22)


0
2 1
0
...
1
V
R R R
I
n
(4.23)

Putting Eqn.(4.23) into Eqn.(4.22) we have

0
2 1
...
V
R R R
R
V
n
i
i
(4.24)

Eqn.(4.24) is well known Voltage Divider Equation (VDE).

Example 4.1

A resistive voltage divider network is given in Fig. 4.7. Find the voltages and the
currents of the resistors.

Figure 4.7 Voltage divider network


0
2 1
1
1
V
R R
R
V
and

0
2 1
2
2
V
R R
R
V
I
0
-
+
V
0
A
B
V
1
+
-
R
1
I
1
I
2
+
-
V
2
R
2

103

Since I
0
= I
1
= I
2

Using the terminal equations of the resistors (see Eqn.(4.3), we obtain

2 0
2 1 1
1
1
1
I V
R R R
V
I
or

1 0
2 1 2
2
2
1
I V
R R R
V
I

4.4.4 Current Divider Network (CDN)

A current divider network (CDN) is a network with a current source and a parallel
connected components network as shown in Fig.4.8.

Figure 4.8. A current divider network

A CDN is a useful configuration for relating the component currents to the input
current source current as in the following.

0 0
I R V
eq
(4.25)

The voltages across all the arms are the same:

i
V V
0
for all i=1,2, , n (4.26)


0
I R V
iq i
(4.27)

The terminal equation for ith resistor is

i i i
I R V (4.28)

Putting eqn.(4.28 into Eqn.(4.27), we can write
0
I R I R
iq i i
(4.29)
Then
I
0
+
-
V
0
I
1
I
2
I
n
R
1
R
2
R
n
A
B
I
0

104
0
I
R
R
I
i
eq
i
(4.30)

Lets write the equivalent resistance as follows using the parallel connection configuration:

p
n
eq
R
R R R
R
2 1
(4.31)

where ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 2 1 1 1 2 1 4 3 1 3 2 n n i i n n p
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R

Putting Eqn.(4.31) into Eqn.(4.30) we have

0
1 1 2 1
I
R
R R R R R
I
p
n i i
i
(4.32)

Eqn.(4.32) is well known Current Divider Equation (CDE). For a two-resistor case as
shown in Fig.4.9, Eqn.(4.32) becomes simple as follows:

Figure 4.9 Current divider network with two resistors.


0
2 1
2
1
I
R R
R
I (4.33)
And

0
2 1
1
2
I
R R
R
I (4.34)

4.5 Resistors in Series-Parallel

A network containing series-parallel combination of resistors is the one in which sub-
combination of resistors are connected in series or in parallel with other sub-combination of
resistors. The solution of such a network can be obtained by applying successively the
equivalents of series and parallel resistor combinations. This idea will now be illustrated by
the following examples.

I
0
-
+
V
0
A
B
V
1
+
-

I
1
I
2
+
-
V
2
R
2
I
0
R
1

105

Example 4.2

Given a resistive network shown in Fig.4.10a, reduce the network into its equivalent
network at the source terminals A and B.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 4.10. The resistor network for Example 4.1.

Solution:

Since the resistors R2 and R3 are in series, they can be added to give an equivalent
resistor of Re1=2.2. This is shown in Fig. 4.10b which is further reduced by combining the
two parallel resistors each having a value of 2,2 to give an equivalent resistor of 1,1 (that
is the half of the individual resistor). This results in a network having two resistors in series as
shown in Fig.4.10c which can be added to given the equivalent resistance Req=1,2 of the
given network at the source terminals A and B. This is shown in Fig.4.10d.

Referring to the definition of equivalence, we can say that the networks ,n Figs. 4.10b,
c, and d are all equivalent to the given network since the resistances seen at the source
terminals A and B in these networks are the same. Consequently, the current delivered by the
supply batteries in all of the four networks in Fig.4.10 is the same. Among the equivalent
networks given in Fig.4.10b, c, and d, the simplest is the one given in Fig. 4.10d. Hence, the
given network can be reduced to the simplest form as shown in Fig.4.10d.

v(t)=5u(t)
A
B
R1=0,1
R2=1
R3=1,2
R4=2,2
v(t)=5u(t)
A
B
R1=0,1
Re1=2,2 R4=2,2
v(t)=5u(t)
A
B
R1=0,1
Re2=1,1
v(t)=5u(t)
A
B
Req=1,2

106
Example 4.3

Given the network shown in F,g.4.11a, simplify it into its equivalent network at the
source terminals A and B.

Solution:

This network is more complicated than the network given in Fig.4.10. In this network,
first we combine all parallel combinations of single elements and then combine all series
combinations of single elements. After this, we combine any newly apparent parallel and
series combinations. Then we repeat this process only a single element remains. Fig.4.11
shows this simplification (or reduction).

(a) (b)

(c ) (d)

Figure 4.11. Reduction of network of Example 4.2.

4.6 Y Circuits and Their Transformations

In addition to the series parallel combination of resistors, inductors, capacitors, and
impedances we may have other types of combination. In this section, we will consider and
Y type of combinations of resistors. The impedances will be considered in frequency domain
analysis later.

Three resistors can be arranged in either of the two ways shown in Fig.4.12. The
configuration in Fig.4.12a shows the arrangement of the resistors and the configuration in
Fig.4.12b shows the Y arrangement of the resistors. In the solution of networks, it is possible
A
B
R1=4
R2=6
R3=3
R4=3
R5=6
R6=1
v(t)
A
B
R1=4 R2//R7=3
R3=3
R4//R5=2
R6=1
R7=6
A
B
R1=4
R3=3
R2//R7+R4//R5+R6
=6
v(t
)
A
B
R1=4
(R2//R7+R4//R5+R6)//R3
=2

107
to replace a network by its equivalent Y, or vice versa. This process is called Y
transformation and is frequently used to reduce the complexity of networks to be analyzed.
More clearly, if we have a network, a portion of it consists of three resistors forming a , we
can replace this portion by an equivalent Y network, or vice versa, which in turn simplify the
network considerably.

(a)

(b)

Fig.4.12 The Y configurations; (a) shows the arrangement of the resistors and the
configuration in (b) shows the Y arrangement of the resistors.

4.6.1 Y Conversion

Let us now see how we can obtain the elements of a Y network which is equivalent
to a given network.

If we measure the resistance between various pairs of terminals for the two networks
in Fig.4.12, we have for the network :

Z Y X
Y X Z
AB
R R R
R R R
R
) (
(I) (4.35)

Z Y X
Z Y X
BC
R R R
R R R
R
) (
(II) (4.36)

A
A
B C
B C
R
A

R
B
R
C
R
Z
R
Y

R
X


108

Z Y X
Z X Y
AC
R R R
R R R
R
) (
(III) (4.37)

For the Y network :

B A AB
R R R (I) (4.38)

C B BC
R R R (II) (4.39)

C A AC
R R R (III) (4.40)

Now, from Eqn. 4.35-4.37 and Eqn.4.38-4.40, we see that

I = I:

B A
Z Y X
Y X Z
R R
R R R
R R R ) (

II = II:

C B
Z Y X
Z Y x
R R
R R R
R R R ) (

III = III:

C A
Z Y X
Z X Y
R R
R R R
R R R ) (

From these equations, the resistances for Y network:

Z Y X
Z Y
A
R R R
R R
R (4.41)

Z Y X
Z X
B
R R R
R R
R (4.42)

Z Y X
Y X
C
R R R
R R
R (4.43)


109

4.6.2 Y - Conversion

Let us now see how we can obtain the elements of a network which is equivalent
to a given Y - network. Similar to the above operations, the resistances of network:

A
X
R
RY
R (4.44)

B
Y
R
RY
R (4.45)

C
Z
R
RY
R (4.46)

where

C B C A B A
R R R R R R RY (4.47)

Example 4.4

Y networks can also be referred to as - T networks. The shapes look like these
characters as well. The following network can be reduced by applying Y conversion (or
- T conversion). Simplify the network and find the current i
x
.

Figure 4.13 The network for example 4.4.

i(t) i
x
(t)
1
2
5
2 4
2
A
B
C
D
R
AD

110
Solution:

Applying Y - conversion to the part of the circuit encircled, we obtain the following
simplified network (Fig.4.14):

Figure 4.14 The simplified network for example 4.4.

Now, using the current divider network expression:

) (
2 / 5 1
2 / 5
) ( t i t i
x

) (
7
5
) ( t i t i
x

4.7 Network Theorems

In this section, we will give the superposition, Thevenin and Norton theorems.

4.7.1 Superposition Theorem

If a linear network has two or more sources, we apply the superposition principle to
find any variables within the network.

Corollary:

The response of a linear network when two or more sources acting simultaneously is
the sum of the responses for each individual source acting alone with the remaining sources
being dead.

Killing the Sources:

(1) Killing a voltage source:

For killing a voltage source, we make it short circuit.

(2) Killing a current source:

For killing a current source, we make it open circuit.

5/2
R
AD
i(t)
D
A
1
i
x
(t)

111
Example 4.5

Apply the superposition theorem to find the unknown current i
x
for the circuit given in
Fig.4.15.

Figure 4.15 Circuit for example 4.5.

Solution:

In this network, there are two independent sources. One is a voltage source and the
other is a current source. We will apply the superposition theorem. First, lets kill the voltage
source by making it short circuit. The result is shown in Fig.4.16. Then we find the unknown
current i
x
. Lets call this current as i
x1
because it is the response corresponding the first source.

Figure 4.16 The network after the voltage source is killed.

The current passing now is

A i
x
4
1
(4.48)

Second, lets kill the current source by making it open circuit. The result is shown in
Fig.4.17. Then we find the unknown current i
x
. Lets call this current as i
x2
because it is the
response corresponding the second source.

Figure 4.17 The network after the current source is killed.
4
4
+
v(t)=40V
i
x
i(t)=8A
i(t)=8A 4
i
x1
4
4
i
x2
v(t)=40V
+
4

112

The current passing now is

A i
x
5
8
40
2
(4.49

The overall current is the sum of the currents in Eqn.4.48 and 4.49:

A i i i
x x x
1 5 4
2 1

4.7.2 Thevenin and Norton Theorems

Thevenin Equivalent:

An independent voltage source and a resistor in series with it as shown in
Fig.4.18 can represent a linear network seen from the same terminal points..

Figure 4.18 Thevenin equivalent

For Thevenin equivalent network,

(1)
0
0
0
TH
v
TH
i
v
R (4.50)

Thevenins equivalent resistance is the resistance seen at the terminals A and B when
all of the internal sources are dead.

(2)
0
0
0
i
TH
v v (4.51)

Thevenins equivalent voltage source is equal to the potential difference across the
terminals A and B when the terminals are open-circuited.

Port
Terminal A
Terminal B
R
i

Given network
N
Port
Terminal A
Terminal B
R
i

+
+
-
-
v
0

v
0

i
0

i
0

R
TH

v
TH

+

113
Norton Equivalent:

An independent current source and a resistor in parallel with it as shown in Fig.4.19
can represent a linear network seen from the same terminal points..

Figure 4.19 Norton equivalent

For Norton equivalent network,

(1)
0
0
0
N
i
N
i
v
R (4.52)

Nortons equivalent resistance is the resistance seen at the terminals A and B when all
of the internal sources are dead.

(2)
0
0
0
v
N
i i (4.53)

Nortons equivalent current source is equal to the current passing through the
terminals A and B when the terminals are short-circuited.

We can depict these theorems shortly as follows:

Lets take the Thevenin circuit shown in Fig.4.20

Figure 4.20 Thevenin equivalent circuit

Port
Terminal A
Terminal B
R
i

Given network
N
Port
Terminal A
Terminal B
R
i

+
+
-
-
v
0

v
0

i
0

i
0

R
N

i
N

+
open
circuit
A
B
+
-
v
0

i
0
=0
R
TH

v
TH

+

114
From Fig.4.20, we can see that

TH
v v
0
(4.54)

and to determine the Thevenin resistance, we can kill the independent voltage source (make it
short-circuit) as shown in Fig.4.21

Figure 4.21 Thevenin resistance

As seen, the Thevenin resistance is

TH AB
R R (4.55)

Similarly, we can determine Norton current and Norton resistance as well. Lets take
the Norton circuit shown in Fig.4.22

Figure 4.22 Norton equivalent circuit

From Fig.4.22, we can see that

0
i i
N
(4.56)

and to determine the Norton resistance, we can kill the independent current source (make it
open-circuit) as shown in Fig.4.23

Figure 4.23 Norton resistance

A
B
R
AB
= R
TH
+
-
v
0

R
TH

Port is
short-circuit
A
B
+
-
i
0
R
N

i
N

+
i
N
= - i
0

A
B
+
-
i
0
R
N

R
AB
= R
N

115
As seen, the Norton resistance is

N AB
R R (4.57)

Notice that the Thevenin resistance and the Norton resistance are equal to each other:

N TH
R R (4.58)

Example 4.6

Using Thevenins theorem, calculate the current i
x
in the network given below
(Fig.4.24)

Figure 4.24

Solution:

The circuit at the left hand side of the terminals A and B can be represented by the
Thevenins equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 4.25.

Figure 4.25 Thevenin equivalent circuit at the left hand side of A and B

We will now determine the Thevenins voltage and the Thevenins resistance for this
equivalent circuit.

In order to determine the Thevenins resistance at the left hand side, kill both
independent voltage sources (make them short-circuit) and draw the network again as shown
in Fig. 4.26.
2
2
+
v
1
(t)=4V
i
x
=?
+
R
L
A

B

4

8

v
2
(t)=6V
A
B
+
-
R
TH

v
TH

+
R
L
i
x

116

Figure 4.26 The circuit after killing the independent voltage sources

The Thevenins resistance now can be calculated as the resistance seen to the left from
Port AB as follows:

7
24
14
48
8 ) 2 4 (
8 ) 2 4 (
TH
R

The Thevenins voltage is the voltage at the Port AB when it is open-circuit. We can
use the superposition principle for determining the open-circuit pot voltage, i.e. the
Thevenins equivalent voltage:

Superposition principle:

First, lets kill the independent voltage at the right and draw the circuit again as
shown in Fig. 4.27, and calculate v
AB
voltage seen at the terminals A and B:

Figure 4.27 The circuit after killing the second independent voltage source

Using the voltage divider rule (VDR), we can easily calculate the open-circuit voltage:

V V V v
AB
7
16
14
32
4
8 2 4
8
'

2
A

B

4

8

R
TH

2
+
v
1
(t)=4V
A

B

4

8

+
-
v
AB


117

Second, lets kill the independent voltage at the left and draw the circuit again
as shown in Fig. 4.28, and calculate v
AB
voltage seen at the terminals A and B:

Figure 4.27 The circuit after killing the second independent voltage source

Using the voltage divider rule (VDR), we can easily calculate the open-circuit voltage:

V V V v
AB
7
18
14
36
6
8 2 4
2 4
' '

The overall open-circuit voltage is the algebraic sum of the above voltages:

AB AB TH AB
v v v v ' ' '

V v v
TH AB
7
34
7
18
7
16

Now, we have the following equivalent circuit (Fig.4.28):

Figure 4.28 The Thevenins equivalent circuit

From Fig.4.28, we can easily calculate the unknown current i
x
as follows:

A A
R R
v
i
L TH
TH
x
19
17
38
34
7 / 38
7 / 34
2 7 / 24
7 / 34

+
2
v
2
(t)=6V
A

B

4

8

+
-
v
AB

A
B
+
-
R
TH
=24/7
v
TH
=34/7 V
+
R
L
=2

i
x
=?


118
4.8 Maximum Power transfer and Matching

In electrical and electronics systems, electrical power is transferred from one block to
another. The conditions for maximum power transfer can be determined as follows. Since any
network can be represented by its Thevenins equivalent, we can draw a general network as in
Fig.4.29, where the part at the left from the terminals A and B represents the general network
and the load resistor at the right (R
L
) represents the network to which maximum power will be
transferred. Actually, R
L
is the input resistance of the next block.

Figure 4.29 The Thevenins equivalent circuit for maximum power transfer and matching

The power delivered to the load resistor is

) ( ) ( ) ( t i t v t p
L L L
(4.59)

we can write both v
L
(t) and i
L
(t) in terms of resistances and Thevenins voltage as follows:

) (
1
) ( ) ( t v
R R
t v
R R
R
t p
TH
S L
TH
S L
L
L
(4.60)

The first factor is from the VDR and the second part is from the Ohms law. Lets arrange the
expression:

) (
) (
) (
2
2
t v
R R
R
t p
TH
S L
L
L
(4.61)

Since the maximum or minimum values occur at the points where the slope of the tangent is
zero, i.e. the derivative of the function with respect to the independent variable at the points is
zero, we can find the maximum power transfer condition by taking the derivative of the power
function (Eqn.4.61) with respect to the load resistance value as follows

0
L
L
p
dR
d
(4.62)

Putting p
L
in eqn.4.61 into Eqn.4.62:

A
B
+
-
R
S

v
TH

+
R
L
i
L
v
L


119

)] (
) (
[ ) (
2
2
t v
R R
R
dR
d
t p
dR
d
TH
S L
L
L
L
L

0
) (
) ( 2 ) ( 1
4
2
S L
L S L S L
R R
R R R R R
(4.63)

From the numerator of eqn.4.63, we can write

L S L S
R R R R 0
2 2
(4.64)

Eqn.4.64 is the condition for maximum power transfer.

It is also known as the impedance matching condition.

Here we only take into account the resistive networks. Similar condition applies for
the RLC networks as well.

4.9 Loop and Node Equations

The above network theorem can facilitate to determine individual system variables on
individual system elements. However, in most applications, one want to obtain all the
unknown variables (voltages and currents) on the elements at the same time. In such a
situation, there are two well-known methods to determine all variables at the same time. They
are namely loop equations and node equations methods.

4.9.1 Loop Equations

The loop equations can be obtained by using Kirchoff Voltage Law (KVL). For each
fundamental loop, a KVL is written and the equations are put into matrix-vector form. The
unknowns for these equations are the loop currents. And then the matrix-vector equation is
solved either by hand or by computer. The loop equations are of the form shown below:

R i = v (4.65)

Where R is a resistive symmetric matrix with nxn (n is the number of fundamental loops), i is
the unknown loop currents vector and v is the independent voltage sources vector given in the
network.
Since the matrix R is a non-singular square symmetric matrix, it can be invertible.
Hence the solution of the equation is

i = R
-1
v (4.66)

we can explain the method by an example.

120

Example 4.6

Given the network in Fig.4.30, obtain the loop equations in matrix-vector form.

Figure 4.30 The fundamental loops

Solution:

First of all, the fundamental loops are determined. We choose a direction of the loop
where the loop current is circulated. Normally, the direction of circulation can be determined
in any way. However, for standardization of the methods, we will choose the direction of
circulation of fundamental loops as clock-wise (CW) direction. We give names to each loop
as i
1
, i
2
, etc. Then, the KVL is applied to each loop.

In this example, we have two fundamental loops, namely, i
1
, and i
2
. We choose them
in CW direction. Now, lets apply the KVL to the loops: When circulating around the loop,
we take minus (-) if we enter an independent voltage source from the minus () side and we
take plus (+) if we enter an independent voltage source from the plus (+) side. The voltages of
the resistors with respect to the direction of the loop is taken as plus (+).

For the first loop, KVL:

0
2 2 1 1
v v v v
R R
(4.67)

For the second loop, KVL:

0
3 4 3 2 2
v v v v v
R R R
(4.68)

Now, writing the v
Ri
s in terms of loop currents, Eqn.4.67 and 4.68:

0 ) (
2 2 1 2 1 1 1
v i i R i R v (4.69)

0 ) (
3 2 4 2 3 1 2 2 2
v i R i R i i R v (4.70)

R
2
+
v
1

v
2

+
R
1
R
3
v
3
+ -
-
-
R
3
i
1
i
2

121

By arranging the eqn.4.69 and 70 in matrix-vector form, we can write:

3 2
2 1
2
1
4 3 2 2
2 2 1
) (
) (
v v
v v
i
i
R R R R
R R R
(4.71)

As seen the 2x2 matrix is symmetric. We can solve it easily and we obtain the loop currents
i
1
, and i
2
After we obtain the loop currents, we can write all the other variables in terms of
these current variables.

4.9.2 Node Equations

The node equations can be obtained by using Kirchoff Current Law (KCL). For each
fundamental node, a KCL is written and the equations are put into matrix-vector form. The
unknowns for these equations are the node voltages. However, one of the appropriate nodes is
chosen as the ground. The voltage of the ground node is zero. All the other node voltages are
calculated with reference to this ground node level. And then the matrix-vector equation is
solved either by hand or by computer. The node equations are of the form shown below:

G v = i (4.72)

Where G is a conductive symmetric matrix with nxn (n is the number of fundamental nodes),
v is the unknown node voltages vector and i is the independent current sources vector given in
the network.
Since the matrix G is a non-singular square symmetric matrix, it can be invertible.
Hence the solution of the equation is

v = G
-1
i (4.73)

we can explain the method by an example.

Example 4.7

Given the network in Fig.4.31, obtain the node equations in matrix-vector form.

Figure 4.31 The fundamental nodes

R
1

R
2

R
3

i
1
i
2
A B
C
i
1
i
R1
i
R2
i
R2
i
R3
i
2

122
Solution:

First of all, the fundamental nodes are determined. One of the nodes is chosen as
ground. We choose the directions of the node currents as follows: Normally, the direction of
current can be determined in any way. However, for standardization of the methods, we will
choose the direction of currents according to the entrance to a node. If an independent current
source is available, its current direction is taken as it is. For the currents of the resistors for the
node in hand is chosen to be outside the node. We give names to each node as v
A
, v
B
, etc.
Then, the KCL is applied to each loop.

In this example, we have three fundamental nodes, namely, v
A
, v
B
, and v
C
. We choose
the node C as ground. Hence v
C
=0V. Then the currents that enter into or away from the nodes
are drawn on the circuit. If we are in the node A, for example, i1 is taken as it is since it is the
current of the independent current source. But we take the currents belonging to the resistors
connected to node A as awaying from the node A. Same rule is applied to node B as well. The
currents that enter the node is taken as negative (-), and for the currents that away from the
node is taken as plus (+).

For the first node A, KCL:

0
2 1 1 R R
i i i (4.74)

For the second node B, KCL:

0
3 2 2 R R
i i i (4.75)

Now, writing the i
Ri
s in terms of node voltages, :

0 ) (
2 1 1 B A A
v v G v G i (4.76)

0 ) (
3 2 2 B A B
v G v v G i (4.77)

By arranging the eqn.4.76 and 77 in matrix-vector form, we can write:

2
1
3 2 2
2 2 1
) (
) (
i
i
v
v
G G G
G G G
B
A
(4.78)

As seen the 2x2 matrix is symmetric. We can solve it easily and we obtain the node voltages
v
A
, and v
B
After we obtain the node voltages, we can write all the other variables in terms of
these current variables.


123
QUESTIONS

1. Determine the equivalent resistance seen at the source terminals A and B of the
network given in Fig. P.4.1

Figure P.4.1

2. Determine the equivalent resistance seen at the source terminals A and B of the

Figure P.4.2

3. Determine the equivalent resistance seen at the source terminals A and D of the

Figure P.4.3

2
+
v
1
(t)=4V
B

4

8

A

2

A
B
v
TH

+
R
L
R
s
i(t) i
x
(t)
1
2
5
2 4
2
A B
C
D
R
AD

124
4. Determine the equivalent resistance seen at the source terminals A and D of the

Figure P.4.4

5. Find the current i
x
passing through the resistor R
L
.

Figure P.4.5

6. Find the current i
x
passing through the resistor R
L
.

Figure P.4.6

7. Find the power dissipated in R
s
(Fig.P.4.6).

i
x
(t)
1
5
2 4
2
A
B
C
D
1
A
B
V=9V
+
R
L
= 100
R
s
=100
x
=?
A
B
V=9V
+
R
L
= 200
R
s
=100
x
=?
R
i
= 200

125
8. Determine the voltage in load resistor R
L
in Fig.P.4.7.

Figure P.4.7

L
in Fig.P.4.8.

Figure P.4.8

L
in Fig.P.4.9.

Figure P.4.9

11. Determine Thevenins and Nortons equivalent circuits seen from the terminals A and
B for the circuit given in Fig.P.4.10.

Figure P.4.10

V=9V
+
R
s
=100
R
L
= 200
V=6V
+
R
T
=100
+
-
V
L
= ?
V=9V
+
R
s
=100
R
L
= 200
I=1A
+
R
T
=100
+
-
V
L
= ?
V=9V
+
R
s
=100
R
L
= 200
R
T
=100
+
-
V
L
= ?
I=1A
R
P
=100
i(t)
1
2
5
2 4
2
A B
C
D

126
12. In order to transfer maximum power to the resistor R
L
, what shall be its resistance?
(Fig.P.4.11)

Figure P.4.11

13. Obtain the loop equations for the network given in Fig. P.4.12 and solve the equations.
Determine all the unknown variables (all voltages and currents of the resistors).

Figure P.4.12

14. Obtain the node equations for the network given in Fig. P.4.13 and solve the
equations. Determine all the unknown variables (all voltages and currents of the resistors).

Figure P.4.13

V=9V
+
R
s
=200
R
P
= 200
+
R
T
=100
A
B
R
L
= ?
2
2
+
v
1
(t)=4V
+
4

8

v
2
(t)=6V
i
1
(t)=2A
1
2
5
2 4
2
A B
C
D
i
2
(t)=3A
CHAPTER 5 State Space representation of Electrical Systems

127

CHAPTER 5

State Space Representation of Electrical Systems

Contents

CHAPTER 5 ....................................................................................................................... 127
State Space Representation of Electrical Systems .................................................... 127
5.1 GRAPH THEORY ................................................................................................. 128
5.2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF THE GRAPH THEORY ................................................ 128
5.3 SYSTEM GRAPH AND STATE EQUATIONS ................................................... 135
5.4 SOLUTION OF STATE EQUATIONS .................................................................... 147
CHAPTER 5 ........................................................................................................................... 161
QUESTIONS .......................................................................................................................... 161


128

5.1 GRAPH THEORY

A system whether physical systems such as mechanical, hydraulically, electrical or
socio-economical systems such as financial, educational, military etc can be formulated
mathematically in the same way. Systems having different nature can be represented as
electrical systems. Since the design, analysis, establishment and measurement of electrical
systems are very easy, and the solutions are systematic, they are preferred by the engineers.
Here we give a systematic way of modeling, formulating and solving electrical systems. This
method is facilitated by the use of the so-called Graph Theory. In this chapter, first we
introduce the concept and definitions of the general graph theory, and then we will apply it to
formulate state equations of the electrical systems. Graph theory can give an easy way for the
determination of minimum number of states that is needed to obtain state space representation
of the electrical systems.

The Graph theory was developed by the famous scientist Euler (1707 1782) when he
has presented his famous Knigsberg bridge problem. This problem is as follows: In the town
Knigsberg, there are two islands on Pregel river which are linked to each other and to the
banks of the river by seven bridges. The problem was to start at any one of the four land spots
and without swimming or flying or traveling around the world, cross each bridge exactly once
and return the starting point.

5.2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF THE GRAPH THEORY

In previous chapters, we defined the basic building blocks of the electrical systems as
2-terminal components. By combining these 2-terminal elements, we can construct systems.
Here, we use simple line segments to describe a component and combining the line segments
we will construct the graphs (see Fig.5.1) After giving the basic concepts, we will learn how
to obtain the state equations using the graph of the electrical networks. A graph related to a
system is as shown in Fig. 5.2.

Figure 5.1. The graph of a two-terminal component.

A
B
A
B

129

Figure 5.2. The graph of a system.

Edge

A line segment is called an edge. It is the fundamental element of the graph.

Node (Vertex)

The each of the two terminal points of an edge is called a node or a vertex.

In Fig. 5.3, an edge and two nodes are shown.

Figure 5.3 An edge

Graph

The set of edges is called a graph.

G = { k
1
, k
2
, ..., k
n
}

In Fig. 5.4, a graph is shown. A grapgh can be composed of several isolated parts.

A
B
C
D
A Node (Vertex)
B Node (Vertex)
Edge

130

Figure 5.4. A graph.
Sub Graph

Any sub set composed of one or more edges of a graph is called a sub graph.

AG G

Example 5.1

Determine at least two sub grapghs of the graph shown in Fig. 5.4.

Solution:

AG
1
= { k
1
, k
2
, k
3
}

AG
2
= { k
2
, k
4
, k
6
}

Connected Graph

A path connecting any two nodes of a graph through the edges is called a connected
graph. In Fig. 5.5, two examples of connected graphs are shown.

(a) (b)

Figure 5.5.Two examples for connected graphs.

k
1

k
2

k
3

k
5

k
6

k
4

k
1

k
2

k
3

k
4
k
5

k
6

d
1

d
2

d
3

d
4

d
1

d
2

d
3

d
4

k
1

k
2

k
3

d
1

d
2

d
3

d
4

d
5

d
6

k
7


131

Isolated Graph

If a graph is not connected, it is called isolated graph.

Closed Loop or Closed Circuit

The route starting from a node of a graph, moving through the edges only once, and
reaching again the same node that is starting node is called a closed loop or closed circuit. In
Fig. 5.6, the closed loops related to a given graph are shown.

Figure 5.6. The closed loops or closed circuits related to a graph.

The closed loops are:

D
1
= { k
1
, k
2
, k
3
}

D
2
= { k
3
, k
4
, k
5
}

D
3
= { k
2
, k
4
, k
6
}

D
4
= { k
1
, k
5
, k
6
}

D
5
= {k
1
, k
2
, k
4
, k
5
}

D
6
= { k
1
, k
3
, k
6
}

D
7
= { k
2
, k
3
, k
5
, k
7
}

Tree

In a connected graph of n edges, the sub graphs containing all the nodes without any
break and without constituting any closed loops, and having n-1 edges are called trees.

k
1

k
3

k
5

k
2
k
4

k
6

d
1

d
2

d
3

d
4


132
In Fig. 5.7, all the trees belonging to a graph are shown. As seen, any graph might
have more than one tree satisfying the above rule.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 5.7. A connected graph and related trees.(red sub graphs).

Trees for a given graph are:

A
1
= { k
1
, k
3
, k
5
}

A
2
= { k
1
, k
2
, k
6
}

A
3
= { k
4
, k
5
, k
6
}

A
4
= { k
3
, k
4
, k
6
}

A
5
= { k
2
, k
3
, k
6
}

Branch

Any edge of a tree is called a branch.

d
1

d
2

d
3

d
4

k
1

k
2

k
3

k
4

k
5

k
6

d
1

d
2

d
3

d
4

k
1

k
2

k
3

k
4

k
5

k
6

d
1

d
2

d
3

d
4

k
1

k
2

k
3

k
4

k
5

k
6

d
1

d
2

d
3

d
4

k
1

k
2

k
3

k
4

k
5

k
6

d
1

d
2

d
3

d
4

k
1

k
2

k
3

k
4

k
5

k
6

d
1

d
2

d
3

d
4

k
1

k
2

k
3

k
4

k
5

k
6


133

Co Tree

The sub graph obtained by removing the tree from a graph is called co tree. The co
trees related to the graph in Fig. 5.7 are:

TA
1
= { k
2
, k
4
, k
6
}

TA
2
= { k
3
, k
4
, k
5
}

TA
3
= { k
1
, k
2
, k
3
}

TA
4
= { k
1
, k
2
, k
5
}

TA
5
= {k
1
, k
4
, k
5
}

Notice that,

A
i
TA
i
= G (for any i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

Chord

Each of the edges of a co-tree is called a chord.

Fundamental Circuit (Loop)

A closed circuit consisting of only one chord and branches connected to it in a
sequential way starting from one terminal and ending at the other terminal of the chord is
called a fundamental circuit (or fundamental loop). In short it is written as f-circuit (or f-loop)
There is a related f-circuit for each chord in a graph. For example, there are three f-circuits for
the graph given in Fig. 5.7 (a). These f-circuits are shown in Fig. 5.8.

Figure 5.8. Fundamental circuits (f-circuits of f-loops).
Fundamental Cutset

d
1

d
2

d
3

d
4

k
1

k
2

k
3

k
4

k
5

k
6

1
2
3

134
The line separating the graph into two parts by cutting only one branch and as many
chords as necessary is called a fundamental cutest (f-cutset). There are related f-cutsets for
each branch of the tree of a graph. Fundamental cutsets for each branch are shown in Fig. 5.9.

Figure 5.9. Fundamental cutsets (f-cutsets).

Directed Graph

A graph whose edges have directions is called a directed graph.

In a directed graph, the direction of rotation of a fundamental circuit
is assumed to be the direction of the related chord.

In a directed graph, the direction of passage is assumed to be the direction of the
related fundamental cutset.

In Fig. 5.10, a directed graph, f-circuits and f-cutsets are shown..

Figure 5.10. A directed graph, f-circuits and f-cutsets.

d
1

d
2

d
3

d
4

k
1

k
2

k
3

k
4

k
5

k
6

1
2
3
d
1

d
2

d
3

d
4

k
1

k
2

k
3

k
4

k
5

k
6

1
2
3
1
2
3

135
5.3 SYSTEM GRAPH AND STATE EQUATIONS

In this chapter, the graphs, proper tree selection, determination of states and
establishing the state equations of the systems composed of two-terminal elements
(components) given in Chapter 3 are explained. The proper tree selection of the elements
storing energy such as capacitors and inductors, that is the trees of the graphs related to the
dynamical systems are depended upon some rules. In this chapter, these rules are given and
the mathematical formulation of these systems is obtained in the form of matrix-vector
equations.

Two-Terminal Components, Their Graphs and Reference Directions

In this section two-terminal electrical elements (components) are given and their
graphs and related reference directions are defined. Actually all the physical and socio-
economical systems have electrical equivalence, therefore the definitions given in this section
can also be applied to the other physical variables and parameters. The two-terminal elements
considered here are linear and time-invariant components. The flow variable and across
variable of these quantities are called current variable and voltage variable respectively.

Basic two-terminal elements (components) are as follows:

(1) (1) Resistor

(2) (2) Open-circuit

(3) (3) Closed-circuit

(4) (4) Capacitor

(5) (5) Inductor

(6) (6) Voltage source

(7) (7) Current source

The two-terminal elements, their symbols, their graphs, their terminal equations and
characteristics are shown in Fig. 5.11. here all two-terminal elements are ideal components.


136

Name of the
Element
(Component)
Symbol Graph
(Reference
Directions)
Terminal
Equations(Mathematical
Model)
Characteristics

General

Linear, Time-
Invariant

Resistor

Open-Circuit

Short-Circuit

Capasitor

Inductor

Voltage
Source

Whatever the drawn
current is, v(t)does not
change

Current
Source

Whatever the voltage
across it is, i(t) does not
change

Figure 5.11. Two-terminal linear time invariant elements (components).
A
B
+
-
i(t)
v(t)
A
B
i(t)
v(t)
i(t) = g(v)
v(t) =f(i)
or
A
B
i
R
(t)
v
R
(t)
A
B
i(t)
v(t)
A
B
i(t)
v(t)
A
B
i
C
(t)
v
C
(t)
A
B
i
L
(t)
v
L
(t)
A
B
i(t)
v(t)
A
B
i(t)
v(t)
Slope=R
v
i
Slope=
v
i
Slope=0
v
i
Slope=C
q
v
Slope=L

i
Slope=0
v
i
v(t)
Slope=
v
i
i(t)
v
R
(t) =R i
R
(t)
or
i
R
(t) =G v
R
(t)

G = 1!R
i(t) = 0
R=

G = 0
v(t) = 0
R = 0

G=
q
C
(t) =C v
C
(t)
d
i
C
(t) =C v
C
(t)
dt

v
C
(0)=given initial
value
L
(t) =L i
L
(t)
d
v
L
(t) =L i
L
(t)
dt

i
L
(0)=given initial
value

137

Drawing System Graph

In order to draw the graph of a system composed of basic elements, first of all its
electrical equivalent is obtained. If the system initially is an electrical system, then there is no
need to such an equivalent. Then the graph corresponding to the electrical system is drawn.
The reference directions on each edge are determined. The reference directions of the sources
are accepted as given directions. The reference directions of the other components are chosen
optionally.

In the following example, an electrical network and its corresponding graph are
shown.

Example 5.2

Draw the graph of the system given in Fig. 5.12 and choose the reference directions.

Figure 5.12. An electrical system.

Solution:

System graph is considered as the corresponding equivalent drawing of system in
terms of edges. The graph of the electrical system given and reference directions are shown in
Fig. 5.13.

Figure 5.13. The graph of a given electrical system.

i(t)
v(t)
+
-
L
R
1
v
L
(t)
+
-
i
L
(t)
R
2

C
i
C
(t)
v
C
(t)
+
-
R
1
R
2

C
v(t)
L

138

Proper Tree Selection for R,L,C Network

The proper tree selection in the graph of a system in which energy dissipating
elements such as resistors (R) and energy storing elements such as capacitors and inductors (C
and L) are available cannot be done without obeying the following rules. We have to apply
the following rules:

(1) The edge corresponding to voltage sources are chosen as the branch of
the tree..

(2) The edges corresponding to as much capacitors as must be chosen as
the branches of the tree.

(3) If the tree is not completed, then enough number of resistors can be
chosen as the branches of the tree.

(4) The edges corresponding to as much inductor as must be chosen as the
chords of the co-tree.

(5) The edge corresponding to current sources are chosen as the chords of
the co-tree..

Example 5.3:

Select a proper tree for the graph corresponding to the electrical system given
in Fig. 5.12.

Solution:

There are a voltage source and a current source in the given electrical system.
The edges corresponding to them are chosen as the branches of the tree. In order to complete
the tree, the edge corresponding to the resistor R
2
is also chosen as the branch of the tree. In
such a way, the proper tree can be established (Fig. 5.14). The tree is given as

A:{v, C, R
2
}

Figure 5.14. The proper tree corresponding to the given electrical system.

C
v
L
R
1
R
2


139
Fundamental-Circuit (loop) and Fundamental Cutset Equations
(f-circuits or f-loops and f-cutsets)

The f-circuit and f-cutset equations related to a graph whose proper tree has been
selected are written for all fundamental circuits and fundamental cutsets after the
determination of the f-circuits and f-cutsets for the given graph.

Fundamental Circuit (Loop) Equations (f-circuit or f-loop equations)

By taking the chord as the reference, the Kirchoff Voltage Law (KVL) for each f-
circuit is written. As we know, the KVL can be expressed to be the algebraic sum of all
voltages around a loop is zero.

Example 5.4

Write the f-circuit equations for the electrical system given in Fig. 5.12.

Solution:

By redrawing the graph given in Fig. 5.14 again in Fig. 5.15, and determining
the f-circuits related to the chord R
1
and L, lets write the f-circuit equations.

The direction of a f-circuit is determined as the direction of the chord related to
it. A f-circuit starts from one end point of a chord and ends in the other end point by walking
only through the branches and constituting a closed loop.

Figure 5.15. Fundamental circuits (f-circuits or f-loops)

Let the f-circuit related to the chord R
1
be D
1
and the f-circuit related to the
chord L be D
2
:

D : {R
1
, C, v}

D
2
: {L, C, R
2
}

Lets write the KVL for the f-circuits D
1
and D
2
:

For D
1
KVL:

v
R1
+ v
c
v = 0 (5.1)

C
v
L
R
1
R
2

2
1

140
For D
2
KVL:

v
L
- v
c
+ v
R2
= 0 (5.2)

Eqn.(5.1) and (5.2) are fundamental circuit equations.

Fundamental Cutset Equations (f-cutset)

In a graph, the Kirchoff Current Law (KCL) is written for each fundamental cutset by
taking the direction of the branch of this cutest as the reference. As we know, the KCL can be
expressed to be the algebraic sum of all currents passing through the f-cutset are zero.

Example 5.5

Write the fundamental cutset equations for the electrical system given in Fig. 5.12.

Solution :

Redrawing the graph given in Fig. 5.14 in Fig. 5.16, determining the f-cutsets
related to the branches of the, v, C and R
2
, lets write the f-cutset equations. One f-cutset is
taken for each of the branches. The f-cutset is the line separating the graph into two parts by
passing through only the branch itself and as necessary number of chords as possible.

The reference direction of the f-cutset is selected as the direction of the related
branch and the KCL is applied.

Figure 5.16. Fundamental Cutsets (f-cutsets).

Let the f-cutset related to the branch v be K
1,
related to the branch C be K
2,
and related
to the branch R
2
be K
3
.

K
1
: {v, R
1
}

K
2
: {C, R
1
,

L}

K
3
: {R
2
,

L}

For K
1
, K
2
and K
3
, the KCLs:

For K
1
, KVCL:

i
v
+i
R1
= 0 (5.3)
C
v
L
R
1
R
2

2
3
1

141

For K
2
, KCL:

i
c
+i
L
- i
R1
= 0 (5.4)

For K
3
, KCL

i
R1
- i
L
= 0 (5.5)

Eqn. (5.3), (5.4) and (5.5) are the f-cutset equations.

Determination of State variables and Obtaining State Equations:

The next step after establishing f-circuit and f-cutset equations is the determination of
the state variables and then obtaining state equations.

State Variables
In a R, L, C system, the state variables are the voltages of capacitors in the tree
and the currents of the inductors in the co-tree. That is

v
c
(t)
and
i
L
(t)

Obtaining the State Equations

By starting from the terminal equation of the component related to the state variable
and using the f-circuits and f-cutsets equations and the terminal equations of the other
components, we can obtain the first order differential equations called state equations for each
state variable. A state equation is an equation composed of only state variables and known
source variables. After writing each state equation for each state variable, they are put into
matrix-vector form for overall state equation.

In short, for all capacitors in the tree and for all inductors in the co-tree, a state
equation is written.

Example 5.6

Determine the state variables for the electrical system given in Example 5.2
and obtain the state equations of the system. Put them into matrix-vector form.

Solution:

There is one capacitor, C, in the tree and one inductor L in the co-tree selected
for the given electrical system. Therefore, the state variables are the voltage of the capacitor in
the tree and the current of the inductor in the co-tree. That is the state variables are

x
1
(t) = v
c
(t)
and
x
2
(t) = i
L
(t) dir.

142
The state equation for each state variable can be obtained by starting from the terminal
equation as follows. The variables inside any state equation must be the state variables and the
voltage and/or current variables of known sources (voltage and/or current sources)

The terminal equation of the capacitor in the tree:

(5.6)

Here, lets put the right-hand side of the Eqn.(5.4) for i
c
(t) into Eqn.(5.6) because i
c
(t)
is not a state variable. We have to establish the state equation only interms of state variables
and/or known source variables. From eqn.(5.4):

i
c
(t) = - i
L
(t) + i
R1
(t) (5.7)

Lets put Eqn.(5.7) into Eqn.(5.6):

(5.8)

The variable i
R1
is not a state variable. From the terminal equation of resistor R
1
:

(5.9)

From Eqn. (5.1):

v
R1
(t) = -v
c
(t)+v(t) (5.10)

Put Eqn. (5.10) into Eqn.(5.9):

(5.11)

Put Eqn.(5.11) into Eqn.(5.8):

(5.12)

As seen, Eqn.(5.12) includes now only state variables and a known source variable.

Lets arrange Eqn.(5.12):

(5.13)

1
i
R1
(t) = v
R1
(t)
R
1

1
i
R1
(t) =

(- v
c
(t) + v(t))
R
1

0 1 1
v
c
(t) =

[-i
L
(t) +

(- v
c
(t) + v(t)) ]
C R
1

0 1 1 1
v
c
(t) = -

v
c
(t) -

i
L
(t) +

v (t)
R
1
C C

R
1
C

d 0
C

v
c
(t) = C v
c
(t) = i
c
(t)
dt

0
1
v
c
(t) =

i
c
(t)
C

0 1
v
c
(t) = [-i
L
(t) + i
R1
(t)]
C

143
The first state equation is Eqn.(5.13).

Now, lets obtain the second state equation:

The terminal equation of the inductor in the co-tree is:

(5.16)

from Eqn.(5.2):

v
L
(t) = v
c
(t) - v
R2
(t) (5.15)

The terminal equation of the resistor R
2
:

v
R2
(t) = R
2 .
i
R2
(t) (5.16)

from Eqn.(5.5):

i
R2
(t) = i
L
(t) (5.17)


v
R2
(t) = R
2 .
i
L
(t) (5.18)


v
L
(t) = v
c
(t) - R
2
i
L
(t) (5.19)


(5.20)

As seen, Eqn.(5.20) also includes only state variables. Lets arrange Eqn.(5.20):

(5.21)

The second state equation is Eqn.(5.21).

Lets put Eqn.(5.13) and Eqn.(5.21) into matrix-vector form.

d 0
L

i
L
(t) = L i
L
(t) = v
L
(t)
dt

0 1
i
L
(t) =

v
L
(t)
L

0 1
i
L
(t) =

[v
c
(t) - R
2
i
L
(t)]
L

0 1 R
2

i
L
(t) =

v
c
(t) -

i
L
(t)
L L

0 1 1 1
v
c
(t) = -

v
c
(t) -

i
L
(t) +

v (t)
R
1
C C

R
1
C


144

= + v (t) (5.22)

Eqn.(5.22) is the state equation of the electrical system given in Fig.5.12.

If we put this equation into the general form,

= + u(t) (5.23)

or
o
x (t) = A x(t) + B u(t) (5.24)

Where

x (t) : 2x1 vector

A : 2x2 matrix

B : 2x1 matrix

u(t) : 1x1 scaler

Response Equation (Output Equation)

In a system there may be one or more outputs. The equation giving the output
variables is called the response equation The response equation is in the form of an
algebraic equation and it is also in terms of state variables and known source variables. The
response equation in general has the following form:

y (t) = C x(t) + D u(t) (5.25)

d
x
1
(t)
dt

d

x
2
(t)
dt

x
1
(t

x
2
(t)

1

R
1
C

0

0 1 R
2

i
L
(t) =

v
c
(t) -

i
L
(t)
L L

0
v
c
(t)

0
i
L
(t)

1 1
- -
R
1
C C

1 R
2
-
L L

v
C
(t)

i
L
(t)

1 1
- -
R
1
C C

1 R
2
-
L L

1

R
1
C

0


145
Where, A is nxn , that is there are n state variables, the input vector u is mx1 and the output
vector y is rx1

and the matrices are

C
rxn,
and

D
rxm
.

r is the number of outputs and m is the number of inputs.

Example 5.7

The output of the electrical system given in Example 5.2 is the voltage across
the resistor R
2
. Write the response equation.

Solution :

The output variable is

y(t)
=
v
R2
(t)

(5.26)

We have to express v
R
(t) in terms of state variables and source variables. The terminal
equation of the resistor R
2
is

v
R2 =
R
2 .
i
R2
(t) (5.27)

From Eqn.(5.5) :

i
R2
(t)
=
i
L
(t) (5.28)


v
R2 =
R
2 .
i
L
(t) (5.29)

Put Eqn.(5.29) into matrix-vector form:

(5.30)

Eqn.(5.30) is the response equation. In general, we can write it as follows:

y(t)= C x (t) (5.31)

Where C =[ 0 R
2
] and D = 0dr.

The Steps for Obtaining State Equations

While obtaining the state equation of a dynamical system, the steps below have to be
followed:

(1) Draw the electricasl equivalent of the system.

(2) Draw the graph of the electrical system.

v
C
(t)
v
R2
= [0 R
2
]
i
L
(t)


146

(3) Select a proper tree.

(4) Determine the state variables according to the selected tree.

(5) Determine f-circuits and f-cutsets in the graph.

(6) Write f-circuit and f-cutset equations.

(7) Starting from the terminal equations of the components having state variables,
write the state equations for each of them.

(8) Write the response equation.

(9) Put the state equations and response equation into matrix-vector form.


147
5.4 SOLUTION OF STATE EQUATIONS

The general forms of the state equations and the output equation in matrix-vector form
are as follows:

o
x(t) = A x(t) + B u(t)

y(t) = C x(t) + D u(t)

x (t
0
) = x (0) = x
0
initial condition (value)

where x
nx1
(t) is a vector, A
nxn
is a matrix, B
nxm
is a matrix, u
mx1
(t) is a vector, y
rx1
(t), is a
vector, C
rxn
is a matrix and D
rxm
is a matrix.

If there is no coupling between the input and the output, then D =0 .

In this representation,

x (t) : state variable vector

n :number of state variables

m : number of inputs

r :number of outputs

Homogeneous State Equation and its Solution

In a state equation, if the inputs are zero, then the equation obtained is called a
homogeneous state equation.:

o
x(t) = A x(t) (5.32)

x (t
0
) = x (0) = x
0

This homogeneous equation is linear, time-invariant and its solution is

x (t) = e
A(t t
0
)
x
0
t t
0
(5.33)

Homework 5.1

Obtain Eqn.(5.33) by using the Taylor power series expansion of x(t).


148
Solution of the Non-homogeneous State Equation

Since the non-homogeneous state equation includes the inputs, it is shown as in the
following:

o
x(t) = A x(t) + B u(t) (5.34)

The solution of the differential equation given in Eqn.(5.34) is

t
x (t) = e
A(t t
0
)
x(t
0
)+ e
A(t )
B u() d (5.35)
t
0

where x(t
0
) is the initial condition of the sate vector. The initial time t
0
can be taken as zero
for linear systems, that is, t
0
= 0 . In this case, the solution of the state equation:

t
x (t) = e
At
x( 0)+ e
A(t )
B u() d (5.36)

0

Homework 5.2

Show that the solution of the non-homogeneous state equation is Eqn.(5.35).

State Tarnsition Matrix e
At

In order to find the solution given in Eqn.(5.34) and (5.35), we have to calculate the
matrix e
At
The matrix e
At
is called the State Transition Matrix. The state transition matrix is a
very important matrix for the solution of the state equations and has the following properties.

The properties of the State Transition Matrix

(1) e
At
= I (5.37)

(2) e
A(t
2
t
1
)
e
A(t
1
t
0
)
= e
A(t
2
t
0
)
(5.38)

(3) [ e
A(t t
0
)
]
1
= e
A(t
0
t )
(5.39)

or more simply for t
0
= 0

[ e
At
]
1
= e
A t
(5.40)


149

The Methods for the Calculation of the State Transition Matrix e
At

t is possible to calculate the state transition matrix e
At
in several ways. Some nice
solution methods are given below.

(1) Diagonalization method

(2) Power series expansion method

(3) Laplace transformation method

(4) Polynomial expansion method

(5) Constituent matrix method

Lets see these methods now.

(1) Diagonalization Method

This method is used when the eigenvalues are distinct. In the multiple eigenvalues
case, it is some how difficult.

Lets assume that the eigenvalues of the matrix A are distinct. In this case,

e
A t
= M e
t
M

1
(5.41)

burada

e
1
e
2
.... e
n

M =

Is the modal matrix and e
i
s are eigenvectors corresponding to them.

(2) Power Series expansion method

This method utilizes the result of the Theorem 4.12. As we know, the function e
A t
is
convergent and it can be expanded into a power series. The method used here is more
appropriate for machine calculation rather than hand calculation, because, it has a recursive
nature as in the following.

e
A t
= (1/k!) A
k
k=0


150

(3) Laplace Tarnsform Method

In case one knows the Laplace transfor, this method can be use. We will learn the
Laplace transform later in the part of frequency domain representation of dynamical systems.
But, for familiarity to the technique, we will explain the method here.

o
x(t) = A x(t) , x (t
0
) = x (0) = x
0

we know that

x (t) = e
A t
x
0
t t
0
(5.42)

By using the laplace transform of the Eqn.(5.42),

sX(s) x
0
= A X(s) (5.43)

where X(s),is the laplace transform of x(t).

By arranging Eqn.(5.43),

[s I A ] X(s) = x
0
(5.44)

Taking X(s) from the Eqn.(5.44),

X(s) = [s I A ]
1
x
0
(5.45)

From here we can obtain x(t) by using the inverse Laplace transform:

x(t) =
-1
{[s I A ]
1
} x
0
(5.46)

From Eqn.(5.42) and (5.46):

e
A t
=
-1
{[s I A ]
1
} (5.47)

(4) Polynomial Expansion method

We know from the Chapter 4 that any matrix function can be represented as a matrix
polynomial with finite number of terms. The degree of this polynomial is equal to the degree
of the minimal polynomial. Since e
A t
is a matrix function, we can expand it as a matrix
polynomial and calculate it.

This method can be applied when the eigenvalues of the minimal polynomial are
simple and multiple as in the following. Note that this method is the application of Theorem
4.13 to the matrix e
A t
.


151

(i) When the minimal polynomial of the matrix A has simple roots:

f(A) = e
A t

e
A t
=
0
I +
1
A + ... +
m-1
A
m - 1

i
coefficients (i=0,1, ..., m-1) can be found from the following equations:

0
+
1

1
+
2

1
2
+ ... +
m - 1

1
m - 1
= e
1
t

0
+
1

2
+
2

2
2
+ ... +
m - 1

2
m - 1
= e
2
t

0
+
1

m
+
2

m
2
+ ... +
m - 1

m
m - 1
= e
m
t
(5.48)

If the matrix A
nxn
has distinct eigenvalues, then m = n.

If the matrix A
nxn
has multiple eigenvalues, but the minimal polynomial of degree m
has distinct roots, then m < n .

(ii) When the minimal polynomial of the matrix A has multiple roots:

e
A t
can also be written as:

e
A t
=
0
I +
1
A + ... +
m-1
A
m - 1

i
coefficients (i=0,1, ..., m-1) can be found from the following equations:

(Let
1
be multiplicity 3)

(m-1)(m-2) t
2
e
1
t

2
+ 3
3

1
+ ... +
m - 1

1
m - 3
=
2 2

1

2
+ 2
2

1
+ 3
3

1
2
+ ... + (m 1)
m - 1

2
m - 2
= t e
1
t

0
+
1

1
+
2

1
2
+ ............... +
m - 1

m
m 1
= e
1
t

0
+
1

4
+
2

4
2
+ ................ +
m - 1

4
m - 1
= e
4
t

0
+
1

m
+
2

m
2
+ ................+
m - 1

m
m - 1
= e
m
t
(5.49)

We can extend it to multiplicity n easily.


152
(5) Constituent Matrix Method

This method is parallel to expanding a matrix function into the Taylor series with
finite terms.

Lets assume that
1
,
2
, ...,
k
be the eigenvalues of a matrix A nxn. Again
assume that the multiplicities of each eigenvalue be respectively m
1
, m
2
, ..., m
k
. In this case, a
matrix function f(A) can be written as:

f (
1
) f
(m
1
1)
(
1
)
f(A) = Z
11
f(
1
) + Z
12
+ ... + Z
1 m1
+
1 ! (m
1
1) !

f (
2
) f
(m
2
1)
(
2
)
+ Z
21
f(
2
) + Z
22
+ ... + Z
2 m2
+
1 ! (m
2
1) !

f (
k
) f
(m
k
1)
(
k
)
+ Z
k1
f(
k
) + Z
k 2
+ ... + Z
k mk
+ (5.50)
1 ! (m
k
1) !

where f
(m
k
1)
(
k
) is the (m
i
1)th derivative of f(
i
) with respect to .

Z
ij
matrices (i = 1,2,...,k and j = 1,2,..., m
i
) are nxn square matrices and they are
called the constituent matrices.

When
f(A) = e
A t

then
f (
i
) = e
i
t

f (
i
) = t e
i
t

f
(m
i
1)
(
i
) = t
m
i
1
e
i
t
(5.51)

If we put Eqn. (5.51) into Eqn.(5.50),


153
t e
1
t
t
m
1
1
e
1
t

e
A t
= Z
11
e
1
t
+ Z
12
+ ... + Z
1 m1
+
1 ! (m
1
1) !

t e
2
t
t
m
2
1
e
2
t

+ Z
21
e
2
t
+ Z
22
+ ... + Z
2 m2
+
1 ! (m
2
1) !

t e
k
t
t
m
k
1
e
k
t

+ Z
k1
e
k
t
+ Z
k 2
+ ... + Z
k mk
+ (5.52)
1 ! (m
k
1) !

We can find the Constituent matrices Z
ij
as follows:

Lets say that g(A) = ( I A )
1
is a function.

From eqn.(5.51):

1 1 1
( I A )
1

= Z
11
+ Z
12
+ ... + Z
1 m1
+
( -
1
) ( -
1
)
2
( -
1
)
m
1

1 1 1
+ Z
k1
+ Z
k 2
+ ... + Z
1 mk
(5.53)
( -
k
) ( -
k
)
2
( -
k
)
m
k

In another way, we know that

Adj ( I A )
( I A )
1

= (5.54)

Det ( I A )

If we equate the right hand sides of the Eqn.(5.53) and Eqn.(5.54),

d
m
i
- j
( -
i
)
m
i
Z
i j
= ( I A )
1
(5.55)
d
m
i
- j
(m j) !
=
i

(i = 1,2, ...., k and j = 1,2, ..., m
i
)


154
The Constituent matrices have interesting properties. One of the important properties
is the sum of the matrices Z
i1
is unity, that is,

k
Z
i1
= I (5.56)
i=1

Example 5.

Obtain the e
A t
matrix for the matrix given below by using the five methods.

Solution:

(1) Diagonalization method:

( I A )

lets find the eigenvalues of the matrix A :

det( I A ) = ( 1) ( 3 ) = 0

1
= 1 ,
2
= 3

The eigenvectors corresponding to these eigenvalues:

A e
1
=
1
e
1

= 1

e
11
+ 2 e
12
= e
11

3 e
12
= e
12

e
12
= 0

e
11
= 1

1 2
A =
0 3
1 - 2
=
0 3
1 2

0 3
e
11

e
12

e
11

e
12


155
Therefore, the first eigenvector:

e
1
= =

A e
2
=
2
e
2

= 3

e
21
+ 2 e
22
= 3 e
21

3 e
22
= 3 e
22

assume e
22
= 1

then e
21
= 1.

Therefore the second eigenvector:

e
2
= =

Modal matrix:

M =

M
1
=

e
t
=

e
A t
= M e
t
M
1

e
11

e
12

1 2

0 3
e
21

e
22

e
21

e
22

e
21

e
22

1

0
1

1
1 1

0 1
1 - 1

0 1
e
t
0

0 e
3t


156

e
A t
=

e
A t
=

(2) Power series Expansion Method:

We know that,

1 1 1
e
At
= I + A t + A
2
t
2
+ A
3
t
3
+ ....+ A
n
t
n
+ ...
2! 3! n!

2

= + t + (1/2 !) t
2
+ ...

e
At
=

(3) Laplace transform Method:

e
At
=
-1
{[s I A ]
1
}

[s I A ] =

1
[s I A ]
1
= =
(s 1 ) (s 3 )

e
At
=

1 1

0 1
1 - 1

0 1
e
t
0

0 e
3t

e
t
- e
t
+ e
3t

0 e
3t

1 0

0 1
1 2

0 3
1 2

0 3
e
t
- e
t
+ e
3t

0 e
3t

s 1 - 2

0 s 3
s 3 2

0 s 1
1/(s 1) 2/(s 1 )(s 3 )

0 1/(s 3)

-1
{1/(s 1)}
-1
{ 2/(s 1 )(s 3 )}

0
-1
{ 1/(s 3)}

157

=

(4) Polynomial Expansion method:

Since the eigenvalues of the matrix A 2x2 are distinct,

e
A t
=
0
I +
1
A

0
+
1

1
= e
1
t

0
+
1

2
= e
2
t

0
+ 1
1
= e

t

0
+ 3
1
= e

3 t

0
= (3/2) e

t
- (1/2) e

3 t

1
= (1/2) (e

3 t
- e

t
)

e
A t
= [(3/2) e

t
- (1/2) e

3 t
] + (1/2) (e

3 t
- e

t
)

=

(5) Constituent Matrices Method:

Lets find the Constituent matrices:

Z
11

= ( 1 )( I A )
1

= 1

= ( 1 )

=

= 1

e
t
- e
t
+ e
3t

0 e
3t

1 0

0 1
1 2

0 3
e
t
- e
t
+ e
3t

0 e
3t

1/( 1) 2/( 1 )( 3 )

0 1/( 3)
1 2/( 3 )

0 ( 1 )/( 3)

158

Z
11

=

Z
21

= ( 3 )( I A )
1

= 3

= ( 3 )

=

= 3

Z
21

=

e
A t
= Z
11
e
1
t
+ Z
21
e
2
t

e
A t
= e

t
+ e
3 t
=

Example 6.

Obtain the e
A t
matrix for the matrix A below by the Constituent matrices method.

1 - 1

0 0
1/( 1) 2/( 1 )( 3 )

0 1/( 3)
( 3 )/( 1 2/( 1 )

0 1
0 1

0 1
1 - 1

0 0
0 1

0 1
e
t
- e
t
+ e
3t

0 e
3t

2 2 1

A = 0 1 0

0 4 1

159

Solution:

Lets calculate the eigenvalues of the matrix A :

= ( 1)( 1)( 2 )

= ( 1)
2
( 2 ) = 0

1
=1 has multiplicity 2 and
2
= 2 is simple.

As seen, the first eigenvalue
1
=1 has multiplicity two, that is m
1
= 2 and the second
eigenvalue
2
= 2 has multiplicity one, that is m
2
= 1.

From Egn.(5.53):

( I A )
1

= Z
11
/ ( 1) + Z
12
/ ( 1)
2
+ Z
21
/ ( 2)

and from Egn.(5.54)

Adj ( I A )
( I A )
1

=

Det ( I A )

1
=
( 1)
2
( 2 )

From Eqn.(5.55)

d
Z
11
= ( 1)
2
( I A )
1
=
d
= 1

Z
12
= ( 1)
2
( I A )
1
=

= 1
2 - 2 - 1

det( I A) = 0 1 0

0 - 4 1
( 1)
2
2( 3) ( 1)

0 ( 1) ( 2) 0

0 4( 2) ( 1) ( 2)
1 2 - 1

0 1 0

0 0 1
0 4 0

0 0 0

0 4 0

160

Z
21
= ( 2) ( I A )
1
=

= 2

If we put constituent matrices into Eqn.(5.52),

e
A t
= Z
11
e
1
t
+ Z
12
t e
1
t
+ Z
21
e
2
t

=

Note that, Z
11

+ Z
21
= I . Therefore, if we obtain Z
21
first, Z
11
can be obtained
immediately.

0 -2 1

0 0 0

0 0 0
e
2 t
2 e
t
+ 4 t e
t
- 2 e
2t
- e
t
+ e
2 t

0 e
t
0

0 4 t e
t
e
t


161

CHAPTER 5

QUESTIONS

1. For the electrical system given below,

(a) Draw the system graph,

(b) Select an appropriate tree,

(c ) determine the states of the system,

(d) Write the state equation,

(e) Write the response equation, y(t),

(f) For R = 10 , C = 1 F, arrange the state equation and the response equation.

2. For the system given below,

(a) Draw the system graph,

(b) For R = 0,1 , L = 0,5 H, obtain the state equation and the response equation.

i(t)
v(t)
C
R
+
-
y(t) = v
C
(t)
i(t)
v(t)
L
R
+
-
y(t) = v
L
(t)

162
3. The system model given in the following figure,

(a) Obtain the system state space representation in matrix-vector form
(b) Determine the eigenvalues of the system.

4. The system model given in the following figure, obtain the state equations and the
response equation for y(t) = v
L
(t)

5. Determine the state variables for the system given in figure.

6. Obtain the state equation and the response equation for the system given in figure
below and find the general solution.

i(t)
v(t)
C
L
+
-
y(t) = v
L
(t)
i(t)
C
L
+
-
y(t) = v
L
(t)
i(t)
C
L
+
-
v(t)
R
1

R
2

v(t)
C
L
+
-
R
y(t) = v
C
(t)

163
7. Solve the state equation given below by using the similarity transformation to
uncouple the state variables. here x
0
T
= [ 1 1 1].

o
x
1
(t) 0 1 0 x
1
(t)

o
x
2
(t) = 0 0 1 x
2
(t)

o
x
3
(t) -2 -3 -2 x
3
(t)

8. Solve the following state equation for the initial conditions x
0
T
= [ 0 1 0].

o
x
1
(t) 2 1 4 x
1
(t)

o
x
2
(t) = 0 2 0 x
2
(t)

o
x
3
(t) 0 3 1 x
3
(t)

9. fint the system response of the following system for the input v(t) = e
t
u(t). Initial
states are x
0
T
= [ 0 0].

o
x
1
(t) 0 1 x
1
(t) 2

o = + v(t)
x
2
(t) -2 -3 x
2
(t) 0

y(t) = [ 0 1] x(t)

10. Find the system response for the input v(t) = (t). Initial conditions are
x
0
T
= [ 0 0].

o
x
1
(t) 0 1 x
1
(t) 1

o = + v(t)
x
2
(t) 1 0 x
2
(t) 0

y(t) = [ 1 1] x(t)


164
11. Obtain the state transition matrix e
At
for the system matrix A by the constituent
matrices method.

1 1 0

A = 0 1 1

0 0 1

12. For the system given in the fifure,

(a) Obtain the state equation,

(b) Find general solution,

( c) By putting the characteristic equation into the following form

2
+ 2 +
0
2
= 0

determine and
0
in terms of the system parameters,

(d) For = 1, L = H ve C = 1/8 F, obtain the impulse response and plot it in an
appropriate scale.

(e) For = 0,7, L = H ve C = 1/8 F, obtain the impulse response and plot it in
an appropriate scale.

13. Repeat the question 12 for the following system.

v(t)
C
L
+
-
R
y(t) = v
C
(t)
i
L
(0) = 0
v
C
(0) = 0
i(t)
C
L
y(t) = i
L
(t)
R
i
L
(0)=0

165
14. For the system in Fig.13,

i(t) = u(t)

and

R = 1, C = 0,1 F and L = 10 H are given. Find y(t) and plot it in time-domain.

15. For the system in the figure,

i(t) = u(t)

R
1
= 2, R
2
= 1, C = 0,5 F ve L = 1 H is given. Find zero-state response and
plot it in time-domain.

i(t)
C
L
y(t) = v
C
(t)
R
2

R
1

CHAPTER 6 System Responses

166
CHAPTER 6

System Responses

Contents

CHAPTER 6 ........................................................................................................................... 166
System Responses .................................................................................................................. 166
Contents .............................................................................................................................. 166
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 167
6.2 Order of a System ................................................................................................... 167
6.3 System Responses .................................................................................................. 168
6.3.1 Zero-Input Response ( ) (t v =0) ........................................................................... 168
6.3.2 Zero-State Response ( ) 0 ( x =0) ........................................................................... 168
6.3.3 Steady-State Response ....................................................................................... 168
6.3.4 Transient Response ............................................................................................ 168
6.4 Responses for Various Inputs (Zero-State Response) ............................................ 169
6.4.1 Step Response ( ) (t v =u(t)) .................................................................................. 169
6.4.2 Impulse Response ( ) (t v =(t)) ............................................................................ 170
6.4.3 Sinusoidal Response ( ) (t v =cos(t)) .................................................................. 170
6.5 Responses for Various Order Systems ................................................................... 172
6.5.1 Responses for First Order Systems .................................................................... 172
6.5.2 Responses for Second Order Systems ................................................................ 179


167

6.1 Introduction

In this chapter we give the responses of the systems, specifically the electrical
systems, to the various inputs such as unit step, unit impulse and sinusoidal signals. The
systems that we deal with are the systems composed of the ideal linear time-invariant two-
terminal (or 2-terminal) components. First, we give general systems and then we focus on the
electrical systems with ideal linear time-invariant two-terminal components such as resistor,
capacitor and inductor.

First of all, we give the definition of the order of a system an general responses such as
zero-input response, zero-state response, steady-state response and transient response for
systems. Second, we classify the responses according to input signals such as step, impulse
and sinusoidal responses. And last, we give the responses of the so-called the first-order
systems and the second-order systems.

6.2 Order of a System

The mathematical formulation of a system in state space is as follows:

) ( ) ( ) (
0
t v B t x A t x (6.1)
and
) ( ) ( ) ( t v D t x C t y (6.2)

where ) (t x is nx1 state vector (capacitor voltage and/or inductor current variables for
electrical systems), A is nxn system matrix, B is nxr input matrix, ) (t v is rx1 input (voltage
and/or current sources for electrical systems) vector, ) (t y is mx1 output vector (voltages
and/or currents of elements for electrical systems), C is mxn output matrix, and D is mxr
coupling matrix.

Definition (Order of a System)

The order of a system represented in state space can be defined as the number of states
or we can write it as follows:

Order of a System = n = number of states = dimension of ) (t x vector (6.3)


168
6.3 System Responses

The solution of the state equation gives us the overall system response as given in
Eqn.6.4 below.

t
t
t A t t A
d v B e t x e t x
0
0
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
0
) (
(6.4)

For linear time-invariant systems we can take the initial time t0 as 0, so we can write the
Eqn6.4 as follows (Eqn.6.5)

t
t A t A
d v B e x e t x
0
) (
) ( ) 0 ( ) (
(6.5)

Now we can define some useful definitions related to this response.

6.3.1 Zero-Input Response ( ) (t v =0)

When ) (t v =0, we call the response as zero-input response of the system .

) 0 ( ) ( x e t x
t A
t0 (6.5)

6.3.2 Zero-State Response ( ) 0 ( x =0)

When ) 0 ( x =0, we call the response as zero-state response of the system .

t
t A
d v B e t x
0
) (
) ( ) (
(6.6)

6.3.3 Steady-State Response

Steady-state response of a system is its behaviour when time goes to infinity:

) ( lim t x x
t
ss
(6.7)

6.3.4 Transient Response

Transient response of a system is its behaviour during the initiation of system
operation:

ss tr
x t x t x ) ( ) ( (6.8)


169
6.4 Responses for Various Inputs (Zero-State Response)

A system can be subjected to various inputs. We will look at the zero-state system
responses when the inputs are specific signals such as unit step function, unit impulse function
and sinusoidal function. We call the responses according to the input signal. For example, we
call the response of the system for unit step input as step response, for unit impulse input as
impulse response, and for sinusoidal input as sinusoidal response, ect.

6.4.1 Step Response ( ) (t v =u(t))

The step response of a system is defined as the response to a unit step input function.
However, we can find a general step response by applying a step function to the input
(Eqn.6.9)

) ( ) ( t u k t v (6.9)

Now lets put this input to Eqn.6.6:

t
t A
d u k B e t x
0
) (
) ( ) (

Since ) (t u is constant from zero to infinity, we can take it out of the integral, together with
the constant (independent from the integral variable ) exponential term
t A
e :

t
A t A
t u kd B e e
0
) ( ] [

We can take the integral:

) ( ] [
0
1
t u k B e A e
t
A t A

) ( ] ) ( [
0 1
t u k B e e A e
t A t A

) ( ) (
1
t u k B A e I e
t A t A

The step response is

) ( ) ( ) (
1
t u k B A I e t x
t A
(6.10)

The steady-state response can be obtained as:

k B A
1
(6.11)


170
6.4.2 Impulse Response ( ) (t v =(t))

The impulse response of a system is defined as the response to a unit impulse input
function. However, we can find a general impulse response by applying an impulse function
to the input (Eqn.6.12)

) ( ) ( t k t v (6.12)

Now lets put this input to Eqn.6.6:

t
t A
d k B e t x
0
) (
) ( ) (

From the convolution property of the impulse function, we can write the above integral as

k B e t x
t A
) (
t0 (6.13)

or we can write this as

) ( ) ( t u k B e t x
t A
(6.14)

From this result, we see that the impulse response of a system is similar to the zeo-
input response (see Eqn.6.5) of that system having an initial state of

k B x
0
(6.15)

6.4.3 Sinusoidal Response ( ) (t v =cos(t))

For notational simplicity, lets take the system as a single-input single-output system.
In this case, a general sinusoidal input can be written as

) ( ) cos( ) ( t u t k t v (6.16)

The step function u(t) represents the interval of the function that is from zero to infinity.

We can express eqn.6.16 in Euler form:

) ( } {
2
1
) (
) ( ) (
t u e e k t v
t j t j
(6.17)

) ( ) ( 1
1
t v t v (6.18)

where ) ( 1 t v is the complex conjugate of ) (
1
t v .


171
The state vector can be written as

t
t A
d kv B e t x
0
) (
) ( ) (
(6.19)

Putting the complex conjugate pair into the Eqn.6.19

d v k B e d kv B e t x
t t
t A t A
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
0 0
) (
1
) (
(6.20)

Lets call the first part of Eqn.6.20 as
1
x and the second part as
1
x . Then Eqn.6.20 can be
written as

)} ( Re{ 2 ) (
1 1
t x x x t x (6.21)

Now, let2s calculate
1
x only, since the other is the complex conjugate of it. Then we can
obtain ) (t x .

d u e k B e t x
j
t
t A
) (
2
1
) (
) (
0
) (
1

Lets take the independent terms to the output of the integral:

) (
2
1
) (
0
1
t u d e k B e e e t x
j
t
A t A
j

) (
2
1
0
) (
t u d k B e e e
t
A I j t A
j

) ( ) ( )
2
1
1
0
) (
t u k B A I j e e e
t
A I j t A
j

) ( ) )( (
2
1
1
) (
t u k B A I j I e e e
t A I j t A
j

) ( ) )( (
2
1
1
t u k B A I j I e e e e
t A t I j t A
j

) ( ) )( (
2
1
) (
1
1
t u k B A I j e I e e t x
t A t I j
j
(6.22)


172
At the staeady-sate,

) ( ) (
2
1
) ( lim
1 ) (
1
t u k B A I j e t x
t j
t
(6.23)

This can be written as:

ss ss ss
t x t x t x ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1

} ) ( Re{ 2
1 ss
t x (6.24)

hence, by using the Euler expansion of the ) sin( ) cos(
) (
t j t e
t j
, the steady-
state response of the system:

) cos( ) ( ) (
1
t k B A I j t x t0 (6.25)

Notice that the response is also a sinosoidal signal with the same frequency. The only
difference is the phase shift of the signal coming from the term
1
) ( A I j .

6.5 Responses for Various Order Systems

In this section, we look at the responses of various order systems. Fisrt of all, the
response of first-order systems will be analysed. Then the responses of the second-order
systems will be analysed.

6.5.1 Responses for First Order Systems

A first order system is a system having only one state variable. The examples of
first-order systems are series RC network, parallel RC network, series RL network and
parallel RL network. We will look at the series RC network but the analysis is the same for
other networks (even for other physical systems).

6.5.1.1 The Series RC Network

The series RC network is given in Fig.6.1. We will obtain the state equation of the
network and solve the state equation.

Figure 6.1 The series RC network and its graph

A
B
v(t)
+
C
R
y(t)=v
C
(t)
+
-
-
v
C
(0)=v
0

Response
Input
C
D
v(t)
R
y(t)=v
C
(t)
C
1
2

173
The graph of the system is also shown in Fig.6.1. First, we will obtain the state
equation of the system and then we As you see from the graph, the state of the system is v
C
(t),
since it is the voltage variable of the capacitor C on the tree.

The f-loop equation:

0 ) ( ) ( ) ( t v t v t v
C R
(6.26)

f-cutset equations:

For the first cutset:

0 ) ( ) ( t i t i
R v
(6.27)

For the second equation:

0 ) ( ) ( t i t i
C R
(6.28)

From the terminal equation of the capacitor:

0
) ( ) ( ) ( t v C t v
dt
d
C t i
C C C
(6.29)
We can write the Eqn.6.29 as follows:

) (
1
) (
0
t i
C
t v
C C
(6.30)

Using Eqn.6.27, we can write Eqn.6.30 as follows:

) (
1
) (
0
t i
C
t v
R C
(6.31)

Put the terminal equation of the resistor into Eqn.6.31:

) (
1 1
) (
0
t v
R C
t v
R C
(6.32)

Use eqn.6.26:

)] ( ) ( [
1 1
) (
0
t v t v
R C
t v
C C
(6.33)
Hence, arranging Eqn.633, we can write the state equation as follows:

)] (
1
) (
1
) (
0
t v
RC
t v
RC
t v
C C
(6.34)

The solution of the state equation (overall solution):

174

d v
RC
e v e t v
t
t
RC
t
RC
C
) (
1
) (
0
) (
1
0
1
(6.35)

Now, we can determine the responses of the system. Since the output of the system is
y(t)=v
C
(t), we can write the responses as follows:

Zero-input response:

When the input voltage source is zero (i.e. a short-circuit), the Eqn.6.35 can be written
as:
0 ) ( ) (
0
1
t for v e t v t y
t
RC
C
(6.36)

0
0
1
t for v e
t
(6.37)

burada
= RC (time constant) (6.38)

The zero-input response of a first order RC network is shown in Fig.6.2.

Figure 6.2 The zero-input response of first-order RC network.

The current of the capacitor is the derivative of the voltage, so

0
) ( ) ( t v C t i
C C
)
1
(
0
1
v e
RC
C
t
RC

) (
1
1
0
t i e v
R
R
t
RC
(6.39)
We can plot the current as shown in Fig.6.3.

v
0
0.368 v
0
v
C
(t)
t
0.0184 v
0
4


175

Figure 6.3 The current of first-order RC network.

Zero-state response:

The zero-state response is the response when the initial condition is zero
(v
0
=0). In this case, the response equation (Eqn.6.35) becomes:

t
t
RC
C
d v
RC
e t v t y
0
) (
1
) (
1
) ( ) ( (6.40)

Step Response of the RC Network:

Now, we will apply a step input to the RC network and observe the response
y(t)=v
C
(t), assuming the initial state is zero. That is,

) ( ) ( t Vu t v and 0 ) 0 (
0
v v
C

d v e
RC
t v t y
t
t
RC
C
) (
1
) ( ) (
0
) (
1

d Vu e
RC
t v t y
t
t
RC
C
) (
1
) ( ) (
0
) (
1
(6.41)

Arrange the Eqn.6.41:
) ( ] [
1
) ( ) (
0
1 1
t u d e Ve
RC
t v t y
t
RC
t
RC
C

) ( ) (
1
0
1 1
t u e RC Ve
RC
t
RC
t
RC

) ( ) 1 (
1 1
t u e Ve
t
RC
t
RC

) ( ) 1 (
1
t u e V
t
RC
(6.42)

The step response in Eqn.6.42 is plotted in Fig.6.4.
-v
0
/R

i
C
(t)=i
R
(t)
t

176

Figure 6.4 The step response of the first-order RC network.

The current passing through the RC network is

) ( ) ( ) (
1
t u e
RC
V
t v
dt
d
C t i
t
RC
C C
(6.43)

We can plot this current as in Fig.6.5

Figure 6.5 The current passing through the first-order RC network.

Impulse Response of the RC Network:

Now, let2s apply an impulse signal to the input of the network, that is,

) ( ) ( t t v

The response of the network (v
0
=0)

t
t
RC
C
d
RC
e t v t y
0
) (
1
) (
1
) ( ) (

From the convolution property of the impulse function, we can write:

) (
1
) ( ) (
1
t u e
RC
t v t y
t
RC
C
(6.44)

Notice that Eqn.6.45 is the same as the Eqn.6.36, that is the zero input response.

V

v
C
(t)
t
=RC
4

V/RC

i
C
(t)
t
4


177
Sinusoidal Response of the RC Network:

When the input source is a sinusoidal signal, then we obtain the sinusoidal
response of the network. Lets apply the following signal to the input:

t V t v cos ) ( (6.45)

If we use the Euler expansion of the cosine function:

) (
2
t j t j
e e
V

t j t j
e
V
e
V
2 2

As you notice that the terms are complex conjugates of each other. Lets call the first term as
v(t). We can look at the rersponse for the input v(t) only:

t
j
t
RC
C
d e
V
RC
e t v
0
) (
1
2
1
) ( '

t
j
RC
t
RC
d e e
RC
V
0
)
1
(
1
2

t
j
RC
t
RC
e j
RC
e
RC
V
0
)
1
(
1
1
)
1
(
2

] 1 [ )
1
(
2
)
1
(
1
1
t j
RC
t
RC
e j
RC
e
RC
V

) ( )
1
(
2
1
1
t
RC
t j
e e j
RC RC
V

) (
) 1 ( 2
1
t
RC
t j
e e
RC j
V

) ( ) 1 (
) 1 ( 2
1
2 2 2
t
RC
t j
e e RC j
C R
V

The complex term (1-jRC) can be written in polar form:

) ( 1
) 1 ( 2
1
tan 2 2 2
2 2 2
1 t
RC
t j RC j
e e e C R
C R
V

we can define

178
j RC j
e e
1
tan

hence,
) (
1 2
) ( '
1
) (
2 2 2
j
t
RC
t j
c
e e e
C R
V
t v (6.46)

Similarly, the response to the second term which is the complex conjugate of the first term:

) (
1 2
) ( ' ) ( ' '
1
) (
2 2 2
j
t
RC
t j
C c
e e e
C R
V
t v t v (6.47)

We can add Eqn.6.46 and 6.47:

) ( ' ' ) ( t v v t v C
C C
(6.48)

We know from the complex arithmetic that the eqn.6.48 can be qritten as:

RC
t
C C
e
C R
V
t
C R
V
v t v
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
cos
) cos(
1
} ' Re{ 2 ) ( (6.49)

When time goes to infinity, the second term, transient response goes to zero and dissappear.
Therefore, the sinusoidal response of the systems are always analysed for steady state
response.

At steady state, the response in Eqn.6.49 is

) cos(
1
) (
2 2 2
t
C R
V
t v
C
(6.50)

If we compare the input (Eqn.6.45) and the output (Eqn.6.50) for sinusoidal case, we
observe that (a very important observation) the response is also the same sinusid but only the
amplitude is modified and the signal is shifted by an angle of . As you notice that the
amplitude and the phase angle are both the function of frequency . Lets write the amplitude
and phase angle separately in the following:

Amplitude =
2 2 2
1
) (
C R
V
t v
C
(6.51)

Phase = RC
1
tan (6.52)

Where f 2 rad/sec

Steady-state response transient response

179

6.5.2 Responses for Second Order Systems

Second order systems are roughly the systems with two energy stroting elements. Or
more formally, second order systems are systems with two state variables in their state
equations Since the differential equation formulating these systems are of second order, these
systems are called second order systems. Their matrix-vector state equations are two
dimensional.

The state equation of second order systems are as follows:

= + v(t) (6.53)

y(t) = [ c
11
c
12
] + d
11
v(t) (6.54)

As we know while the most important parameter that determine the behaviour of a
first order system is time constant , that is = - 1 / , the parameters determining the
behaviour of a second order system is its eigenvalues. The characteristic polynomial of the
system:

D() = I A =

D() =
2
+ 2 + w
0
2
(6.55)

If we equate Eqn.6.55 to zero, we obtain the characteristic equation of the system:

2
+ 2 + w
0
2
= 0 (6.56)

If we find the eigenvalues from Eqn.6.56,

1
= - + ( - w
0
2
)
1/2

2
= - - ( - w
0
2
)
1/2
(6.57)

Where : damping factor

w
0
: natural frequency (resonant frequency)
o
x
1
(t)

o
x
2
(t)

a
11
a
12

a
21
a
22

x
1
(t)

x
2
(t)

b
11

b
21

x
1
(t)

x
2
(t)

- a
11
- a
12

- a
21
- a
22


180

If you notice the Eqn.6.57,
i
s can take different values with respect to the values of
and w
0
. These values can arise in four different cases and the behaviour of the system can
do as well. In order to normalize the analysis, we can factorize the interior of the paranthesis
in Eqn.6.57 by w
0
2
and we can define = w
0
. In this case, we can write the characteristic
equation as follows:

2
+ 2 w
0
+ w
0
2
= 0 (6.58)

Where : damping ratio

Then the four cases mentioned above can be investigated as follows:

(1) If > w
0
(or > 1), then
i
(Over damped case)

(2) If = w
0
(or = 1),
1
=
2
= - (Critically damped case)

(3) If < w
0
(or < 1) ,
i
(Under damped case)

(4) If = 0

(or = 0) ,
i
(Lossless case)

(or ) damping factor includes parameters of resistive elements constituting the
system. Therefore, 0 (or 0) shows that the system dissipates energy. In this case, when
the system is released to work without any external force, it damps exponentially.

w
0
is the natural frequency. It includes the parameters of the elements that can store
energy. When the system starts to operate, it vibrates at the frequency of f
0
, since w
0
= 2 f
0.

The four types of behaviours for the system (zero-input response) depending on the
eigenvalues is illustrated in Fig. 6.6. Where,

If > w
0
(or > 1),
1
= -
d
= - w
0
-
d
and
2
= - +
d
= - w
0
+
d

If = w
0
,
1
=
2
= - = - w
0

If < w
0
,
1
= - j w
d
= - w
0
- j w
d
and
2
= - +j w
d
= - w
0
+ j w
d

d
=
2
- w
0
2
= w
0

2
- 1 and w
d
= w
0
2
-
2
= w
0
1 -
2


181

Case Complex plane Time domain

Over damped

> w
0

( > 1)

Critically damped

= w
0

( = 1)

Under damped

< w
0

( < 1)

Lossless

= 0

( = 0)

Figure 6.6.The behaviours of the second order systems.

1
= -
d

2
= - +
d

Re
Im
t
y(t)
1
=
2
= -
Re
Im
t
y(t)
t
y(t)
t
y(t)
1
= - jw
d

2
= - + jw
d

Re
Im
jw
d

- jw
d

-
Re
Im
1
= jw
d

2
= jw
d


182

Example 6.1

Obtain the state equation of the RLC network shown in Fig.6.7. then determine the
following responses and plot them in time domain.

(a) Zero-input response (over damped) for R = 1 , L = 0,066 H, C = 0,3 F

(b) Zero-input response (under damped) for R =1 , L = 1 H, C = 1 F

(c ) Zero-input response (lossless) for R = 0, L = 1 H, C = 1 F

Figure 6.7. Network of Example 6.1

Solution:

Homework

i(t)
v(t)
+
-
L
R

+
-
i
L
(t)
C
i
C
(t)
v
C
(t) = y(t)
i
L0
=I
0
= 1A
v
C0
= V
0
=1V

183
QUESTIONS

1. For the RC network given in Fig.P.6.1,

(a) Obtain ther state equation.

(b) Find the general solution of the state equation.

(c ) Determine the step response of the network for the output y(t)=v
C
(t).

(d) Determine y(t)=v
C
(t). For i(t)=Icost
(v
C
(0)=0).

Figure P.6.1

2. For the RL network given in Fig.P.6.2,

(a) Obtain ther state equation.

(b) Calculate the impulse response of the network for the output y(t)=i
L
(t).

(c) Determine y(t)=v
C
(t). For i(t)=Icost
(v
C
(0)=0).

Figure P.6.2

3. For the RL network given in Fig.P.6.3, determine the zero-input response for i
L
(0)=I
ampere.

Figure P.6.3
i(t)
+
C R y(t)=v
C
(t)
+
-
-
v
C
(0)=v
0

Response
Input
C
D
A
B
A
B
v(t)
+
L
R
y(t)=i
L
(t)
+
-
-
i
L
(0)=0
Response
Input
C
D
i
L
(t)
i(t)
+
L
R y(t)=i
L
(t)
+
-
-
i
L
(0)=I
ampere
Response
Input
C
D
A
B

184
4. For the RL network given in Fig.P.6.4, determine the response y(t)=v
R
(t) for i(t)=5u(t)
(i
L
(0)=0 ampere).

Figure P.6.4

5. For the RL network given in Fig.P.6.5, determine the response y(t)=v
R
(t) for v(t)=2u(t)
(i
L
(0)=0 ampere).

Figure P.6.5

6. For the RC network given in Fig.P.6.6, determine the response y(t)=i
C
(t) for
v(t)=10 cos t. (the initial state v
C
(0)=0 volt).

Figure P.6.6

7. A second order system is given in Fig.P.6.7.

(a) Obtain the state equation in matrix-vector form.

(b) For the response equation

i(t)
+
L
=1H
R
=2
+
-
-
i
L
(0)=0
ampere
Input
C
D
A
B
A
B
v(t)
+
L=1H
R =2
+
-
-
i
L
(0)=0
Input
C
D
i
L
(t)
i(t)
+
C=2F
R=5
y(t)=i
C
(t)
+
-
-
v
C
(0)=0
Response
Input
C
D
A
B

185

) (
) (
0 1 ) (
t i
t v
t y
L
C

determine the unit step response and plot the response signal in time domain.
(Initial conditions are zero).

Figure P.6.7

8. For the second order system in Fig.6.8, determine the zero-input response for

T
T
L C
i v 1 1 ) 0 ( ) 0 (

Figure P.6.8

9. Given the first-order network in Fig.P.6.9, determine the amplitude change of the
output with respect to frequency change from zero to infinity. Plot the amplitude variation to
the empty graphic below.

Figure P.6.9

A
B
v(t)
+
L
R
y(t)=v
C
(t)
+
-
-
i
L
(0)=0
Response
Input
v
C
(0)=0
C
i(t)
+
L
=0.1H
R
=10
-
Input
A
B
C=1F
A
B
v(t)=3 cos t
+
C=0.1F
R=10
y(t)=v
C
(t)
+
-
-
v
C
(0)=0
Response
Input
C
D
Amplitude of y(t)
0

186
10. A second order system is given in Fig.P.6.10.

(a) Obtain the state equation in matrix-vector form.

(b) For the response equation

) (
) (
1 0 ) (
2
1
t v
t v
t y
C
C

determine the zero-state response and plot the response signal in time domain.

Figure P.6.10

11. Plot the amplitude and phase change with respect to change in frequency of the input
signal when the output is y(t)=v
R2
(t), for the steady-state solution (Fig.P.6.11).

Figure P.6.11

12. The network given in Fig.P.6.12 is the model of a a.c. motor. The motor is supplied by
the mains voltage v(t)=220 cos 120 t. Find the amplitude and phase shift at the output
y(t)=i
L
(t) at steady-state.

Figure P.6.12

v(t)=2u(t)
+
C
2
=0.1F
R
2
=10
+
-
-
Input
C
1
=0.1F
R
1
=5
v(t)=cost
+
-
C1=1F
R1=10
+
-
C2=0.1F
R2=5
v(t)
+
L=0.2H
R =10
-
y(t)=i
L
(t)
CHAPTER 7 Laplace Transform

188
CHAPTER 7

Laplace Transform

LAPLACE DNM

Contents

CHAPTER 7 ........................................................................................................................... 188
Laplace Transform ................................................................................................................. 188
LAPLACE DNM .................................................................................................. 188
7.1 GR ..................................................................................................................... 189
7.2 LAPLACE DNMNN TANIMI VE VARLII ...................................... 190
7.3 BAST FONKSYONLARIN LAPLACE DNM ..................................... 192
7.4 LAPLACE DNMNN ZELLKLER .................................................. 195
7.5 TERS LAPLACE DNM ........................................................................... 208


189

7.1 GR

Laplace dnm zaman uzayndaki trevsel denklemleri cebirsel denklemlere
dntrerek, zmlemeleri cebirsel ilemlerle yapmamz salayan bir yntemdir. Laplace
dnm zaman uzayndaki fonksiyonlar karmak uzaya (yani zelde frekans uzayna)
dntrr. Yani,

f(t) F(s)

burada t zaman deikeni ve s karmak deikendir.

Laplace dnmyle, stel foksiyon, sins, cosins gibi zaman fonksiyonlar
karmak deikenli kesirli cebirsel fonksiyonlar biimine dntrlr.

Laplace dnm sistem teorinin ve kontrol sistemlerinin ilk gelitirildii yllarda,
zmlerin cebirsel hale gelmesi nedeniyle yaygn olarak kullanlm bir yntemdir. Ayrca,
Laplace dnm zaman uzayn frekans uzayna dntrmede genel bir yntemdir. Zaman
uzaynda yorumlanamayan pek ok olayn ve kavramlarn frekans uzaynda kolayca
yorumlanmasn ve tanmlanmasn salad iin de Laplace dnmne sklkla ba
vurulmu ve vurulmaktadr. Laplace dnmnn zaman uzay yntemlerine nazaran baz
avantajlar yle sralanabilir:

- Sistematik bir ilemler btndr.

- Trevsel denklemleri daha kolay ileme tabi tutulan cebirsel denklemlere dntrr.

- Dnm tablolar kullanlarak i ykn azaltr.

- Basamak ve drt gibi sreksiz fonksiyonlar da dntrerek, ilemleri kolaylatrr.

- Trevsel denklemlerin tam zmn dorudan verir.

- Zaman uzaynda tarifi ve tanmlanmas zor baz kavramlarn kolayca tanmlanmasn
salar.


190
7.2 LAPLACE DNMNN TANIMI VE VARLII

Burada Laplace dnmnn tanmn vereceiz ve var olabilmesi iin gerekli
koullar ortaya koyacaz. imdi nce aadakileri tanmlayalm.

f(t) : zaman fonksiyonu

t : zaman deikeni (zaman uzayndaki bamsz deiken)

: Laplace dnm ilem operatr

F(s) : f(t) fonksiyonunun Laplace dnm (karmak kesirli fonksiyon)

s : karmak deiken (karmak uzaydaki bamsz deiken)

s = + j w eklinde bir karmak deikendir. Burada w = 2 f olduu iin, s
genelletirilmi frekans olarak da dnlebilir.

Laplace dnm tanm aada verilmitir:

{f(t)} = F(s) = f(t) e
- s t
dt (7.1)
0

Zamana bal fonksiyonlar kk harfle, s ye bal fonksiyonlar byk harfle
gsterilir. F(s) karmak ve kesirli bir fonksiyondur, pay ve paydas s nin polinomu
eklindedir.

Laplace dnmnn varl iin yeterli koullar unlardr:

(1) f(t) fonksiyonu paral srekli olmaldr.

(2) f(t) fonksiyonu stel mertebeden olmaldr.

Bu koullarn gerektirdii husus udur: E. 7.1de tanmlanan Laplace integrali
yaknsamaldr.

Bir f(t) fonksiyonunun stel mertebeden olmas demek

lim e
- t
f(t) 0 (7.2)
t
olacak ekilde gerel bir pozitif olmas demektir.

Eer E.7.2deki limit > iin sfra, ve < iin sonsuza yaklayorsa, bu
deerine yaknsama absisi ad verilir. Dikkat edilirse, E.7.1deki integral sadece eer (yani
s nin gerel ksm) yaknsama absisi dan bykse, yaknsar. Bu integral yaknsarsa (yani
mevcutsa), f(t) nin Laplace dnlm vardr denir.


191
rnek 7.1.

Aadaki fonksiyonlarn Laplace dnmlerinin var olup olmadn aratrnz.

(a) f(t) = A e
- t

(b) g(t) = ( e
t
)
3

zm:

(a) f(t) nin stel mertebeden olup olmadn anlamak iin,

lim e
- t
f(t) 0
t

e
- t
A e
- t
= A e
- t
e
- t
= A e
- ( + ) t

+ > 0
yani
> -

iin

lim e
- ( + ) t
0
t

Dolaysyla, > - iin,

lim e
- t
A e
- t
0
t

ohalde, f(t) stel mertebedendir ve - yaknsama absisidir.

(b) g(t) = ( e
t
)
3

3 2
e
- t
f(t) = e
- t
( e
t
)
3
= e
- t
( e
t
)
3
= e
( t - t )
= e
t ( t - t )

2
lim e
t ( t - t )
(snrsz bir ekilde)
t

Dolaysyla, g(t) stel mertebeden deildir.


192
7.3 BAST FONKSYONLARIN LAPLACE DNM

Bu alt blmde sistem teoride sklkla karmza kan stel fonksiyon, sins, cosins,
basamak fonksiyonu, yoku fonksiyonu ve drt fonksiyonu gibi temel fonksiyonlarn
Laplace dnmlerini greceiz.

stel Fonksiyon e
a t

E.7.1 de verilen Laplace dnm tanmn kullanarak,

{ e
a t
} = e
a t
e
- s t
dt
0

= e
( a - s) t
dt
0

1
= e
( a - s) t

a s 0

1
= ( e
( a - s)
- e
0
)
a s

s = + jw olduunu biliyoruz. O halde, a < iin parantez iindeki ilk terim sfr,
ikinci terim ise 1 olur. Dolaysyla,

1
{ e
a t
} = a < iin (7.3)
s a

Birim Basamak Fonksiyonu u(t)

E.7.3te a = 0 alrsak,

1
{u(t)} = 0 < iin (7.4)
s


193
Sins Fonksiyonu sin wt

sin wt fonksiyonunu iki stel fonksiyon eklinde aabiliriz:

e
jwt
e
- jwt

sin wt =
2j

= (1/2j) ( e
jwt
e
- jwt
)

{sin wt} = (1/2j) [ {e
jwt
} {e
- jwt
} ]

1 1 1
= [ - ]
2 j s jw s + jw

w
{sin wt} = 0 < iin (7.5)
s
2
+ w
2

Cosins Fonksiyonu cos wt

cos wt fonksiyonunu iki stel fonksiyon eklinde aabiliriz:

e
jwt
+ e
- jwt

cos wt =
2

= (1/2) ( e
jwt
+ e
- jwt
)

{cos wt} = (1/2) [ {e
jwt
} + {e
- jwt
} ]

1 1 1
= [ + ]
2 s jw s + jw

s
{cos wt} = 0 < iin (7.6)
s
2
+ w
2


194
Birim Yoku Fonksiyonu t u(t)

Birim yoku fonksiyonu t 0 iin f(t) = t olduuna gre,

{t} = t e
- s t
dt
0
u dv

Ksmi integrasyonu kullanarak,

u = t

dv = e
- s t
dt

du = dt
1
v = - e
- s t

s

u dv = u v - v du
0 0 0

- t e
s t
- e
s t

= - dt
s 0 s

e
s 0

= 0 -
s
2

1
{t} = 0 < iin (7.7)
s
2

Birim Drt Fonksiyonu (t)

Drt fonksiyonunun integral zelliini kullanarak,

{(t)} = (t) e
- s t
dt = e
- s t
= 1
0 t = 0
Dolaysyla,

{(t)} = 1 (7.8)

Drt fonksiyonu karmak uzayda birim (deimez) elemandr.


195
7.4 LAPLACE DNMNN ZELLKLER

Bu alt blmde Laplace dnmnn nemli zelliklerini tanmlayacaz.

Dorusallk zellii (Teorem 7.4.1):

Eer f(t) Laplace dnm alnabilen bir fonksiyonsa, ve a sabit bir say ise ( t ve s
den bamsz), o zaman

{a f(t)} = a { f(t)} = a F(s) (7.9)

Kant:

Laplace dnm tanmnda (E.7.1) yerine koyarsak,

{a f(t)} = a f(t) e
- s t
dt = a f(t) e
- s t
dt = a { f(t)} = a F(s)
0 0

Toplamsallk zellii (Teorem 7.4.2):

Eer f
1
(t) ve f
2
(t) Laplace dnm alnabilen bir fonksiyonsa, o zaman

{ f
1
(t) f
2
(t)} = { f
1
(t) } + { f
2
(t)} = F
1
(s) F
2
(s) (7.10)

Kant:

E.7.1deki Laplace dnm tanmn kullanarak yukardaki gibi kolayca kantlanr.

Gerel teleme zellii (Teorem 7.4.3 Zamanda teleme Teoremi):

{ f(t)} = F(s) ve a olsun. Zaman fonksiyonu f(t) yi zaman ekseninde saa ya
da sola telersek, yani kaydrrsak, o zaman,

{ f(t a )} = e
-a s
F(s) eer 0 < t < a iin f(t a) = 0 ise (7.11)

ve
{ f(t + a )} = e
a s
F(s) eer - a < t < 0 iin f(t+ a) = 0 ise (7.12)

Kant:

f(t a) fonksiyonunu Laplace dnm tanmnda yerine koyarsak,


196

{ f(t - a)} = f(t - a) e
- s t
dt
0

t < a iin f( t a) = 0 olduu iin,

{ f(t - a)} = f(t - a) e
- s t
dt
a

t a = olarak tanmlarsak, dt = d olur ve

f(t - a) e
- s t
dt = f() e
- s( + a )
d
a a

= e
- as
f() e
- s
d
a

= e
- as
{ f(t)}

Dolaysyla,

{ f(t - a)} = e
- as
F(s) (7.13)

Karmak teleme zellii (Teorem 7.4.4 Frekansta teleme Teoremi):

{ f(t)} = F(s) ve a veya olsun. Karmak fonksiyon F(s) yi s ekseninde
saa ya da sola telersek, yani kaydrrsak, bu ilem zaman uzaynda zaman fonksiyonunu
stel fonksiyonla arpmaya karlk gelir, yani

{ e
a t
f(t)} = F(s a ) (7.14)

ve
{ e
- a t
f(t )} = F(s + a) (7.15)

Kant:

e
a t
f(t) fonksiyonunu Laplace dnm tanmnda yerine koyarsak,

{ e
a t
f(t)} = f(t) e
a t
e
- s t
dt f(t) e
-( s a) t
dt = F(s a)
0


197
rnek 7.2

Aada verilen snml cosins fonksiyonunun Laplace dnmn bulunuz.

f(t) = A e
at
cos wt

zm:

Verilen f(t) fonksiyonunun Laplace dnmn, tanm yerine zellikleri kullanarak
bulalm.

E.7.6dan biliyoruz ki

s
{cos wt} = 0 < iin
s
2
+ w
2

Dorusallk ve karmak teleme zelliklerini kullanarak,

s + a
{A e
at
cos wt} = A
(s + a)
2
+ w
2

rnek 7.3

Aada verilen zamanda telenmi fonksiyonun Laplace dnmn bulunuz.

f(t) = 5 u (t 3)

zm:

Verilen fonksiyon birim basamak fonksiyonunun zaman ekseninde 3 birim saa
kaydrlarak 5 birim ykseltilmi hali olduu iin, dorusallk ve zamanda teleme
zelliklerini kullanarak,

1
{5 u (t 3)} = 5 e
3 s

s

rnek 7.4

Aada verilen sonsuz drt dizisi

f(t) = (t) + (t 1) + (t 2) + (t 3) + ....

fonksiyonunun Laplace dnmnn


198
1
F(s) =
1 - e
s

olduunu gsteriniz.

zm:

Toplamsallk ve zamanda teleme zelliklerini kullanarak,

{f(t)} = {(t)} + {(t 1)} + { (t 2)} + {(t 3)} + ....

= 1 + e
s
+ e
2 s
+ e
3 s
+ ...

{f(t)} = 1 + e
s
( 1 + e
s
+ e
2 s
+ e
3 s
+ ... )

{f(t)}

{f(t)} = 1 + e
s
{f(t)}

F(s) = 1 + e
s
F(s)

F(s) - e
s
F(s)= 1

F(s)( 1 - e
s
)= 1

1
F(s) =
1 - e
s

Gerel Trev Alma zellii (Teorem 7.4.5 ):

Eer zaman fonksiyonu f(t) ve zamana gre trevi f(t) Laplace dnm alnabilen
fonksiyonlar olsun ve { f(t)} = F(s) olsun, o zaman,

{ f(t)} = s F(s) f (0) (7.16)

ve n inci dereceden trevi f
(n)
(t) iin,

n
{ f
(n)
(t)} = s
n
F(s) f
(k 1)
(0) s
n - k
(7.17)
k=1


199
Kant:

dt e t f s F
st
0
) ( ) (

u = f(t)

0
0
) ( '
1
) (
1
) ( dt e t f
s
e t f
s
s F
st st

s
f
s
1
) 0 (
1
{ f(t)}

Dolaysyla,

{ f(t)} = sF(s) f(0)

rnek 7.5

Aada verilen trevsel denklemin balang deeri sfr iken bamsz deikeni x(t)
nin Laplace dnmn bulunuz.

o
x (t) + x(t) = e
- 3 t

zm:

Toplamsallk ve gerel trev alma zelliklerini kullanarak,

o
{ x (t)} + { x(t)} = { e
- 3 t
}

Soldaki ilk terim x(t) nin bir kere trevi olduu iin E.7.16y balang deeri sfr
iin kullanabiliriz:

1
s X(s) + X(s) =
s + 3

sol taraf X(s) parantezine alrsak:


200
1
( s + 1 ) X(s) =
s + 3

ve X(s) yi yalnz brakrsak,

1
X(s) =
( s + 1 )( s + 3)

Karmak Trev Alma zellii (Teorem 7.4.6 ):

Eer f(t) nin Laplace dnm F(s) ise, f(t) nin t ile arplmas ile ortaya kan
fonksiyonun Laplace dnm karmak uzayda trev almaya karlk gelir, yani

{ t f (t)} = ) (s F
ds
d
(7.18)

Kant:

{ t f (t)} =
0
) ( dt e t tf
st

=
0
) ( dt te t f
st

st
e
ds
d

=
0
) )( ( dt e
ds
d
t f
st

=
0
) ( dt e t f
ds
d
st

= ) (s F
ds
d

rnek 7.6

f(t) = t u(t) nin Laplace dnmn karmak trev alma zelliinden yararlanarak
bulunuz.


201
zm:

Birim basamak fonksiyonu u(t) nin Laplace dnm,

{u(t)} = 1/s

u(t) fonksiyonu t ile arpld iin,

{ t u(t)} = )
1
(
s ds
d
= 1/s
2

Gerel ntegral Alma zellii (Teorem 7.4.7):

Eer f(t) nin Laplace dnm F(s) ise, integralinin Laplace dnm,

{ f
( 1)
(t)} = {
t
dt t f
0
) ( } =
s
f
s
s F ) 0 ( ) (
) 1 (
(7.19)

Eer f(t) nin n kere integrali alnrsa, bunun Laplace dnm,

{ f
( n)
(t)} =
1
1
) 0 ( ) (
k n
k n
k
n
s
f
s
s F
(7.20)

Kant:

{ f (t)} =
0
) ( dt e t f
st

Ksmi integrasyon kullanarak

0
) 1 (
0
) 1 (
) ( ) ( ) ( dt e t f s t f e s F
st st

eklinde kantlanr.

rnek 7.7

Aadaki fonksiyonun Laplace dnmn alnz.

t
dt t
0
} ) ( { = ?


202

zm:

{(t)} = 1 olduuna gre, integral alma zelliinden drt fonksiyonunun
integralinin Laplace dnm 1 deerinin s ye blnmesiyle elde edilir, yani,

t
dt t
0
} ) ( { = 1
s
1

Karmak ntegral Alma zellii (Teorem 7.4.8):

Eer f(t) nin Laplace dnm F(s) ve f(t)/t fonksiyonu t 0
+
iken bir limite sahip
ise, f(t)/t nin Laplace dnm F(s) nin integrali biimindedir, yani,

{
t
t f ) (
} =
s
ds s F ) ( (7.21)

Kant: dev

Zamanda lekleme zellii (Teorem 7.4.9):

Eer f(t) nin Laplace dnm F(s) ve a t ve s den bamsz, pozitif bir gerel say
ise, zamanda lekleme karmak uzayda da leklemeye karlk gelir. Zamanda bzlme,
karmak uzayda genlemeye (veya tam tersi) karlk gelir, yani,

{ ) ( )} ( as aF
a
t
f (7.22)

Kant:

Laplace dnm tanmn kullanrsak,

0
) ( ) ( F d e f

Sol tarafta argmanlar a ile arpp a ile blelim:

0
/
) ( ) ( ) ( F
a
a
d e
a
a
f
a a

t = a koyarsak,


203

0
/
) ( ) ( ) ( F
a
t
d e
a
t
f
a t

imdi de s = /a koyarsak ve d(t) nin paydasndaki a y sa tarafa atarsak,,

0
) ( ) ( ) ( as aF t d e
a
t
f
st

olur.

Balang Deeri teoremi (Teorem 7.4.10)

Eer f(t) nin Laplace dnm F(s) ve f(t) nin Laplace dnm sF(s) ise ve s
iin sF(s) mevcutsa,

) ( lim ) ( lim ) 0 (
0
s sF t f f
s
t
(7.23)

Kant:

Zamanda trev alma zelliini kullanarak (E.7.16),

0
) 0 ( ) ( ) ( ' f s sF dt e t f
st

Her iki tarafn s iin limitini alrsak soldaki ilk terim gider ve .

)] 0 ( ) ( [ lim 0 f s sF
s

olur. Bunu dzenlersek,

) ( lim ) ( lim ) 0 (
0
s sF t f f
s
t

olur.

Son Deer teoremi (Teorem 7.4.11)

Eer f(t) nin Laplace dnm F(s) ve f(t) nin Laplace dnm sF(s) ise ve sF(s)
fonksiyonu karmak dzlemde sanal eksen zerinde ve sa yar dzlemde analitik ise,

) ( lim ) ( lim ) (
0
s sF t f f
s
t
(7.24)


204

Kant:

Zamanda trev alma zelliini kullanarak (E.7.16),

0
0 0
)] 0 ( ) ( [ lim ) ( ' lim f s sF dt e t f
s
st
s
(7.25)

E.7.25 in sol tarafn alalm:

0 0
0
) ( ' ) ( ' lim dt t f dt e t f
st
s

olur. Bunu da yle yazabiliriz:

t
t
dt t f
0
) ( ' lim

)] 0 ( ) ( [ lim f t f
t
(7.26)

E.7.25 in sa tarafn E.7.26 ya eitlersek,

)] 0 ( ) ( [ lim )] 0 ( ) ( [ lim
0
f s sF f t f
s t

) ( lim ) ( lim
0
s sF t f
s t

Katlama ntegrali Teoremi veya Borel Teoremi (Teorem 7.4.12)

Balang deeri teoremi, son deer teoremi ve katlama integrali teoremi sistem teori
asndan en nemli teoremdir. Balang deeri teoremi sistemin karmak uzaydaki
davranndan istifadeyle zaman uzayndaki balang deerini belirlememize, son deer
teoremi de yine karmak uzaydaki sistem davranndan sistemin gerek davrannn zaman
sonsuza gittiinde ne olacan belirlememize yardmc olur. Katlama integrali teoremi ise
sistem girii ve sistemi tanmlayan zaman fonksiyonu arasnda cebirsel bir ilem (arpma
ilemi) tesis eder.

Katlama integrali teoremi zaman uzaynda verilen f
1
(t) ve f
2
(t) fonksiyonlarnn
katlamalarnn karmak uzayda F
1
(s) ve F
2
(s) fonksiyonlarnn arpmna karlk geldiini
syler. Yani,


205
{
t
d t f f
0
2 1
} ) ( ) ( {
t
d f t f
0
2 1
} ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
s F s F (7.27)

Katlama integrali ilem operatr * olarak kabul edilmitir. Dolaysyla E.7.27 yi
yle de yazabiliriz:

{ ) ( * ) (
2 1
t f t f } = { ) ( * ) (
1 2
t f t f } = ) ( ) (
2 1
s F s F (7.28)

Kant:

Diyelim ki

f(t) =
t
d t f f
0
2 1
} ) ( ) (

olsun. Laplace dnm tanmn kullanrsak,

{ f(t)}=
0 0 0
2 1
] ) ( ) ( [ ) ( ) (
t
st st
dt e d t f f dt e t f s F (7.29)

imdi keli parantez iine bir u(t-) basamak fonksiyonu koyalm. Bu fonksiyonun bamsz
deikeninin olduunu dnrsek, u(t-) = u(-+t) eklinde yazlabilir. Bu da dikey eksene
gre katlanm ve t kadar sola telenmi bir basamak fonksiyonudur. Bu fonksiyon yle
gsterilebilir:

u(t-) = u(-+t) =
0
1

t
t 0
iin

Bu basamak fonksiyonunu E.7.29da yerine koyarsak, iteki integral aralklar 0 dan a
olur:

0 0 0
2 1
] ) ( ) ( ) ( [ ) ( ) ( dt e d t u t f f dt e t f s F
st st

ierdeki integral ya ve dardaki integral t ye gre olup, her ikisi de yaknsak olduklarndan
yerlerini deitirebiliriz:

0 0 0
2 1
] ) ( ) ( )[ ( ) ( ) ( d dt e t u t f f dt e t f s F
st st
(7.39)

t ekseninde u(t ) fonksiyonu 0<t< aralnda sfr olduu iin, keli parantez
iindeki integral de bu aralkta sfr olur. Dolaysyla E.7.30 yle yazlabilir:

206

0
2 1
] ) ( )[ ( ) ( d dt e t f f s F
st

Keli parantez iindeki integral iin,

x = t ve dx = dt

tanmlarsak, snrlar da buna gre ayarlarsak

0 0
) (
2 1
] ) ( )[ ( ) ( d dx e x f f s F
x s

0 0
2 1
] ) ( [ ) ( ) ( d dx e x f e f s F
sx s

F
2
(s)

0
1 2
) ( ) ( d e f s F
s

F
1
(s)

) ( ) (
1 2
s F s F

) ( ) (
2 1
s F s F

Yani,

{ ) ( * ) (
2 1
t f t f } = { ) ( * ) (
1 2
t f t f } = ) ( ) (
2 1
s F s F

olur.

rnek 7.8.

ekil 7.1de verilen sistemi tanmlayan zaman fonksiyonu

h(t) = e
-2t

olarak verilmitir. Sistem girii x(t) = 5 sin 10 t u(t) olduuna gre,

(a) y(t) =
t
d t x h
0
} ) ( ) (
biiminde verilen sistem tepkesini karmak uzayda belirleyiniz.

207

ekil 7.1. rnek 7.8 iin verilen sistem.

(b) Sistem tepkesinin balang deerini belirleyiniz.

(c ) Sistem tepkesinin son deerini belirleyiniz.

zm:

Sistemi tanmlayan zaman fonksiyonunun Laplace dnmn alalm:

0 0
2
2
1
) ( ) (
s
dt e e dt e t h s H
st t st

(a) Sistem tepkesi giri ve sistem fonksiyonunun katlamas olduuna gre,

y(t) = ) ( * ) ( } ) ( ) (
0
t x t h d t x h
t

Bunun Laplace dnmn alrsak,
Y(s) = {y(t) } = {
t
d t x h
0
} ) ( ) ( { h(t) * x(t)}=H(S)X(s)
Giriin de Laplace dnmn alrsak,

X(s) = {x(t) } = {5sin10t} =
2 2
) 10 (
10
s

Y(s) = H(s)X(s)

Y(s) =
) 100 )( 2 (
10
) 10 (
10
2
1
2 2 2 2
s s s s

(b) Tepkenin balang deeri:
y(0
+
) = 0
) 100 )( 2 (
10
lim ) ( lim
2 2
s s
s
s sY
s s

(c ) Tepkenin son deeri:
) ( lim t y
t
0
) 100 )( 2 (
10
lim ) ( lim
2 2
0 0
s s
s
s sY
s s

Sistem
h(t) = e
-2t

x(t)

y(t)


208
7.5 TERS LAPLACE DNM

Ters Laplace dnm karmak uzayda verilen F(s) fonksiyonunu zaman uzayndaki
f(t) fonksiyonuna dntren dnmdr. Ters Laplace dnm iin
-1
sembol
kullanlr. Yani,

-1

F(s) f(t) (7.40)

Ters Laplace dnm aada tanml karmak integral ile elde edilir.

f(t) =
-1
{F(s)} =
j c
j c
st
ds e s F
j
) (
2
1
, t>0 iin (7.41)

E.7.41deki bu integral karmak dzlemde elde edilir. Genel olarak karmak
integrallere ilikin zm yntemleri Karmak Matematiin konusudur. Biz burada karmak
matematie girmeden karmak fonksiyonlarn Ters Laplace dnmlerinin alnmasna
ilikin yntemi reneceiz.

Dikkate edilirse, zaman fonksiyonlarnn Laplace dnm sonucunda elde edilen
karmak fonksiyonlar pay ve paydasnda polinomlar olan kesirli fonksiyonlar biimindedir.
Bu nedenle polinom ve kesirli fonksiyon tanmlar aada verilmitir.

Polinom:

Aadaki biime sahip ifadelere polinom denir:

0 1
2
2
1
1
... ) ( a s a s a s a s a s P
n
n
n
n

burada

n : polinomun derecesi, der[P(s)]

a
i
: polinomun katsaylar

s : karmak deiken

Katsaylar gerel olan polinoma gerel polinom denir.

a
n
= 1 olan polinoma monik polinom denir.


209

Kesirli Fonksiyon:

Pay ve paydas polinom olan fonksiyonlara kesirli fonksiyon denir. Bir kesirli
fonksiyonun genel yaps yledir:

b
a
q
b
q q
p
a
p p
k s k s k s
s s s s s s
s F
) ...( ) ( ) (
) ...( ) ( ) (
) (
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
(7.43)

eklinde yazlabilir. Burada
a
i
i
m p
1
ve
b
j
j
n q
1
dir.

imdi kesirli fonksiyonla ilgili aadaki tanmlar verelim.

F(s) nin Sfrlar:

F(s) nin paynn kklerine F(s) nin sfrlar denir. Yani,

s = s
i
i=1,2,...,a

F(s) nin Kutuplar:

F(s) nin paydasnn kklerine F(s) nin kutuplar denir. Yani,

s = k
j
j=1,2,...,b

E.7.42 ile ilgili olarak karmza iki durum kar. Bunlar,

(1) m < n uygun fonksiyon (sfr says < kutup says)

(2) m n uygun-olmayan fonksiyon (sfr says > kutup says)


210
Paynn derecesi paydasnn derecesinden byk ya da en azndan eit olan yani
uygun-olmayan kesirli fonksiyonlar polinom blme ilemiyle bir polinom ile uygun
fonksiyonun toplam eklinde iki para biimine getirilebilir. Yani, eer

F(s) =
) (
) (
s Q
s P
uygun-olmayan bir fonksiyonsa,

P(s) Q(s)

C(s)
R(s)

) (
) (
) ( ) (
s Q
s R
s C s F

r
i
i
i
s F s c s F
0
1
) ( ) ( (7.44)

burada

der[R(s)] < der [Q(s)]

Grld gibi C(s) bir polinom ve F
1
(s) bir uygun fonksiyondur. Bundan sonra C(s)
polinomunun tek tek terimlerinin Ters Laplace dnm tablodan ve F
1
(s) fonksiyonunun
da Ters Laplace dnm aada anlatlan yntemle elde edilerek F(s) nin Ters Laplace
dnm yani f(t) bulunur. Ters Laplace dnm de dorusal bir ilemdir. Bu nedenle
yukarda anlatlan ilem kolayca yaplabilir. Ksaca,

f(t) =
-1
{F(s)} =
-1
{C(s)} +
-1
{F
1
(s)} (7.45)

Uygun Fonksiyonun Ters Laplace Dnm

Yaln Kesirlere Anm

Uygun fonksiyonun Ters Laplace dnm yaln kesirlere anm yntemiyle elde
edilir. Yaln kesirlere anm srasnda iki durumla karlalr. Birinci durum; payda
polinomunun kkleri yaln katl olmas, ikinci durum payda polinomunun kklerinin ok katl
olmas. Bu durumlara gre yaln kesirlere anm yntemi aada verilmitir.

211

(1) Payda Polinomunun Yaln Kklere Sahip Olmas Durumu

F(s) uygun fonksiyon yani paynn derecesi paydasnn derecesinden kk
olsun. F(s) nin paydasnn kkleri yalnsa, yani her biri birer katl ise,

) )...( )( (
) (
) (
) (
) (
2 1 n
k s k s k s
s P
s Q
s P
s F (7.46)

yazlabilir. Bu durumda, F(s) kesirli fonksiyonu yle yaln kesirlere anr:

n
n
k s
r
k s
r
k s
r
s F ... ) (
2
2
1
1
(7.47)

burada

) ( ) ( s F k s r
i i
(i=1,2,...,n) (7.48)
s=k
i

E.7.47daki r
i
lere (i=1,2,...,n) her bir arpana ilikin rezid ad verilir, ve bu rezidler
E.7.48 ile teker teker hesaplanr. Daha sonra dorusal olan Ters Laplace dnm
E.7.47ya aadaki gibi uygulanarak f(t) bulunur:

f(t) =
-1
{
1
1
k s
r
} +
-1
{
2
2
k s
r
} + ...+
-1
{
n
n
k s
r
} (7.49)

=
t k
e r
1
1
+
t k
e r
2
2
+ ... +
t k
n
n
e r (7.50)


212

(2) Payda Polinomunun ok Katl Kklere Sahip Olmas Durumu

F(s) fonksiyonunun payda polinomu ok katl kklere, yani ok katl kutuplara,
sahip ise,

b
q
b
q q
k s k s k s
s P
s Q
s P
s F
) ...( ) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
2 1
2 1
(7.51)

eklinde yazlabilir. Burada
b
j
j
n q
1
dir. Byle bir kesirli fonksiyonun yaln kesirlere
anm yledir:

r
11
r
12
r
1
q
1

F(s) = + + ... + +
(s - k
1
) (s - k
1
)
2
(s - k
1
)
q
1

r
21
r
22
r
2
q
2

+ + + ... + +
(s k
2
) (s - k
2
)
2
(s - k
2
)
q
2
.
.
.
r
b1
r
b2
r
b
q
b

+ + + ... + (7.52)
(s k
b
) (s - k
b
)
2
(s - k
b
)
q
b

Burada r
ij
rezidlerdir ve aadaki formlden (E.7.53) bulunurlar.

1 d
q
i
j
r
ij
= [ (s k
i
)
q
i F(s) ] (7.53)
(q
i
j) ! ds
q
i
j
s=k
i

burada i=1,2,...,b ve j=1,2,..., q
i


213

rnek 7.9.

Aadaki kesirli fonksiyonun Ters Laplace Dnmn elde ediniz.

1
F(s) =
(s+2)(s+3)

zm:

F(s) yi E.7.47 den yararlanarak yaln kesirlere aarsak,

r
1
r
2

F(s) = + (7.54)
s+2 s+3

imdi E.7.48 den yararlanarak rezidleri bulalm:

r
1
= (s+2)F(s)
s=-2

1 1
= (s+2) = = 1
(s+2)(s+3) s=-2 -2 + 3

r
2
= (s+3)F(s)
s=-3

1 1
= (s+3) = = - 1
(s+2)(s+3) s=-3 -3 + 2

bulunan rezidleri E.7.54 te yerine koyarsak,

1 1
F(s) = -
s+2 s+3

f(t) = e
2 t
- e
3 t
, t 0


214

rnek 7.10.


s
2
F(s) =
(s+1)(s+2)

zm:

F(s) fonksiyonu uygun-olmayan bir fonksiyon olduu iin, nce pay paydaya blerek
F(s) yi bir polinomla uygun fonksiyonun toplam haline getirmeliyiz.

s
2
F(s) =
s
2
+3s+2

s
2
s
2
+3s+2

- ( s
2
+3s+2) 1

- 3 s 2

F(s) = C(s) + F
1
(s)

3s + 2

F(s) = 1 -
(s+1)(s+2)

Sa taraftaki ikinci ifade uygun fonksiyondur. Bunu yaln kesirlere aalm:

3s + 2 r
1
r
2

F
1
(s) = = + (7.55)
(s+1)(s+2) s+1 s+2

r
1
= (s+1)F
1
(s)
s=-1

3s + 2 3(-1) +2
= (s+1) = = - 1
(s+1)(s+2) s=-1 -1 + 2


215

r
2
= (s+2)F
1
(s)
s=-2

1 3(-2) +2
= (s+2) = = 4
(s+1)(s+2) s=-2 -2 + 1

bulunan rezidleri E.7.55 te yerine koyarsak,

1 4
F(s) = 1 + -
s+1 s+2

f(t) = (t) + e
t
- 4e
2 t
, t 0

rnek 7.11.


1

F(s) =
(s+1)(s+2)
2

zm:

F(s) fonksiyonunun s = - 2 de ok katl kutbu vardr. Dolaysyla E.7.52 yi
kullanarak,

r
11

F(s) = +
(s+1)

r
21
r
22

+ +
(s + 2) (s + 2)
2
(7.56)

yazlabilir. E.7.53 ten rezidleri yle bulabiliriz:

r
11
= (s+1)F
1
(s)
s=-1


216
1 1
= (s+1) = = 1
(s+1)(s+2)
2
s= -1 ( -1 + 2)
2

1 d
2 - 1

r
21
= [(s+2)
2
F(s) ]
(2 1)! ds
2 - 1
s=-2

d 1
= [ (s+2)
2
]
ds (s+1)(s+2)
2
s=-2

1 1
= - = - = - 1
(s+1)
2
s=-2 ( -2+1)
2

1 d
2 - 2

r
22
= [(s+2)
2
F(s) ]
(2 2)! ds
2 - 2
s=-2

1 1
= [ (s+2)
2
]
0! (s+1)(s+2)
2
s=-2

1 1
= = = - 1
(s+1) s=-2 ( -2+1)

Bulunan rezidleri E.7.56 da yerine koyalm:

1
F(s) = +
(s+1)

1 1
- -
(s + 2) (s + 2)
2

f(t) = e
t
- e
2 t
t e
2 t
, t 0


217

Tablo 7.1 Temel fonksiyonlarn Laplace Dnm
S.N. Zaman Fonksiyonu Karmak Fonksiyon
1 (t) 1
2 u(t) 1/s
3 tu(t) 1/s
2
4 e
-at
1/(s+a)
5 t e
-at
1/(s+a)
2
6 sin wt w/(s
2
+w
2
)
7 cos wt s/( s
2
+w
2
)
8 sin(wt+) (s sin + w cos )/( s
2
+w
2
)
9 e
-at
sin wt w/[(s+a)
2
+w
2
]
10 e
-at
cos wt (s+a)/[(s+a)
2
+w
2
]
11 w/1


218
SORULAR

1. Aadaki sinyalin Laplace dnmn elde ediniz.



4. Aada verilen sinyalin trevinin Laplace dnmn elde ediniz.

5. Aada verilen trevsel denklemin zmn Laplace uzaynda bulunuz (balang
koullar sfr).

oo o
x(t) + 2 x(t) + 3 x(t) = u(t) (Birim basamak fonksiyonu)
x(t)
2
0
1
2
t
x(t)
1
0
1
t
-1
x(t)
1
0
1
2
t
3 4
Teet
stel
Sinzoidal
x(t)
1
0
1
t

219
6. Aada verilen sinyalin Laplace dnmn karmak trev alma zelliini
kullanarak bulunuz.

y(t) = t x(t)

burada x(t) aada verilen sinyaldir.

7. Aada verilen y(t) sinyalinin Laplace dnmn bulunuz.

t
y(t) = sin 2 d
0

8. Aada verilen y(t) sinyalinin Laplace dnmn karmak integral alma
zelliini kullanarak bulunuz.

u(t)
y(t) =
t

9. Aada bir sinyalinin Laplace dnm verilmitir:

s
3
{x(t)} =
(s+1)(s+2)

x(t) fonksiyonunu t=0
+
daki deerini hesaplaynz.

10. Aada bir x(t) sinyalinin Laplace dnm verilmitir:

s

{x(t)} =
s
2
+3s+5

x(t) fonksiyonunun t iin alaca deeri hesaplaynz.

11. Aada verilen sistemin karmak uzaydaki k fonksiyonunu elde ediniz (Y(s) = ?).
x(t)
1
0
1
t
2

220

12. Aadaki katlama integralinin sonucunu karmak uzayda elde ediniz.

t
y(t) = sin 3 u(t - ) d
0

13. Aadaki fonksiyonun Ters Laplace dnmn alnz.

1

Y(s) =
(s+1)(s+2)


s
2
X(s) =
(s+1)(s+2)


s

X(s) =
(s+1)
3
(s+2)

h(t)
x(t)
y(t)
x(t)
1
0 1
t
h(t)
1
0 1
t
2
CHAPTER 8 Complex Domain Analysis
s-domain Analysis

221

CHAPTER 8

Complex Domain Analysis
s-domain Analysis

Contents :

CHAPTER 8 ........................................................................................................................... 221
Complex Domain Analysis .................................................................................................... 221
s-domain Analysis .................................................................................................................. 221
8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 222
8.2 Mathematical Model of Ideal Linear Time-Invariant Two-Terminal components in
s-domain ............................................................................................................................. 223
8.2.1 Basic System Components and Their Models .................................................... 223
8.2.2 Reference Directions .......................................................................................... 223
8.2.3 Energy Dissipating Components ........................................................................ 224
8.2.5 The Types of Energy Storing Components ........................................................ 226
8.2.6 Ideal Sources (Generators) ................................................................................. 227
8.3 Electrical Components ........................................................................................... 228
Directions for Terminal Voltage and Current .................................................................... 228
8.3.2 Resistor, Linear Time-Invariant Electrical Energy Dissipating Component ..... 229
8.3.3 Inductor (Coil), Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing Magnetic Energy . 231
8.3.4 Capacitor, Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing Electrical Energy ......... 233
8.3.5 Ideal Sources ...................................................................................................... 234
8.4 Fundamental Network Theorems ........................................................................... 235
8.5 Network Formulations ............................................................................................ 243
Example 8.1 ........................................................................................................................ 251
CHAPTER 8 ....................................................................................................................... 259
QUESTIONS ...................................................................................................................... 259

s-domain Analysis

222

8.1 Introduction

terminal (or 2-terminal) components in s-domain. The name of the domain that is s-domain
comes from the fact that the independent variable s is a generalized frequency and is written
as s=+j. In system analysis, the frequency response of systems are important because in
practical applications, the inputs of communications or control systems are generally in the
form of sinusoidal signals or in periodical signals. As we know, a periodical signal can be
decomposed into its fundamental sinusoidal components known as harmonics. Therefore,
system response to sinusoidal input is important. The s-domain analysis gives rise to a useful
introduction to complex domain (or frequency domain) analysis. As you notice that complex
domain and frequency domain are synonymous. In this chapter, first, we give general two-
terminal components, then we focus on the electrical ideal linear time-invariant two-terminal
components such as resistor, capacitor and inductor in s-domain. We can define a multi-
terminal component such as a three-terminal component, a four-terminal component and, in
general an n-terminal component. However, within this content, we will only give the two-
terminal components in detail. The components that we deal with in this book are ideal linear
time-invariant components. The properties of this type of components are as follows:






energy.

s-domain Analysis

223
in s-domain

Similar to time domain, the components of the systems can be defined in s-domain as
well.

8.2.1 Basic System Components and Their Models

The representation of a basic 2-terminal component in s-domain is shown in Fig.8.1.

As explained in Section 2.2, there are two fundamental variables of a 2-terminal
component. These are:

X(s) : flow variable

Y(s) : across variable

Notice that we use capital letters for variables in s-domain.

8.2.2 Reference Directions

The directions of the flow and across variables as shown in Fig 8.1 are called the

The entering terminal of the flow variable is the positive (+) terminal of the across
variable and the opposite terminal is the negative (-) terminal of the across variable.

The flow variable and the across variable of a component are related to each other by a
function:

Y(s) =F[X(s)] (8.1)

or
X(s) =G[Y(s)] (8.2)

and
A
B
+
-
X(s)
Y(s)
Figure 8.1 .A basic 2-terminal componen in s-domain.
s-domain Analysis

224

Y(s) = Y
A
Y
B
(8.3)

where F(.) and G(.) are purely algebraic functions. Eqn. (8.1) and Eqn.(2.3) are called
terminal equations.

The fundamental components constituting systems are three types: They are:

(i) Energy dissipating components

(ii) Energy storing components

(iii) Energy producing components

Now we will look at the mathematical models of these components.

8.2.3 Energy Dissipating Components

Energy dissipating component is a component that the relation between the flow
variable and the across variable is an algebraic relation. That is, the component having a
terminal equation as in Eqn (8.4) or Eqn (8.5) is called an energy dissipating component in
time domain. We can transform these equations into s-domain by taking Laplace transform:

y(t) = a x(t) (8.4)
or
x(t) = b y(t) (8.5)

Lets take the Laplace transform of both sides:

)} ( { )} ( { t ax L t y L

From the linearity of the Laplace transform, we can take the constant term a to the outside of
the Laplace operator:

)} ( { )} ( { t x aL t y L

we can write the terms in s-domain

Y(s) = a X(s) (8.6)

Similarly,
X(s) = b Y(s) (8.7)

An energy dissipating 2-terminal component in s-domain is shown in Fig.8.2.

s-domain Analysis

225

8.2.4 Energy Storing Components

Energy storing 2-terminal component is a component that the relation between the
flow variable and across variable is differential.
d
y(t) = a x(t) (8.8)
dt

0
= a x(t) (8.9)

or

d
x(t) = b y(t) (8.10)
dt

0
= a y(t) (8.11)

Again, we can take the Laplace transform of the equations (8.8) to (8.11) as follows:

)} ( { )} ( { t x
dt
d
a L t y L

By using the real derivative property of the Laplace transform together with the linearity, we
obtain (assuming the initial conditions of the energy staring elements as zero)

Y(s) = a s X(s) (8.12)

or
X(s) = b s Y(s) (8.13)

A
B
+
-
X(s)
Y(s) = a X(s)
Figure 8.2 Energy dissipating 2-terminal component in s-domain
harcayan temel iki-ulu bir eleman.
s-domain Analysis

226
8.2.5 The Types of Energy Storing Components

There are two types of energy storing basic 2-terminal components depending upon
the relation between flow variable and across variable. These are:

(i) Inductive components

(ii) Capacitive components

Inductive Components

inductive component. That is, the derivative of the flow variable is proportional to the across
variable:

d
y(t) = b x(t) (8.14)
dt

0
= b x(t) (8.15)

Again, by taking the Laplace transform of Eqn.8.14 (assuming the initial condition of the
inductive element is zero),

)} ( { )} ( { t x
dt
d
b L t y L

Y(s) = b s X(s) (8.16)

Capacitive Components

capacitive component. That is, the derivative of the across variable is proportional to the flow
variable:

d
x(t) = c y(t) (8.17)
dt

0
= b y(t) (8.18)

Again, by taking the Laplace transform of Eqn. 8.14 (assuming the initial condition of the
capacitive element is zero),

s-domain Analysis

227
)} ( { )} ( { t y
dt
d
c L t x L

X(s) = c s Y(s) (8.19)

8.2.6 Ideal Sources (Generators)

If the terminal variables of a component are independent from each other, or if the
followings are true

X(s) : a known complex function

or
Y(s) : a known complex function

Then this 2-terminal component is called an ideal generator or ideal driver or ideal source.

In general, if the across variable is independent from the flow variable, then these
sources are called ideal across source. For example, the pressure between two terminals of a
hydraulic pomp is assumed to be independent from the flow through it, then this pomp is
considered as an ideal pressure source. Similarly, if two terminals of a bar do not reach each
other, then this bar can be considered as a constant amplitude approach source.

In general, if the flow variable is independent from the across variable, then these sources are
called ideal flow source. For example, when a piston type hydraulic pomp is driven with
constant speed, then it can be considered as an ideal flow driver.

s-domain Analysis

228

8.3 Electrical Components



in Fig.8.3.

the meaning of the reference directions of the terminal voltage V and the terminal current I are

v
A
and v
B

v(t) = v
A
- v
B
(8.20)

In s-domain, we can write it as

V(s) = V
A
- V
B
(8.21)

A
B
+
-
I(s)
V(s)
reference directions of terminal variables in s-domain.
Z(s)

Or

Y(s)
s-domain Analysis

229

minus (-) sign.

The relation between the variables V(s) and I(s) are algebraic and can be written as

V(s) = Z(s) I(s) (8.22)
or

I(s) = Y(s) V(s) (8.23)

where

Z(s) : impedance, Ohm ()

Y(s) : Admittance, Mho ()

I(s) : Current variable, Ampere (A)

V(s) : Voltage variable, Volt (V)

Notice that the Ohms Law is still valid. However, the terms in front of current and voltage,
namely, Z(s) and Y(s) are not constant but depend on the independent variable s. These are
Ohm () and Mho () respectively. We call Z(s) as impedance and Y(s) as admittance. The
current and voltage variables are also function of s but they are in ampere and volt
respectively again.

8.3.2 Resistor, Linear Time-Invariant Electrical Energy Dissipating Component

resistor is called current i(t) and across variable is called voltage v(t).


v(t) = R i(t) (8.24)
or
i(t) = G v(t) (8.25)

If we take the Laplace transform of Eqn.8.22 and 8.23,

V(s) = R I(s) (8.26)
or
I(s) = G V(s) (8.27)

Where

s-domain Analysis

230
R : impedance, Ohm ()

G : admittance, Mho ()

I(s) : Current variable, Amper (A)

V(s) : Voltage variable, Volt (V)

The schematic representation of a resistor, its reference directions and input-output
characteristic are shown in Fig. 8.4.

Two Special Types of Resistors:

There are two special types of resistors:

(1) Open circuit,

(2) Short circuit.

Open Circuit:

A two-terminal component is called an open circuit if its terminal
current is identically equal to zero, whatever its terminal voltage may be. The symbol of an
open circuit, its mathematical model and v i characteristic are shown in Fig. 8.5.

A
B
+
-
V(s) = R I(s)

I(s)
R
Figure 8.4. Electrical resistor, its reference directions and the input-output characteristic.
I(s)
V(s)
Slope = R =1/G
0
A
B
+
-
V(s)
I(s)=0
R=
Figure 8.5. Open circuit and the input-output characteristic.
I(s)
V(s)
Slope =
0
s-domain Analysis

231
origin of the V I plane with an infinite slope; that is R= or, equivalently, G = 0.

Short Circuit:

A two-terminal component is called a short circuit if its terminal
voltage is identically equal to zero, whatever its terminal current may be. The symbol of a
short circuit, its mathematical model and v i characteristic are shown in Fig. 8.6.

origin of the V I plane with a zero slope; that is R= 0 or, equivalently, G = .

Notice that the terminal equation of a resistive element is again an algebraic equation.
It is also similar to the expression in time domain.

The resistance in s-domain is constant impedance.


L
voltage v
L
(t).


d
v
L
(t) = L i
L
(t) (2.28)
dt

0
= L i
L
(t) (2.29)

A
B
+
-
v(t) =0
I(s)
R=0
Figure 8.6. Short circuit and the input-output characteristic.
I(s)
V(s)
Slope = 0
0
s-domain Analysis

232
If we take the Laplace transform of Eqn.2.28 assuming the initial condition is zero:

)} ( { )} ( { t i
dt
d
L L t v L
L L

By using the real derivative theorem and linearity of the Laplace transform, we can obtain

) ( ) ( s I Ls s V
L L
(8.30)

sL s Z
L
) ( (8.31)

where


Z
L
(s)= sL : impedance, Ohm ()

I
L
(s) : Current variable, Amper (A)

V
L
(s) : Voltage variable, Volt (V)

A schematic representation of a linear time-invariant two-terminal inductor and its
reference directions are shown in Fig.8.7.

Figure 8.7 Inductor in s-domain.

A
B
Z
L
(s)=sL
I
L
(s)
+
-
V
L
(s)
s-domain Analysis

233

8.3.4 Capacitor, Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing Electrical Energy

C
C
(t).


d
i
C
(t) = C v
C
(t) (8.32)
dt

0
= C v
C
(t) (8.33)


)} ( { )} ( { t v
dt
d
C L t i L
C C


) ( ) ( s V Cs s I
C C
(8.34)

) (
1
) ( s I
sC
s V
C C
(8.35)

sC
s Z
C
1
) ( (8.36)

where


Z
C
(s)= 1/sC : impedance, Ohm ()

I
C
(s) : Current variable, Amper (A)

V
C
(s) : Voltage variable, Volt (V)

A schematic representation of a linear time-invariant two-terminal capacitor and its
reference directions are shown in Fig.8.8.
s-domain Analysis

234

Figure 8.8. Capacitor in s-domain.

8.3.5 Ideal Sources


voltage source (driver), if it maintains a specified voltage V
s
(s) across its terminals whatever
its terminal current I(s) may be. Thus, the complete description of the voltage source requires
the specification of the function V
s
(s). The symbol for the ideal independent voltage source is
shown in Fig. 8.9.

Figure 8.9. The symbol of an ideal independent voltage source


current source (driver), if it maintains a specified current I
s
(s) through its terminals whatever
its terminal voltage V(s) may be. Thus, the complete description of the current source requires
the specification of the function I
s
(s). The symbol for the ideal independent current source is
shown in Fig. 8.10.
A
B
V
s
(s)
+
-
I(s)
A
B
+
-
I
C
(s)
V
C
(s)
C
Z
C
(s)=1/sC
s-domain Analysis

235

Figure 8.10. The symbol of an ideal independent current source

8.4 Fundamental Network Theorems

The time-domain is the only physical domain. The s-domain is purely conceptual. A
transformation from a physical domain to a conceptual domain may sometimes bring a better
understanding of formulation or easier analysis procedure to a physical problem. Some of the
concepts and definitions can be created in this unphysical domain such as frequency response,
transfer function, impedance, etc. In this section, we give terminal equivalence, series
connection of two-terminal components and parallel connection of two-terminal components,
-Y connection, superposition, Thevenins and Nortons theorems and maximum power
transfer and impedance matching in s-domain.

8.4.1 Terminal Equivalence

We say that n-terminal networks are terminal equivalent if their mathematical models
are identical, that is, their terminal equations corresponding to the same terminals. It should be
understood that this equivalence is defined only at the terminals.

According to this definition, two 2-port networks are said to be terminal equivalent if
their characterization in terms of port currents and port voltages are identical.

Suppose we are given an n-terminal network N
0
with an arbitrary number of
components connected in an arbitrary manner. In general, this network can be replaced by
i
such that each N
i
network N
0
at its terminals.

components than the original network as a reduction process.

A
B
I
s
(s)
V
+
-
s-domain Analysis

236

8.4.1.1 Series Connected 2-Terminal Components

Assume that the components have the terminal equations in s-domain as follows
(Fig.8.11):

V
i
(s) = Z
i
(s) I
i
(s) (8.37)

where

Z
i
(s) : impedance of the ith component, Ohm ()

I
i
(s) : Current variable through the ith component, Amper (A)

V
i
(s) : Voltage variable across the ith component, Volt (V)

We assume that the initial conditions of the components are zero. That is, the energy storing
elements are initially empty.

Figure 8.11 A two-terminal component.

The impedance Z
i
(s) is the open circuit impedance of the element.

The series connection of n impedances between two points A and B are shown in
Fig.8.12.

Figure 8.12 Series connection of impedances

+
-
A
B
Z
i
(s) V
i
(s)
I
i
(s)
+
-
A
B
Z
1
(s)
V
i
(s)
I
i
(s)
Z
2
(s) Z
n
(s)
+ +
+
-
-
-
V
1
(s)
V
2
(s)
V
n
(s)
+
-
A
B
Z
i
(s) V
i
(s)
I
i
(s)

s-domain Analysis

237
From the KVL, we have

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
s V s V s V s V
n i
(8.38)

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
s I s I s I s I
n i
(8.39)

We can write Eqn.8.38 as follows:

) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
s I s Z s I s Z s I s Z s V
n n i

By using Eqn.3.39 that all currents are equal to each other:

) ( )] ( ) ( ) ( [ ) (
2 1
s I s Z s Z s Z s V
i n i

Since,
) ( ) ( ) ( s I s Z s V
i i i

we can see that the equivalent impedance for series impedances is

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
s Z s Z s Z s Z
n i
(8.40)

8.4.1.2 Parallel Connected 2-Terminal Components

(Fig.8.13):

I
i
(s) = Y
i
(s) V
i
(s) (8.41)

where

Y
i
(s) :admittance of the ith component, Mho

I
i
(s) : Current variable through the ith component, Amper (A)

V
i
(s) : Voltage variable across the ith component, Volt (V)


s-domain Analysis

238


The admittance Y
i
(s) is the short circuit admittance of the element.

The parallel connection of n admittances between two points A and B are shown in
Fig.8.14.

Figure 8.14 Parallel connection of admittances

From the KCL, we have

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
s I s I s I s I
n i
(8.42)

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
s V s V s V s V
n i
(8.43)


) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
s V s Y s V s Y s V s Y s I
n n i

By using Eqn.3.43 that all voltages are equal to each other:

) ( )] ( ) ( ) ( [ ) (
2 1
s V s Y s Y s Y s I
i n i

+
-
A
B
Y
i
(s) V
i
(s)
I
i
(s)
+
-
A
B
Y
i
(s) V
i
(s)
I
i
(s)

+
-
A
B
V
i
(s)
I
i
(s)
Y
1
(s) Y
2
(s)
Y
n
(s)
s-domain Analysis

239
Since,
) ( ) ( ) ( s V s Y s I
i i i

we can see that the equivalent admittance for parallel impedances is

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
s Y s Y s Y s Y
n i
(8.44)

Since,

) (
1
) (
s Z
s Y
i
i

) (
1
) (
1
) (
1
) (
1
2 1
s Z s Z s Z s Z
n i
(8.45)

8.4.1.3 -Y Connected 2-Terminal Components

Since the terminal equations and the other relations in s-domain are algebraic,
the rules valid for resistive network is also valid for networks defined in s-domain. Therefore,
the -Y Connections and all the other rules are the same in s-domain.

Y and Y transformations are done by using Fig.8.15.

Figure 8.15 Y and Y transformations in s-domain

A
B
C
Z
A
Z
C
Z
B
Z
Z Z
Y
Z
X
s-domain Analysis

240

We can make the Y transformation as follows:

Z Y X
Z Y
A
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z (8.46a)

Z Y X
Z X
B
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z (8.46b)

Z Y X
Y X
C
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z (8.46c)


A
C A C B B A
X
Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z (8.47a)

B
C A C B B A
Y
Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z (8.47b)

C
C A C B B A
Z
Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z (8.47c)

8.4.1.4 Superposition Principle

The output of a linear system with two or more inputs is the sum of responses
for each individual input acting alone.

For the electrical systems, we can express the superposition principle as
follows:

The response of a linear network when two or more sources acting
simultaneously is the sum of the responses for each individual source acting alone with the
remaining sources being dead.

It is important to note that the superposition principle has been considered only for
linear systems having no initial energy, that is when the initial state vector, ) 0 ( x , is zero.
However, the superposition principle can be extended to cover linear systems when 0 ) 0 ( x ,
by just considering the initial state vector ) 0 ( x as an excitation vector.

s-domain Analysis

241
8.4.1.5 Thevenins and Nortons theorems

If we are interested in the response of a two-terminal (one-port) network at its
terminals, then it will be shown that the replacement of this two-terminal network by a simple
equivalent network will reduce the amount of computations. Thevenins and Nortons
theorems are useful in this respect.

8.4.1.5.1 Definition: (Thevenins equivalent)

Consider a one-port linear network N, that contains any number of independent
drivers internally. N can be replaced by an independent voltage source V
T
connected in series
with an impedance Z
T
as shown in Fig. 8.16a. This equivalent representation is called the
Thevenins equivalent of N and V
T
and Z
T
are called the Thevenins equivalent voltage and
impedance respectively.

8.4.1.5.1 Definition: (Nortons equivalent)

Consider a one-port linear network N, that contains any number of independent
drivers internally. N can be replaced by an independent current source I
N
connected in parallel
with an impedance Z
N
as shown in Fig. 8.16b. This equivalent representation is called the
Nortons equivalent of N and I
N
and Z
N
are called the Nortons equivalent current and
impedance respectively.

From the two definitions above, it follows that the Thevenins equivalent network is
the dual of the Nortons equivalent network or vice versa.

(a) Thevenins equivalent network

(b) Nortons equivalent network

Figure 8.16 (a) Thevenins equivalent network; (b) Nortons equivalent network

+
-
V
0
(s)
I
0
(s)
N
+
-
V
0
(s)
I
0
(s)
Z
T
(s)
+
-
V
T
(s)
+
-
V
0
(s)
I
0
(s)
N
+
-
V
0
(s)
I
0
(s)
Z
T
(s)
I
N
(s)
Z
N
s-domain Analysis

242
Assume that for a given network N, both Thevenins and Norton2s equivalents exist.
Then Z
T
, Z
N
, V
T
, I
N
are interrelated:

N T
Z Z (8.48)

N N T
I Z V (8.49)

T
T
N
Z
V
I (8.50)

For an alternate method of obtaining Thevenins and Nortons equivalent networks,
notice that if all of the internal sources of N are dead, then VT and IN will identically be zero.
Hence, in computing either one of the equivalent networks, two steps in calculation are
required.

For Thevenins equivalent network, the first step is to obtain the Thevenin
impedance:

0
0
0
T
V
T
I
V
Z (8.51)

i.e., Thevenins equivalent impedance is the impedance seen at the terminals when all of the
internal sources are dead.

The second step is to obtain the Thevenins voltage:

0
0
0
I
T
V V (8.52)

i.e., Thevenins equivalent voltage is equal to the potential difference across the terminals
when the external current source is dead which means that the terminals left open-circuited.

Similarly, for Nortons equivalent network, the first step is to obtain the Nortons
impedance:

0
0
0
N
I
N
I
V
Z (8.53)

i.e., Nortons equivalent impedance is the impedance seen at the terminals when all of the
internal sources are dead.

s-domain Analysis

243

The second step is to obtain the Nortons current:

0
0
0
V
N
I I (8.54)

i.e., Nortons equivalent current is equal to the current passing through the terminals when the
external current source is dead which means that the terminals left short-circuited.

8.5 Network Formulations

In this section, we give two network formulations, namely mesh formulation and node
formulation. These formulations can give overall solutions of the elements constituting the
network instead of only single element variables.

8.5.1 Mesh Formulation

In mesh formulation, we can use the graph shown in Fig.17. The graph consists of a
set of meshes {m
1
, m
2
, , m
(n+1)m
}. If the mesh m
i
contains at least one new edge which does
not exist in the subset of meshes {m
1
, m
2
, , m
i-1
}, then all n meshes are called independent
meshes. The orientation of the currents is chosen as CW direction.

The main idea used in mesh formulation is to assign a mesh current I
j
j=1, , (n+1)m
to each mesh in the set of independent meshes and to determine these mesh currents. Since
these currents are independent, their linear combinations will yield all the edge currents of the
network. We can also determine all the voltages of the elements.

Figure 17 Independent mashes

Let N be a network containing 2-terminal R, L, and C components. Lets assume that
to each current source in the network N, a single mesh is assigned such that no other current
sources exit in this mesh. The orientations of all mesh currents are chosen as CW direction.
Then we obtain the mesh equation as follows by using KVL for each mesh:

) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( s F s B s I s Z
m
(8.55)
I
1 I
2
I
3
I
m+1
I
m+2 I
m+3
I
i-1 I
i+1
I
nm+1
I
i
I
m
I
2m
I
(n+1)m
I
nm+2 I
nm+3
s-domain Analysis

244

where ) (s Z is a symmetric nxn impedance coefficient matrix, ) (s I
m
is nx1 mesh currents
vector, ) (s B is the nxm source coefficient matrix, and ) (s F is mx1 sources vector.

Note that in the mesh formulation, it is not necessary to choose the set of independent
meshes the same as the set of fundamental circuits in graph formulation. Any set of meshes
will be sufficient for our purpose as long as they are independent. That is, the set of meshes
selected is not unique. In mesh formulation, it is not also necessary to draw the network graph
of the network under consideration and select a formulation tree.

Eqn.8.60 can be obtained very easily by inspection as follows:

The coefficient matrix ) (s Z appearing at the left hand side of Eqn.8.55 is simple to
write. It is obtained by just considering the properties of the mesh impedance matrix. To
obtain the entries in the source coefficient matrix at the right, we consider the edges
corresponding to the sources V
i
s and I
j
s.

8.5.2 Node Formulation

Node formulation is analogous to the mesh formulation. Many of the steps involved in
the establishment of node formulation follow the procedures similar to those in connection
with the mesh formulation.

In node formulation, the unknown variables are node voltages. The node voltages may
be thought of as a set of voltages incident on vertices that are identified as nodes with respect
to a reference node (ground).

Following the above properties, we see that once the node voltages are obtained, the
solution of the network is completed. The problem then reduces to the formulation of network
equations in which only the node voltages are unknown variables. This is achieved by writing
a set of incidence equations for each node and solving for the node voltages. This will be the
basic idea that will be used while establishing the node formulation.

Let G be the graph of an electrical network N containing 2-terminal R, L, C
components and let N be a consistent network. It is known that if the network N has v nodes
(vertices), then it has (v-1) branch voltages. Since each branch defines a cut-set and each
branch voltage can be expressed as the sum of node voltages, then the number of independent
node voltages is equal to (v-1). However, if in N there are n
v
voltage sources, then the number
of unknown branch and node voltages will be reduced by n
v
. In such a case, the number of
independent node voltages can be associated with the voltage sources.

As an illustration, consider the network given in Fig.8.18. First of all we determine the
nodes, and we assign one of the nodes as the ground. Then we write KCL for each node. We
obtain the following node equation in matrix-vector form. And then we can solve this
equation easily.

) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( s F s D s V s Y
n
(8.56)
s-domain Analysis

245

where ) (s Y is a symmetric nxn admittance coefficient matrix, ) (s V
n
is nx1 node voltages
vector, ) (s D is the nxm source coefficient matrix, and ) (s F is mx1 sources vector.

Figure 8.18 Independent nodes

8.5.3 Transforming State Equations into s-domain

Before doing the transformation of state equation into s-domain, lets make a general
definition the so called transfer function in complex domain (s-domain or frequency
domain).

Definition: Transfer Function

The ration between the output function of the system to the input function in complex
domain while the initial conditions (states) are zero is called the transfer function.

Transfer function is defined for single-input and single-output (SISO) systems.

(1) Transfer Function of Single-Input and Single-Output and single state variable
Systems

The state equation of a single-input single-output (SISO) with single state variable
system is a scalar type equation as seen in the following:
o
x(t) = a x(t) + b v(t) (8. 57)

y(t) = c x(t) + d v(t) (8. 58)

While the initial state value is zero, ie., x
0
= 0, taking the laplace transform of Eqn.8.57 and
Eqn.8.58,

{ x(t)} = { a x(t)} + { b v(t)}

V
1
(s)
+
-
I
8

A B
C
D
E
Y
5

Y
2

Y
3

Y
7

Y
6

Y
4

V
A

V
B

V
C

V
D

s-domain Analysis

246
sX(s) = a X(s) + b V(s) (8. 59)

{ y(t)} = { c x(t)} + { d v(t)}

Y(s) = c X(s) + d V(s) (8. 60)

Arranging Eqn.8.59:

sX(s) a X(s) = b V(s)

(s a) X(s) = b V(s)

b
X(s) = V(s) (8. 61)
s a

Putting Eqn.8.61 into Eqn.8.60,

b
Y(s) =( c + d ) V(s) (8. 62)
s a

Eqn.8.62 is giving an algebraic relation between the input V(s) and the output Y(s).
According to the definition on transfer function given above, the transfer function of a single-
input single-output with single state sytem can be obtained by Eqn.8.62 as follows:

Y(s) cb
= G(s) = + d (8. 63)
V(s) s a

(2) Transfer Function of a Single-Input Single-Output (SISO) with Multiple State
Variable System

The state equation and response equation for a single-input single-output with
multiple state variable system is a matrix-vector type equation given below:

o
x(t) = A x(t) + B v(t) (8. 64)

y(t) = C x(t) + d v(t) (8. 65)

where x(t) nx1, A nxn, B nx1, v(t) 1x1, y(t) 1x1, C 1xn and d 1x1.

s-domain Analysis

247
If we take the Laplace transform of Eqn.8.64 and Eqn.8.65,

o
{x(t)} ={ A x(t)} + {B v(t)}

{y(t)} = {C x(t)} + {d v(t)}

sX(s) = A X(s) + B V(s) (8. 66)

Y(s) = C X(s) + d V(s) (8. 67)

Lets arrange Eqn.8.66,

sX(s) A X(s) = B V(s)

(s I A ) X(s) = B V(s) (8. 68)

Since Eqn.8.68 is a matrix-vektr type equation, if we multiply both sides by (s I A )
-1
,

X(s) = (s I A )
-1
B V(s) (8. 69)

Putting Eqn.8.69 into Eqn.8.67,

Y(s) = [ C (s I A )
-1
B + d ] V(s)

Using the definition of Transfer function, we can write the transfer function for single-input
single-output system:

Y(s)
= G(s) = C (s I A )
-1
B + d (8. 70)
V(s)

The transfer function in Eqn.8.70 is a complex function with the following structure:

a
m
s
m
+ a
m -1
s
m -1
+ ... + a
1
s + a
0

G(s) = (8. 71)
b
n
s
n
+ b
n -1
s
n -1
+ ... + b
1
s + b
0

s-domain Analysis

248

Impulse Response Function

As you know, we defined the transfer function of a system in complex domain as the
ratio between the input function and the output function. That is,

Y(s) a
m
s
m
+ a
m -1
s
m -1
+ ... + a
1
s + a
0

G(s) = =
V(s) b
n
s
n
+ b
n -1
s
n -1
+ ... + b
1
s + b
0

This is a rational function.

The system response:

Y(s) = G(s) V(s) (8. 72)

If the input function is unity, that is,

V(s) = 1

then,

Y(s) = G(s) (8. 73)

Inverse Laplace transform of the input function is

-1
{ 1 } = (t)

Therefore, the output in Eqn.8.73 is the Laplace transform of the impulse response. If we take
inverse Laplace transform of Eqn.8.73:

-1
{ Y(s) } =
-1
{ G(s) } = g(t) (8. 74)

The function g(t) in Eqn.8.74 is called impulse response function.

The impulse response function in time-domain corresponds to the transfer function in
complex-domain (a very important concept).

g(t) G(s)

For any input function, the system response is the inverse Laplace tarnsform of
Eqn.8.70. That is,
y(t) =
-1
{ Y(s) } =
-1
{ G(s) V(s)}
s-domain Analysis

249

From the convolution integral (Borel) theorem,

y(t) = g() v(t ) d (8. 75)

= g(t) * v(t) (8. 76)

where * represents the convolution integral.

Therefore, in general, the output of a system is the convolution intgral of the input
with the impulse response of the system.

(3) System Transfer Matrix of a Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) and
Multiple State System

The state equation and response equation of a multiple-input multiple-output
and multiple state variable system are vectr-matrix type equations shown in the following.

o
x(t) = A x(t) + B v(t) (8. 77)

y(t) = C x(t) + D v(t) (8. 78)

where x(t) nx1, A nxn, B nxm, v(t) mx1, y(t) rx1, C rxn and D rxm.

If we take the Laplace transform of Eqn.8.77 and Eqn..8.78,

o
{x(t)} ={ A x(t)} + {B v(t)}

{y(t)} = {C x(t)} + {D v(t)}

sX(s) = A X(s) + B V(s)

Y(s) = C X(s) + D V(s)

Lets arrange them,

sX(s) A X(s) = B V(s)

(s I A ) X(s) = B V(s)

s-domain Analysis

250
Since the last equation is a vector-matrix equation, we can multiply both sides by (s I A )
-1
,

X(s) = (s I A )
-1
B V(s)

and
Y(s) = [ C (s I A )
-1
B + D ] V(s) (8. 79)

Since in Eqn.8.79, Y(s) and V(s) are vectors, their ratio is not defined. But, we can
define the transfer matrix here:

G(s) = [ C (s I A )
-1
B + D ] (8. 80)

The G(s) matrix in Eqn.8.80 is rxm.

Poles and Zeros of the Transfer Function

The roots of the numerator and the denominator of a general transfer function given in
Eqn.8.15 are called the zeros and the poles of the system respectively.

Now, first lets take a single-input single-output and single state variable system, and
then take single-input single-output but multiple state variable system.

The denominator of a single-input single-output and single state variable system
transfer function is a first-degree polynomial. If we equate it to zero:

s a = 0

hence

s = a = - 1/ (8. 81)

is the system pole. Therefore, there is only one pole of a a single-input single-output and
single state variable system. This is equal to the inverse of the time constant.

The number of poles of a single-input single-output but multiple state variable system
transfer function given in Eqn.8.70 is n, because if we write the Eqn.8.70 as follows
(assuming that d=0 for simplicity),

G(s) = C (s I A )
-1
B

C adj(s I A ) B
= (8. 82)
det(s I A )

Since the denominator polynomial of Eqn.8.82 is also the charactersitic polynomial of
the matrix A and when we equate it to zero it is the characteristic equation of the matrix A,

det(s I A ) = 0

s-domain Analysis

251
s
n
+ b
n -1
s
n -1
+ ... + b
1
s + b
0
= 0

(s s
1
) (s s
2
) ... (s s
n
) = 0

the roots obtained s
i
( i=1,2, ..., n), that is, the poles of the transfer function are the
eigenvalues of the matrix A. In short,

Poles = Eigenvalues (8. 83)

Example 8.1

Determine the equivalent impedance seen from the Port AB for the circuit in Fig.8.19.

Figure 8.19
Solution:

First of all, we have to transform the network into s-domain. Since the network
is linear, we can transform it component by component. So,

4 ) (s Z
R

s sL s Z
L
) (

Since these two impedances are in parallel seen from Port AB,

s
s
s Z s Z s Z s Z
L R Eq AB
4
4
) ( // ) ( ) ( ) (

Example 2:

For the network shown in Fig.8.20a, find the input impedance seen by the current
source.

A
+
-
L=1 H
i(t)
R=4
ohms
B
s-domain Analysis

252

(a) (b)

Figure 8.20

Solution:

First, we have to transform the network into s-domain as seen in Fig.8.20b.
Notice that there is neither a series nor parallel configuration seen at the input side. However,
if we apply a Y transform to the part of the circuit composed of
2 1
,
L L R
Z and Z Z , we
obtain
Z Y X
Z and Z Z , from Eqn.8.47 as

) 3 2 (
3 2 2 1 2 1
2
1
2 2 1 1
s
s
s s
s
s s s s
Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z
L
L R L L L R
X
ohms

) 3 / 2 (
2
3 2
2
2
2 2 1 1
s
s
s s
Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z
L
L R L L L R
Y
ohms

) 3 2 (
2 2 2 1 1
s s
Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z
R
L R L L L R
Z
ohms

Now, as seen, the input impedance can be written as

Y Z C X in
Z Z Z Z s Z // ) // ( ) (
1

(HW: Obtain ) (s Z
in
).

Example 3:

Determine the Thevenins equivalent of the circuit given in Fig.8.20 as seen by the
impedance Z
C2
(s).
C
1
=1 F
R=1ohm
C
2
=2 F
L
2
=2 H
L
1
=1 H
I=1/s

Z
C1
=1/s ohm
Z
R
=1ohm
Z
C2
=1/2s
ohm
Z
L2
=2s ohm
Z
L1
=s
ohm
I=1/s

Z
X
Z
Y
Z
Z
s-domain Analysis

253

Solution:

We can use the resultant network after Y transformation. In this case,

) // ( ) (
1 Z C X TH
Z Z Z s Z

For Thevenins voltage, lets take Z
Z
out for simplicity. Then, the open-circuit voltage seen
from the terminals where the impedance Z
Z
is to be connected is the Thevenins voltage:

s
s
s
s I Z s V
Y TH
3 / 2 1
)
3
2
( ) ( volts

(HW: Obtain ) (s Z
TH
and draw the Thevenins equivalent circuit).

Example 8.4.

Transform the network given in time domain (Fig.8.21) into s-domain and determine
the load voltage and current.

Figure 8.21 Network given in time domain

Solution:

Since the network is a linear system, it can be directly transformed into s-domain
(Fig.8.22).

Figure 8.22 Network in s-domain

v
i
(t)=cost
+
-
C1=1F
R1=10
+
-
C2=1F
R2=5
R3=10
L=1H
v
L
(t)
i
L
(t)
V
i
(s)
+
-
Z
2
=1/s
Z
1
=10
+
-
Z
3
=1/s
Z
4
=5
Z
5
=10
Z
L
=s
V
L
(s)
I
L
(s)
s-domain Analysis

254

The input voltage is transformed to s-domain by Laplace transform:

1
} {cos )} ( {
2
s
s
t L t v L
i
volts (8. 84)

Thevenins equivalent of the network seen by the load (Fig.8.23) :

Figure 8.23 Thevenins equivalent of the network seen by the load

The Thevenins impedance can be determined by short-circuited the input
voltage source.

) (s Z
T
[(Z
1
//Z
2
)+Z
3
]//Z
4
+Z
5

10 5 // )
1
1
10
1
10
( ) (
s
s
s
s Z
T

10
1 25 50
5 100
10 5 //
10
1 20
10 5 // )
1
1 10
10
(
2 2
s s
s
s s
s
s s

By simplifying the expression:

1 25 50
15 350 500
) (
2
2
s s
s s
s Z
T
(8. 85)

Now, from Fig.8.24 and using Eqn.8.84 and 85, we determine the load voltage and current as
follows:

T
T L
L
L
V
Z Z
Z
s V ) (
Therefore,

1
1 25 50
15 350 500
) (
2
2
2
s
s
s s
s s
s
s
s V
L

+
-
Load
Z
T
(s)
Z
L
(s)=s V
T
(s)
s-domain Analysis

255

Simplifying the above expression:

1 15 351 525 50
1 25 50
) (
2 2 3
2
s
s
s s s
s s
s V
L
volts

and the load current is

) (
) (
) (
s Z
s V
s I
L
L
L

Hence,

1
1
15 351 525 50
1 25 50
) (
2 2 3
2
s s s s
s s
s I
L
ampere

Example 8.5

For the network in Fig.8.24, write the mesh equations.

Figure 8.24
Solution:

For the first mesh, we write KVL:

0 ) (
2 5 1 R R
V V s V (8. 86)

Using terminal equations, we write the Eqn8.86 as follows:

0 ) ( ) (
2 1 2 1 5 1 m m m
I I R I R s V (8. 87)

For the second mesh, we write KVL:

0
6 3 2 C L R
V V V (8. 88)
v
1
(t)
+
R
5

-
R
2

L
3
R
4

C
6

C
7

I
8

I
m1

I
m2

I
m3

I
m4

s-domain Analysis

256


0
1
) ( ) (
2
2 6
4 3 2 3 1 2 2 m m m m m m
I
sC
I I I sL I I R (8. 89)

For the third mesh, we write KVL:

0
7 4 3 C R L
V V V (8. 90)


0
1
) ( ) (
3
7
4 3 4 4 2 3 3 m m m m m m
I
sC
I I R I I I sL (8. 91)
Note that the current of the fourth mesh is chosen in the direction of the current source I8, that
is,

8 4
I I
m
(8. 92)

Arranging Eqn.8.87, 8.89, 8.91 and 8.92, we obtain the matrix-vector mesh equation as
follows:

8
1
3 4
3
3
2
1
7
3 4 3
3
6
3 2 2
2 5 2
) (
0
0
0
1
1
( 0
1
(
0 ) (
I
V
sL R
sL
I
I
I
sC
sL R sL
sL
sC
sL R R
R R R
m
m
m
(8. 93)

Note that Eqn.8.93 is a matrix-vector equation with the coefficient matrix is symmetric. We
can easily solve the matrix, and find the mesh currents as follows:

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
s F s B s Z s I
m
(8. 94)

Homework:

Find the vector ) (s I
m
.

Example 8.6

For the network in Fig.8.25, write the node equations.
s-domain Analysis

257

Figure 8.25
Solution:

There are four nodes in this network. Node D is chosen as the ground. Every node is
considered one by one. Lets take Node A. There are four currents coming into and going out
to the Node A, namely, I
1
, I
Y2
, I
Y3
and I
Y6
. We consider the component currents going out to
the node as (+) and the source current as it is (in this case, I
1
is coming into the node therefore
we take it as (-)). Then we write the KCL for this node. For Node A, KCL is

-I
1
+I
Y2
+I
Y3
+ I
Y6
.=0 (8. 95)

Similarly, for Node B and C, we can write KCLs respectively:

I
Y3
+I
Y4
+I
Y5
.=0 (8. 96)
I
Y4
+ I
Y6
. -I
7
=0 (8. 97)

Using terminal equations in s-domain, we can write these equations in terms of node voltages
as:
-I
1
+Y
2
V
A
+Y3(V
A
-V
B
) +Y
6
(V
A
-V
C
).=0 (8.98)
Y
3
(V
B
-V
A
) +Y
4
(V
B
-V
C
) +Y
5
V
B
.=0 (8. 99)
Y
4
(V
C
-V
B
) + Y
6
(V
C
-V
A
) -I
7
=0 (8. 100)

Arranging Eqn8.98-8.100 and putting them into matrix-vector form, we obtain node
equations:

7
1
6 4 4 6
4 5 4 3 3
6 3 6 3 2
0
) (
) (
) (
I
I
V
V
V
Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y Y
C
B
A
(8. 101)

Notice that the admittance matrix is symmetric and it can easily be written directly from the
network.

I
1
(s)
I
7

A
B
C
D
Y
2

Y
3

Y
6

Y
5

Y
4

V
A

V
B

V
C

s-domain Analysis

258

Homework:

Solve Eqn.8.72 for I
1
=1 ampere, I
7
= 1/s ampere, R
2
=10 ohm, L
3
=0.1 Henry, R
4
=20
ohm, C
5
=0.01 Farad, and C
6
=0.1 Farad.

s-domain Analysis

259
CHAPTER 8

QUESTIONS

1. For the circuit given in Fig.P.8.1, find the input impedance Z
in
(s).

Fig.P.8.1

2. For the circuit given in Fig.P.8.2, calculate the equivalent impedance between the
terminals A and B.

Fig.P.8.2

3. For the circuit given in Fig.P.8.3, find the input impedance Z
in
(s).

Fig.P.8.3

R
1
=1 ohm L=0.5 H
C=0.1 F
R
2
=2 ohms
A
B
Z
in
(s)
1/s ohm
s ohm
A B
s ohm
10 ohms
+
-
V
0
(s)
1 ohm
s ohm
A
B
C
D
1 ohm
2s ohm
1/s ohm
1/2s ohm
+
-
V
i
(s)
1 ohm
Z
0ut
(s)
s-domain Analysis

260
4. For the circuit given in Fig.P.8.4, find the transfer function
) (
) (
) (
s V
s V
s G
i
o
.

Fig.P.8.4

) (
) (
) (
s I
s I
s G
i
o
.

Fig.P.8.5

) (
) (
) (
s V
s V
s G
i
o
.

Fig.P.8.6
) (
) (
) (
s V
s V
s G
i
o
.

Fig.P.8.7

R
C
v
i
(t)
+
-
v
o
(t)
+
-
i
i
(t)
R
i
o
(t)
C
C
v
i
(t)
+
-
v
o
(t)
+
-
R
R
L
v
i
(t)
+
-
v
o
(t)
+
-
s-domain Analysis

261
) (
) (
) (
s V
s V
s G
i
o
.

Fig.P.8.8

9. Compare the transfer function of the circuits given in Fig.P.8.4, Fig.P.8.6, Fig.P.8.7.
and Fig.P.8.8.

(a) Which are similar to each other?
(b) Calculate ) ( lim
0
s G
s
for each circuit.
(c) Calculate ) ( lim s G
s
for each circuit.

) (
) (
) (
s V
s V
s G
i
o
.

Fig.P.8.9

) (
) (
) (
s I
s I
s G
i
o
.

Fig.P.8.10

12. For the circuit given in Fig.P.8.9, R=2 , L=2 H, and C=0.5 F.
L
v
i
(t)
+
-
v
o
(t)
+
-
R
+
-
L
R C
+
-
V
0
(s) V
i
(s)
L
i
i
(t)
R
i
o
(t)
C
s-domain Analysis

262

(a) Find the poles of the transfer function
) (
) (
) (
s V
s V
s G
i
o
.
(b) Plot the poles in complex plane.
(c) If R=0, then find the poles of
) (
) (
) (
s V
s V
s G
i
o
and plot them in complex plane.
What is the difference between the two plots obtained in (b) and (c).

13. The state equation of a system is given in the following:

) (
1
1
) (
1 1
1 0
) ( t v t x t x
o

) ( 0 1 ) ( t x t y

(a) Find the eigenvalues of the system matrix.
(b) Find the transfer function
) (
) (
) (
s V
s V
s G
i
o
for the system by taking the Laplace
transform of the state equation.
(c) Determine the charactersitic polynomial of the transfer function.
(d) Find the poles of the system.
(e) Compare the eigenvalues and the poles.
(f) Plot the poles in the complex plane.

14. Uncouple the state equation given in Question 13 by making similarity tranformation.
Find x
1
(t) and x
2
(t) for V(s)=1/s (unit step input). Plot y(t) in time-domain.

15. Determine the poles and zeros of the transfer function
) (
) (
) (
s V
s V
s G
i
o
for the network
given in Fig.P.8.11.

Fig.P.8.11

16. For the electrical network given in Fig. P.8.12

L
1
=2H
v
i
(t)
+
-
v
o
(t)
+
-
C=0.5 F
A
B
C
D
R=10 ohms L
2
=1H
R
L
=5
ohms
s-domain Analysis

263
(a) Obtain state equations and response equation y(t)=v
R
(t)=v
0
(t) and determine
the eigenvalues of system matrix in time domain.

(b) Transform state equations into s-domain and obtain the transfer function
) (
) (
0
s V
s V
i
.

(c ) Determine the poles of the transfer function and compare them with the
eigenvalues.

FigureP. 8.12

v
i
(t)
+
C
2
=1 F
+
-
-
C
1
=1 F
R=1 ohm
L=1 H
v
o
(t)
j-domain Analysis

264
CHAPTER 9

Complex Domain Analysis
j-domain Analysis

Contents

CHAPTER 9 ........................................................................................................................... 264
Complex Domain Analysis .................................................................................................... 264
j-domain Analysis ................................................................................................................ 264
Contents .............................................................................................................................. 264
9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 265
9.2 Mathematical Model of Ideal Linear Time-Invariant Two-Terminal components in
j-domain and Phasor Representation ............................................................................... 266
9.2.1 Phasor Representation of Sinusoidal Signals: .................................................... 266
9.2.2 Electrical Components ....................................................................................... 267
9.2.2.1 A General Electrical Two-Terminal Component and Associated reference
Directions for Terminal Voltage and Current .................................................................... 267
9.2.2.2 Resistor, Linear Time-Invariant Electrical Energy Dissipating Component ..... 268
9.2.2.3 Inductor (Coil), Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing Magnetic Energy . 269
9.2.2.4 Capacitor, Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing Electrical Energy ......... 271
9.2.2.5 Ideal Sources ...................................................................................................... 273
9.3 Fundamental Network Theorems ........................................................................... 274
9.3.1 Terminal Equivalence ........................................................................................ 274
9.3.1.1 Series Connected 2-Terminal Components ........................................................ 274
9.3.1.2 Parallel Connected 2-Terminal Components ..................................................... 276
9.3.1.3 -Y Connected 2-Terminal Components .......................................................... 277
9.4 Complex Power ...................................................................................................... 279
9.5 Maximum Power Transfer and Impedance Matching ............................................ 280
9.6 Network Functions ................................................................................................. 282
9.7 Resonance ............................................................................................................... 284
9.8 Frequency Response ............................................................................................... 288
9.1 Logarithmic Plots of Frequency Response and Decibel Concept (Bode Plots) ..... 294
9.1.1 Sinusoidal Response Summary .......................................................................... 294
9.1.2 Frequency Response Curves .............................................................................. 295
9.2 Filters ...................................................................................................................... 306
CHAPTER 9 ....................................................................................................................... 310
QUESTIONS ...................................................................................................................... 310

j-domain Analysis

265

9.1 Introduction

terminal (or 2-terminal) components in j-domain. The name of the domain that is j-domain
comes from the fact that the independent variable is the angular velocity 2f that includes
the frequency f and is written as s=j for generalized systems functions. In system analysis,
the frequency responses of systems are important because in practical applications, the inputs
of communications or control systems are generally in the form of sinusoidal signals or in
periodical signals. As we know, a periodical signal can be decomposed into its fundamental
sinusoidal components known as harmonics. Therefore, system response to sinusoidal input is
important. The j-domain analysis gives rise to a useful introduction to complex domain (or
frequency domain) analysis. As you notice that complex domain and frequency domain are
synonymous. In this chapter, first, we give general two-terminal components, then we focus
on the electrical ideal linear time-invariant two-terminal components such as resistor,
capacitor and inductor in j-domain. We can define a multi-terminal component such as a
three-terminal component, a four-terminal component and, in general an n-terminal
component. However, within this content, we will only give the two-terminal components in
detail. The components that we deal with in this book are ideal linear time-invariant
components. The properties of this type of components are as follows:



energy.

j-domain Analysis

266
in j-domain and Phasor Representation

Similar to time domain, the components of the systems can be defined in j -domain
as well when the input sources are sinusoidal or periodical functions. That is, if the input
source is x(t)=Xsint or x(t)=Xcost or in general x(t)=Xe
jt
, then we analyze the system in
j-domain.

We can transform time-domain functions into j-domain, first we take the Laplace
transform of the time-domain function and then we substitute j for the independent variable
s.

9.2.1 Phasor Representation of Sinusoidal Signals:

For defining the phasor representation we can take the general function
) (
) (
| e +
=
t j
Xe t x since any sinusoidal function sine or cosine can be written in terms of this
general function (Euler expansion). That is,

j
e e
t
t j t j
2
) sin(
) ( ) ( | e | e
| e
+ +
= + (9.1)
and

2
) cos(
) ( ) ( | e | e
| e
+ +
+
= +
t j t j
e e
t (9.2)

Let the general sinusoidal function be
) (
) (
| e +
=
t j
Xe t x . A phasor can be defined as

Phasor : X(j) = | ( X (9.3)

Where
X : is the amplitude of the sinusoidal function and
| : is the phase angle measured CCW from the real axis.

The symbol ( represents the angle

A phasor can be represented as an arrow in the complex plane (Fig.9.1.)

Figure 9.1 A phasor

Im
Re

X

rad/s
0
j-domain Analysis

267
9.2.2 Electrical Components


9.2.2.1 A General Electrical Two-Terminal Component and Associated reference

in Fig.9.2.

the meaning of the reference directions of the terminal voltage V and the terminal current I are

v
A
and v
B

v(t) = v
A
- v
B
(9.4)

To transform Eqn.9.4 into j -domain, lets take the Laplace transform of it

{v(t) = v
A
- v
B
}= V
A
(s)-V
B
(s)

V(j) = V
A
(j) - V
B
(j) (9.5)

A
B
+
-
I(j)
V(j)
reference directions of terminal variables in j-domain.
Z(j)

Or

Y(j)
j-domain Analysis

268


minus (-) sign.

The relation between the variables V(j) and I(j) are algebraic and can be written as

V(j) = Z(j) I(j) (9.6)
or

I(j) = Y(j) V(j) (9.7)

where

Z(j) : impedance, Ohm ()

Y(j) : Admittance, Mho ()

I(j) : Current variable, Ampere (A)

V(j) : Voltage variable, Volt (V)

Notice that the Ohms Law is still valid. However, the terms in front of current and voltage,
namely, Z(j) and Y(j) are not constant but depend on the independent variable s. These are
Ohm () and Mho () respectively. We call Z(j) as impedance and Y(j) as admittance.
The current and voltage variables are also function of s but they are in ampere and volt
respectively again.

9.2.2.2 Resistor, Linear Time-Invariant Electrical Energy Dissipating Component

resistor is called current i(t) and across variable is called voltage v(t).


v(t) = R i(t) (9.8)
or
i(t) = G v(t) (9.9)

If we take the Laplace transform of Eqn.9.8 and 9.9 and putting j for s variable for
sinusoidal case,

V(j) = R I(j) (9.10)
or
j-domain Analysis

269
I(j) = G V(j) (9.11)

Where

R : impedance, Ohm ()

G : admittance, Mho ()

I(j) : Current variable, Amper (A)

V(j) : Voltage variable, Volt (V)

If ) cos( ) ( | e + = t V t v , then the phasor of it is
|
e
j
Ve j V = ) ( and since the resistance R is a
real quantity, the phasor of the current is
|
e
j
Ie j I = ) ( . Notice that the phase angles of both
voltage and the current are the same for resistor.

The schematic representation of a resistor and phasor diagram in complex-plane are shown in
Fig. 9.3.

Figure 9.3. Electrical resistor, its phasor

9.2.2.3 Inductor (Coil), Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing Magnetic Energy

L
voltage v
L
(t).


d
v
L
(t) = L i
L
(t) (9.12)
dt

0
= L i
L
(t) (9.13)

A
B
+
-
V(s) = R I(j)

I(j)
R
I(j)
Im
R
0
Re
Complex-plane
V(j)
u
j-domain Analysis

270


= )} ( { t v
L
)} ( { t i
dt
d
L
L

By using the real derivative theorem and linearity of the Laplace transform and putting j for
s variable, we can obtain

) ( ) ( e e e j I Lj j V
L L
= (9.14)

0 90
90 ) (
0
L e L L j j Z
j
L
e e e e = = = (9.15)

where

Z
L
(j)= jL : impedance, Ohm ()

I
L
(j) : Current variable, Amper (A)

V
L
(j) : Voltage variable, Volt (V)

If ) cos( ) ( | e + = t V t v , then the phasor of it is

|
e
j
Ve j V = ) (

and since the inductor L has an imaginary impedance

0 90
90 ) (
0
L e L L j j Z
j
L
e e e e = = =

The phasor of the current is

) 90 ( ) 90 (
90
0 0
0
) (
) (
) (

= = = =
| |
|
e
e
e
e
e
j j
j
j
L
Ie e
L
V
Le
Ve
j Z
j V
j I (9.16)

Notice that the phase difference between the voltage and the current is 90.

The schematic representation of a linear time-invariant two-terminal inductor and its phasor
diagram in complex-plane are shown in Fig. 9.4.

j-domain Analysis

271

Figure 9.4 Inductor in j-domain.

9.2.2.4 Capacitor, Linear Time-Invariant Component Storing Electrical Energy

C
C
(t).


d
i
C
(t) = C v
C
(t) (9.17)
dt

0
= C v
C
(t) (9.18)

If we take the Laplace transform of Eqn.9.17assuming the initial condition is zero:

= )} ( { t i
C
)} ( { t v
dt
d
C
C
(9.19)


) ( ) ( e e e j V Cj j I
C C
= (9.20)

) (
1
) ( e
e
e j I
C j
j V
C C
= (9.21)
A
B
Z
L
(j)= j L
I
L
(j)
+
-
V
L
(j)
I(j)
Im
0
Re
Complex-plane
V(j)
u
Z
L
(j)
u-90
j-domain Analysis

272

C j
j Z
C
e
e
1
) ( = (9.22)
where


Z
C
(j)= 1/ jC : impedance, Ohm ()

I
C
(j) : Current variable, Amper (A)

V
C
(j) : Voltage variable, Volt (V)

If
) cos( ) ( | e + = t V t v ,

then the phasor of it is

|
e
j
Ve j V = ) (
and since the capacitor C has an imaginary impedance

0 90
90
1 1 1 1
) (
0
= = = =

C
e
C C
j
C j
j Z
j
C
e e e e
e

the phasor of the current is

) 90 ( ) 90 (
90
0 0
0
) (
) (
) (
+ +
= = = =
| |
|
e
e
e
e
e
j j
j
j
C
Ie e
C
V
Ce
Ve
j Z
j V
j I (9.23)

Notice that the phase difference between the voltage and the current is 90.

A schematic representation of a linear time-invariant two-terminal capacitor and its
phasor diagram in complex-plane are shown in Fig.9.5.

Figure 9.5. Capacitor in j-domain.

A
B
+
-
I
C
(j )
V
C
(j)
C
Z
C
(j)=1/ j C
I(j)
Im
0
Re
Complex-plane
V(j)
u
Z
C
(j)
u+90
j-domain Analysis

273
9.2.2.5 Ideal Sources


voltage source (driver), if it maintains a specified voltage V
s
(j) across its terminals whatever
its terminal current I(j) may be. Thus, the complete description of the voltage source
requires the specification of the function V
s
(j). The symbol for the ideal independent voltage
source is shown in Fig. 9.6.

Figure 9.6. The symbol of an ideal independent voltage source


current source (driver), if it maintains a specified current I
s
(j) through its terminals whatever
its terminal voltage V(j) may be. Thus, the complete description of the current source
requires the specification of the function I
s
(j). The symbol for the ideal independent current
source is shown in Fig. 9.7.

Figure 9.7. The symbol of an ideal independent current source

A
B
V
s
(j)
+
-
I(j)
A
B
I
s
(j)
V
+
-
j-domain Analysis

274

9.3 Fundamental Network Theorems

The time-domain is the only physical domain. The j-domain is purely conceptual. A
transformation from a physical domain to a conceptual domain may sometimes bring a better
understanding of formulation or easier analysis procedure to a physical problem. Some of the
concepts and definitions can be created in this unphysical domain such as frequency response,
transfer function, impedance, etc. In this section, we give terminal equivalence, series
connection of two-terminal components and parallel connection of two-terminal components,
-Y connection. The superposition, Thevenins and Nortons theorems can be applied in j-
domain as if we deal with resistive networks. Only difference is that the network in j-
domain is a network composed of components with complex quantities. We give maximum
power transfer and impedance matching in j-domain in this chapter as well.

9.3.1 Terminal Equivalence

We say that n-terminal networks are terminal equivalent if their mathematical models
are identical, that is, their terminal equations corresponding to the same terminals. It should be
understood that this equivalence is defined only at the terminals.

According to this definition, two 2-port networks are said to be terminal equivalent if
their characterization in terms of port currents and port voltages are identical.

Suppose we are given an n-terminal network N
0
with an arbitrary number of
components connected in an arbitrary manner. In general, this network can be replaced by
i
such that each N
i
network N
0
at its terminals.

components than the original network as a reduction process.

9.3.1.1 Series Connected 2-Terminal Components

Assume that the components have the terminal equations in j -domain as follows
(Fig.9.12):

V
i
(j) = Z
i
(j) I
i
(j) (9.24)

where

Z
i
(j) : impedance of the ith component, Ohm ()

I
i
(j) : Current variable through the ith component, Amper (A)

V
i
(j) : Voltage variable across the ith component, Volt (V)


j-domain Analysis

275


The impedance Z
i
(j) is the open circuit impedance of the element.

The series connection of n impedances between two points A and B are shown in
Fig.9.9.

Figure 9.9 Series connection of impedances

From the KVL, we have

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
e e e e j V j V j V j V
n i
+ + + = (9.25)

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
e e e e j I j I j I j I
n i
= = = = (9.26)


) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
e e e e e e e j I j Z j I j Z j I j Z j V
n n i
+ + + =

By using Eqn.9.42 that all currents are equal to each other:

) ( )] ( ) ( ) ( [ ) (
2 1
e e e e e j I j Z j Z j Z j V
i n i
+ + + =

Since,
) ( ) ( ) ( e e e j I j Z j V
i i i
=
+
-
A
B
Z
i
(s) V
i
(s)
I
i
(s)
+
-
A
B
Z
1
(j)
V
i
(j)
I
i
(j)
Z
2
(j) Z
n
(j)
+ +
+
-
-
-
V
1
(j) V
2
(j) V
n
(j)
+
-
A
B
Z
i
(j) V
i
(j)
I
i
(j)

j-domain Analysis

276

we can see that the equivalent impedance for series impedances is

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
e e e e j Z j Z j Z j Z
n i
+ + + = (9.27)

Since ) ( e j Z
i
s i=1,2, ,n can all be considered as vector in complex-plane, the summation
in Eqn.(9.27) is a vector addition.

9.3.1.2 Parallel Connected 2-Terminal Components

(Fig.9.14):

I
i
(j) = Y
i
(j) V
i
(j) (9.28)

where

Y
i
(j) :admittance of the ith component, Mho
I
i
(j) : Current variable through the ith component, Amper (A)
V
i
(j) : Voltage variable across the ith component, Volt (V)



The admittance Y
i
(s) is the short circuit admittance of the element.

The parallel connection of n admittances between two points A and B are shown in
Fig.9.11.

Figure 9.11 Parallel connection of admittances

+
-
A
B
Y
i
(j) V
i
(j)
I
i
(j)
+
-
A
B
Y
i
(s) V
i
(s)
I
i
(s)

+
-
A
B
V
i
(s)
I
i
(s)
Y
1
(s) Y
2
(s)
Y
n
(s)
j-domain Analysis

277

From the KCL, we have

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
s I s I s I s I
n i
+ + + = (9.29)

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
s V s V s V s V
n i
= = = = (9.30)


) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
s V s Y s V s Y s V s Y s I
n n i
+ + + =

By using Eqn.9.30 that all voltages are equal to each other:

) ( )] ( ) ( ) ( [ ) (
2 1
s V s Y s Y s Y s I
i n i
+ + + =

Since,
) ( ) ( ) ( s V s Y s I
i i i
=

we can see that the equivalent admittance for parallel impedances is

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
s Y s Y s Y s Y
n i
+ + + = (9.31)

Since,

) (
1
) (
s Z
s Y
i
i
=

) (
1
) (
1
) (
1
) (
1
2 1
s Z s Z s Z s Z
n i
+ + + = (9.32)

Since ) ( e j Z
i
s i=1,2, ,n can all be considered as vector in complex-plane, the summation
in Eqn.(9.32) is a vector addition.

9.3.1.3 -Y Connected 2-Terminal Components

Since the terminal equations and the other relations in s-domain are algebraic,
the rules valid for resistive network is also valid for networks defined in s-domain. Therefore,
the -Y Connections and all the other rules are the same in s-domain.

Y and Y transformations are done by using Fig.9.12.

j-domain Analysis

278

Figure 9.12 Y and Y transformations in s-domain


Z Y X
Z Y
A
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z
+ +
= (9.33a)

Z Y X
Z X
B
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z
+ +
= (9.33b)

Z Y X
Y X
C
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z
+ +
= (9.33c)


A
C A C B B A
X
Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z
+ +
= (9.34a)

B
C A C B B A
Y
Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z
+ +
= (8.34b)

C
C A C B B A
Z
Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z
+ +
= (8.34c)
A
B
C
Z
A
Z
C
Z
B
Z
Z Z
Y
Z
X
j-domain Analysis

279

9.4 Complex Power

For systems with sinusoidal inputs, a useful definition for power is the complex power.
We define the complex power as follows:

) ( ) (
2
1
) (
*
e e e j I j V j U = (9.35)
where ) (
*
e j I is the complex conjugate of the current ) ( e j I .
Let the phasors of the voltage and the current be respectively

v
j
Ve j V
|
e = ) ( (9.36)
i
j
Ie j I
|
e = ) ( (9.37)

Lets put Eqn.9.36.and 9.37 into Eqn.9.35:

i v
j j
Ie Ve j U
| |
e

=
2
1
) (

) (
2
1
i v
j
VIe
| |
=

| j
VIe
2
1
= where
i v
| | | =
By using Euler formula

| | sin
2
1
cos
2
1
VI j VI + = (9.38)

| | sin
2 2
cos
2 2
I V
j
I V
+ = (9.39)

| | sin cos
e e e e
I jV I V + = (9.40)

Where P
av
is the resistive part and Q is the capacitive and inductive part of the power.
Average
power
Reactive
power
Average
power

P
av

Reactive
power

Q
j-domain Analysis

280

The phasor diagram of the complex power is given in Fig. 9.13.

Figure 9.13 The phasor diagram of complex power and its components average power and
reactive power.

9.5 Maximum Power Transfer and Impedance Matching

One of the major problems in network theory is to transfer maximum of the power
generated in one stage of a certain network to a certain load. The transfer can occur through,
for example, a lossy transmission line. The network and the transmission line connected to its
output port can be considered to be a Thevenin network as seen from the output of the
transmission line where the load is connected. The configuration is shown in Fig.9.14.

Figure 9.14 Thevenins equivalent of a source network and transmission line transfering
power to a load

In this section, we first determine the conditions on the impedances Z
S
and Z
L
for
maximum power transfer and then discuss the procedure to match those impedances to meet
the conditions of maximum power transfer.
+
-
Load
Input
Z
S
(s)
Z
L
(s) V
S
(s)
Im
Complex plane
U(j)
0
Re
|
Q
P
av

j-domain Analysis

281

Conditions for Maximum Power Transfer:

Lets now consider the network in Fig.9.14. V
S
is the voltage source and the Z
S
is the
equivalent impedance of the driving stage. Z
L
is the equivalent impedance of a network
connected across the driver network output port and is called the load impedance. The
problem is to determine the conditions under which the driver network transfers maximum
power to the load. This problem can easily be solved if we restrict ourselves to sinusoidal
steady-state excitations.

The expression for the complex power delivered to the load in je-domain is

) ( ) (
2
1
) (
*
e e e j I j V j U
L L L
= (9.41)

where V
L
is the load voltage,
*
L
I is the complex conjugate of the load current.

Considering Fig.9.14, we have

-
+
+
= )) (
1
( ) (
2
1
) ( e e e j V
Z Z
j V
Z Z
Z
j U
S
S L
s
S L
L
L
(9.42)

For the sake of simplicity we can omit and and arguments je from the equation and taking
V
S
as a real quantity (i.e., v
S
(t)=V
S
cos e t):

2
2 2
) ( ) (
s
S L S L
L L
L
V
X X R R
jX R
U
+ + +
+
= (9.43)

2
2 2
2
2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
S
S L S L
L
s
S L S L
L
L
V
X X R R
X
j V
X X R R
R
U
+ + +
+
+ + +
= (9.44)

P
L
Q
L

where

L L L
jX R Z + =
and

S S S
jX R Z + =

P
L
=Real power

Q
L
=Imaginary power (reactive power)
j-domain Analysis

282

It can be shown that in order to maximize the real power we must have the following
conditions:

(1)
L S
X X = (9.45)
and
(2) 0 =
L
L
dR
dP
(9.46)

From Eqnd 9.44 and 9.45, we have

2
2
) (
s
S L
L
L
V
R R
R
P
+
= (9.47)

Eqn.9.46 and 9.47 imply

L S
R R = (9.48)

Hence, we have the following theorem.

Theorem 9.1

The necessary and sufficient condition for the maximum power transfer for the
network given in Fig.9.14 is

-
=
S L
Z Z (9.49)

Or for the Norton equivalent of the network (the dual of the theorem), the maximum
power transfer condition is

-
=
S L
Y Y (9.50)

The condition of Eqn.9.49. or 9.50 is called as conjugate matching of the
immittances.

9.6 Network Functions

Equivalent Resistance and Equivalent Reactance:

We know that any network function in s-domain can be written as a rational function:

) (
) (
) (
s P
s Q
s F = (9.51)

j-domain Analysis

283

where Q(s) and P(s) are real polynomials in s.

Now, let s=j, then we have

) (
) (
) (
e
e
e
j P
j Q
j F = (9.52)

Since 1 ) (
2
=
k
j and j j
k
=
+1 2
) ( , then eqn.9.52 can be written as

) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
2 1
2 1
e e
e e
e
jP P
jQ Q
j F
+
+
= (9.53)

where Q
1
, Q
2
, P
1
and P
2
are real polynomials in . We can write eqn.9.53 as

) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
e e
e e
e e
e e
e
P P
P P
jP P
jQ Q
j F
+
+
= (9.54)

)} ( Im{ )} ( Re{ e e j F j j F + = (9.55)
where the real part of F(j) is

) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
)} ( Re{
2
2
2
1
2 2 1 1
e e
e e e e
e
P P
P Q P Q
j F
+
+
= (9.56)

and the imaginary part of F(j) is

) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
)} ( Im{
2
2
2
1
2 1 1 2
e e
e e e e
e
P P
P Q P Q
j F
+
= (9.57)

Now, if we consider the driving point impedance of a one-port network, it can be written as

) ( ) ( ) ( e e e jX R j Z + = (9.58)

Note that both R() and X() are functions of in general and R() is called equivalent
resistance and X() is called equivalent reactance.
j-domain Analysis

284

Equivalent Conductance and Equivalent Susceptance:

Now, consider the admittance function:

) (
1
) (
e
e
j Z
j Y =

) ( ) (
1
e e jX R +
= (9.59)

Multiplying the numerator and the denominator of Y(j) by the complex cojugate of Z(j),
we have

) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
1
) (
e e
e e
e e
e
jX R
jX R
jX R
j Y
+
=

) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
) (
2 2 2 2
e e
e
e e
e
X R
X
j
X R
R
+
+
+
= (9.60)

) ( ) ( e e jB G + = (9.61)

where
) ( ) (
) (
) (
2 2
e e
e
e
X R
R
G
+
= (9.62)

) ( ) (
) (
) (
2 2
e e
e
e
X R
X
B
+
= (9.63)

G() is called the equivalent conductance and B() is called equivalent susceptance.

The units of impedance and equivalent resistance and reactance are ohms and the unit
of admittance and equivalent conductance and the susceptance are mhos (or siemens).

9.7 Resonance

If ) ( ) ( ) ( e e e jX R j Z + = is the driving point impedance of a two-terminal network,
we say that this network is at resonance if X(j)=0 for some values of except 0 = e and
= e .

We call the frequencies for which X(j)=0 as the resonant frequencies.

At resonant frequencies, the impedance is purely resistive and assumes its lowest
value.

j-domain Analysis

285
Thus if we excite the network with a voltage source, the current attains its maximum
value at resonance. For a lossless network (i.e. R=0), the current becomes infinite.

We can also define the resonance by using the admittance Y=G+jB of the network. At
the resonant frequencies, the susceptance B()=0 in this case. Hence, the admittance is purely
conductive and assumes its lowest value. Thus if we excite the network with a current driver,
the voltage across the terminals attain its highest value at resonance. If G=0, the voltage
becomes infinite. As you notice that there are two different types of resonant circuits. One is
called series and the other is called parallel resonant circuit. Lets now look at these two types
of resonant circuits closely.

9.7.1 Series Resonant Circuit:

A series resonant circuit is shown in Fig. 9.15. For the lossless series resonant circuit
shown in Fig.9.15a, the resistive part of the impedance is identically zero, hence the network
is equivalet to an open circuit, that is Z=0, at the resonance frequency. That is, since there is
no resistor in this lossless network R=0 and at resonance frequency X=0 as well, naturally
Z=R+jX=0 at resonance frequency. The resonance frequency can be easily found as follows:

The driving impedance at the terminals A-B is

L j
C j
j Z e
e
e + =
1
) (

) ( )
1
(
1
e
e
e e
e
jX
C
L j L j
C
j = = + =

At resonance, 0 )
1
( ) ( = =
C
L X
e
e e

hence

0
1 1
e e
e
e = = =
LC
C
L (9.64)

Since
0 0
2 f t e = , we have

LC
f
t 2
1
0
= (9.65)

is called resonance frequency for series network.

j-domain Analysis

286

(a) (b)

Figure 9.15 (a) Lossless series resonant circuit. (b) Lossy series resonant circuit

For lossy case,

L j
C j
R j Z e
e
e + + =
1
) (
In order to find the resonance frequency, we have to equate the imaginary part of the
impedance to zero. Then we obtain again

0
1 1
e e
e
e = = =
LC
C
L (9.66)

9.7.2 Parallel Resonant Circuit:

A parallel resonant circuit is shown in Fig. 9.16. For the lossless parallel resonant
circuit shown in Fig.9.16a, the resistive part of the admittance is identically zero, hence the
network is equivalet to a short circuit, that is Y=0, at the resonance frequency. That is, since
there is no resistor in this lossless network R=0 and at resonance frequency B=0 as well,
naturally Y=G+jB=0 at resonance frequency. The resonance frequency can be easily found as
follows:

The driving admittance at the terminals A-B is

) ( ) (
) (
1
) (
1
) (
2 2 2 2
e e
e e
e jB G
X R
X
j
X R
R
jX R j Z
j Y + =
+
+
=
+
= =

where
2 2
) (
X R
R
G
+
= e (9.67)

v
i
(t)
+
-
C
L
I
A
B
v
i
(t)
+
-
C
L
I
A
B
R
j-domain Analysis

287
2 2
2 2
)
1
(
)
1
(
) (
C
L R
C
L
X R
X
B
e
e
e
e
e
+
=
+
= (9.68)

(a) (b)

Figure 9.16 (a) Lossless parallel resonant circuit, (b) lossy parallel resonant circuit.

At resonance, B=0, therefore

0
)
1
(
)
1
(
) (
2 2
2 2
=
+
=
+
=
C
L R
C
L
X R
X
B
e
e
e
e
e

hence

0
1
=
C
L
e
e

0
1
e e = =
LC

0
1 1
e e
e
e = = =
LC
C
L (9.69)

Since
0 0
2 f t e = , we have

LC
f
t 2
1
0
= (9.70)

is called resonance frequency for parallel network.

V
+
-
C
L
I
A
B
B
V
+
-
C
L
A
R
j-domain Analysis

288

9.8 Frequency Response

Electrical systems generaly may have inputs with variable frequency. In this case, it is
necessary to analyse the system behaviour according the the variable frequency. As we know
that the input function is sinusoidal. The output of the system depends on the frequency of the
input sinosoid. We call this behaviour of the output as the frequency response.

We know that a complex system function is a rational function with the numerator and
denominator of it are polynomials as in Eqn.9.71:

) (
) (
) (
s P
s Q
s G = (9.71)

0 1
2
2
1
1
0 1
2
2
1
1
a s a s a s a s a
b s b s b s b s b
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
=

where the numerator polynomial ) (s Q has a degree of m and the denominator polynomial
) (s P has a degree of n. We can write this function as

) ( ) )( (
) ( ) )( (
) (
2 1
2 1
n
m
p s p s p s
z s z s z s
s G

= (9.72)

The roots of the numerator:

s=z
i
i=1,2, ... , m

are called the zeros of the complex function G(s) and the roots of the denominator:

s=p
j
j=1,2, ... , n

are called the poles of the complex function G(s). The zeros and poles of the system function
can be simple, multiple and complex conjugate pairs. In general a zero or a pole can be
considered as a complex value that is

e
i
z and e
i
p

we can plot them on complex plane as in Fig.9.17 where x is pole and o is zero.
j-domain Analysis

289

Figure 9.17 Zeros and poles on Complex plane

The complex function G(s) is also a complex quantity. Since the input is sinusoidal,we
can put s=j in G(s) and we can express it as a phasor G(j). If we represent it in polar
coordinates, we can express its magnitude as ) ( e j G and its phase as ) ( e | j .

n
m
p j p j p j
z j z j z j
k j G

=
e e e
e e e
e
2 1
2 1
) ( (9.73)
and
= ) ( e | j Z(je-z
1
) + Z(je-z
2
) + ... +Z(je-z
m
) -

-Z(je-p
1
) - Z(je-p
2
) - ... -Z(je-p
n
) - (9.74)

We can plot ) ( e j G and ) ( e | j with respect to e as in Fig.9.18.

Figure 9.18 Frequency response of the system. Magnitude and phase variation with respect
to the frequency
Complex plane
Im
Re 0
x
x
o
o
z
i

z
i

p
j

p
j

-ja
jc
-jc
-d
ja
-b
,G(je),
e
0

e
0

e
e
t/2
-t/2
j-domain Analysis

290

Example:

Input source of an electrical network is t t v
i
cos ) ( = . The transfer function of the
electrical network is given as

2 2
) (
2
2
+ +
+
=
s s
s s
s G (9.75)
(a) Determine poles and zeros of the transfer function.
(b) Plot poles and zeros on complex plane.
(c) Evaluate the magnitude and phase angle of this transfer function for the given
input source.

Sloution:


) 1 )( 1 (
) 1 (
) (
j s j s
s s
s G
+ + +
+
= (9.76)

(a) Since the denominator is degree 2, there are two poles. The poles:

p1=-1+j

p2=-1-j

There are also two zeros, since the degree of the numerator is 2. The zeros:

z
1
=0

z
2
=-1

(b) Poles and zeros on complex plane can be seen from Fig.19.

Figure 9.19 Zeros and poles on Complex plane
Complex plane
je
o 0
x
x
o o
z
1

z
2

p
1

P
2
-j
j
-1
j-domain Analysis

291

(c) The magnitude of the transfer function:

1
1
1 1
1
) (
=
=
+ + +
+
=
e
e
e e
e e
e
j j j j
j j
j G (9.77)

j j j j
j j
j G
+ + +
+
=
=
1 1
1
) (
1 e
e

5
2
5 5
2 1
=
=
and

2 1 2 1 1
) (
p p z z
j | | | | e |
e
+ =
=

= Z(j) + Z(1+j) Z(1+j2) Z(1) =90+45-65-0 = 70

Example 2

For the parallel RLC network shown in Fig.9.20,

(a) Transform the network into s-domain.

(b) Find the transfer function
) (
) (
) (
0
s I
s V
s G
i
=

(c ) Plot poles and zeros on complex plane

(d) Obtain ) ( e j G and ) ( e | j and plot them versus .

Figure 9.20 Parallel RLC network in time domain
B
i
i
(t)
+
R
-
Input
A
C L
v
0
(t)
j-domain Analysis

292

Solution:

(a) The network in s-domain can be obtained as in Fig.9.21.

Figure 9.21 Parallel RLC network in s- domain

(b) The transfer function is

LC
s
RC
s
s
C
s I
s V
s G
i
1 1
1
) (
) (
) (
2
0
+ +
= = (9.78)

Or we can arrange this transfer function as

) )( (
) / 1 (
) (
p p p p
j s j s
s C
s G
e o e o + + +
= (9.79)

where
RC
p
2
1
= o ,
2 2
0 p p
o e e = and
LC
LC
1 1
0
= = e

(c) Poles and zeros are plotted on complex plane as seen in Fig.9.22

Figure 9.22 Poles and zeros of parallel RLC network in complex- domain

B
I
i
(s)
+
R
-
Input
A
1/sC sL
V
0
(s)
Complex plane
je
o 0
x
x
o
z
p
1

p
2
j
p

-
p

- j
p

j-domain Analysis

293

(d) Phasor representation of the transfer function:

p p p p
j j j j
j
C
j G
e o e e o e
e
e
+ + +
=
1
) ( (9.80a)

and

2 1
) (
p p z
j | | | e | = (9.80b)

The plots of ) ( e j G and ) ( e | j versus are shown in Fig.9.23.

j-domain Analysis

294

Figure 9.23 Frequency response of the parallel RLC system. Magnitude and phase
variation with respect to the frequency

9.1 Logarithmic Plots of Frequency Response and Decibel Concept (Bode Plots)

9.1.1 Sinusoidal Response Summary

We have seen in Chapter 6 that the sinusoidal response of a system is also a sinusoid
with an amplitude and phase difference to the input sinusoid of a function of the frequency .

As a short summary, lets look at the responses of the systems to sinusoidal inputs
such as t A and t A Ae
t j
e e
e
sin , cos , .

When the input is
t j
Ae
e
, then the output is
)] ( [
) (
w t j
e B
| e
e
+
.
When the input is , cos t A e then the output is )] ( cos[ ) ( e | e e + t B .
When the input is t A e sin , then the output is )] ( sin[ ) ( e | e e + t B .

We can write the responses in phasor representation as

) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( e | e e e e B j B j B j B = = (9.1)

As you notice that the amplitudes of the outputs B()s are the function of , and the
phase angles ) (e | s are the function as well. We can depict the input and output relation
on the same complex plane as in Fig.9.1. The representation in Fig.9.1 is called phasor
diagram representation.
,G(je),
e
0

e
0

e
e
t/2
-t/2
0
j-domain Analysis

295

Figure 9.1 The phasor of input and output signals for sinusoidal response

We can also represent the same response as magnitude versus e and phase versus e as
well as seen in Fig.9.2.

Figure 9.2 Magnitude and phase versus e.

These two representations are the frequency domain representatins and both are very
useful in electrical system analysis and design. In this section we will investigate these
representations.

9.1.2 Frequency Response Curves

The curves of the magnitude, ) ( e j B , and the phase ) (e | of a fuction G(s) versus e
are called the frequency response curves as we mentioned above. In Chapter 8, it was shown
that the transfer function G(s) is a rational function of complex variable s that can be written
as

) (
) (
) (
s P
s Q
s G =

0 1
2
2
1
1
0 1
2
2
1
1
a s a s a s a s
b s b s b s b s
n
n
n
m
m
m
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
=

(9.2)

where m and n are, respectively, the degrees of the polynomials Q(s) and P(s).

Eqn.9.2 can also be written as

Im
Re
Complex plane
A
B()
) (e |
Input Phasor
Output Phasor
0
|B(e)|

e

e

j-domain Analysis

296

) ( ) )( (
) ( ) )( (
) (
2 1
2 1
n
m
p s p s p s
z s z s z s
k s G

= (9.3)

where
z
i
, i=1,2, ...,m are called the zeros of the transfer function

p
j
, j=1,2, ...,n are called the poles of the transfer function

Note that here

ke is a constant
and
z
i
and p
j
e complex quantities.

Lets arrange Eqn.9.3 as

) 1 / ( ) 1 / )( 1 / (
) 1 / ( ) 1 / )( 1 / (
) (
2 1
2 1

=
n
m
p s p s p s
z s z s z s
K s G (9.4)

where

n
m
p p p
z z z k
K

=
2 1
2 1
(9.5)

Considering sinuoidal steady-state response, inserting s=j in Eqn.9.3, the magnitude
) ( e j G and the phase ) (e | of G(j) can be written respectively as

1 / 1 / 1 /
1 / 1 / 1 /
) (
2 1
2 1

=
n
m
p j p j p j
z j z j z j
k j G
e e e
e e e
e (9.6)

+ + + = ) 1 / ( ... ) 1 / ( ) 1 / ( ) (
2 1 m
z j z j z j e e e e |
) 1 / ( ... ) 1 / ( ) 1 / (
2 1

n
p j p j p j e e e (9.7)
As you notice that, the phases of the transfer function (Eqn.9.7) are additive, however,
the magnitude is multiplicative. As seen from Eqn.9.73, 9.77 and 9.80, we deal with
multiplication and division of complex quantities. In order to avoid tedious multiplication and
division operations, we can define another method of operation. If we take the logarithm of
the system function, the individual factors in numerator and denominator becomes addition.
Therefore it is more convenient to use ) ( log e j G rather than ) ( e j G

We can transform the magnitude in Eqn.9.6 as the addition of factors if we take the logarithm
of it. In system analysis, we take 20log of it as

+ + + + = 1 / log 20 ... 1 / log 20 1 / log 20 log 20 ) ( log 20
2 1 m
z j z j z j K j G e e e e
j-domain Analysis

297
1 / log 20 ... 1 / log 20 1 / log 20
2 1

n
p j p j p j e e e (9.8)

The unit of ) ( log 20 e j G is decibel written in short as dB.

In general, we have four types of factors, namely

(a) K (gain term)
(b) s (first-order term)
(c) (as+1) (first-order term)
(d) (cs
2
+bs+1) (second-order term)

Plotting the Magnitude Terms of ) ( log 20 e j G :

The terms are plotted on a semi-log paper. The horizontal scale is logarithmic, but the
vertical scale is linear in a semi-log paper. If both axis are in logarithmic scale, then we call it
full logarithmic paper. We will use semi-log paper for plotting magnitude and phase of a
system function. Lets now look at plotting individual terms given above.

(a) 20logK :

Since it is a constant, the plot of this term will be a straght line parallel to the
-axis as shown in Fig.9.3.

Figure 9.3 Plotting 20logK

(b) e j log 20 :

The term e j log 20 which is equal to 20log for >0 varies linearly with
when plotted on a semi-log paper and will assume a zero value for =1. Therefore, the plot of
this term will be straight line passing through =1 with a slope of 20 dB per decade (since ten
times increase in results a 20 dB increase in magnitude) or 6 dB per octave (since two times
increase in results a 6 dB increase in magnitude). Note that the slope will be positive for
zeros of the system function and negative for poles as shown in Fig. 9.4.
dB
0.1
0.2 0.4 0.8 1 2 4 8 10
0.1
0.2 0.4 0.8 1 2 4 8 10
20logK (K>1)
20logK (K<1)

j-domain Analysis

298

(a)

(b)

Figure 9.4 Plotting e j log 20 (a) a zero, (b) a pole

(c) 1 log 20 + a je :

For the plot of the term 1 log 20 + a je , we must consider the low frequency
and high frequency behaviour of the term separately. Since

) 1 log( 10 ) 1 log( 20 1 log 20
2 2 2 / 1 2 2
+ = + = + a a a j e e e (9.9)

We have the low frequency behaviour:

a for a j / 1 0 ) 1 log( 20 1 log 20 << = ~ + e e (9.10)

which may be represented by a straight line having zero slope.

We have the high frequency behaviour:

a for a a j / 1 ) log( 20 1 log 20 >> ~ + e e e (9.11)

which may be represented by a straight line having 10dB/decade or 6 dB/octave slope.

Note that the slope will be negative for poles and positive for zeros. The two straight
lines are called low and high frequency asymptotes. They intersect each other at the frequency
C
=1/a called corner frequency.

The lot of 1 log 20 + a je deviates from the low or high frequency asymptotes at
frequencies near the corner frequenc
C
=1/a. The deviation at the corner frequency is 3 dB.
The corner frequency is also called 3 dB frequency for this reason. The other deviations are
listed in Table 9.1 below.

0.1
0.2 0.4 0.8 1 2 4 8 10
0.1
0.2 0.4 0.8 1 2 4 8 10
20
6
-20
-6

dB
dB
j-domain Analysis

299
Table 9.1 Deviations of 1 log 20 + a je from asymptotes
Frequency Deviation
0.25
C
0.25 dB
0.50
C
1 dB
0.76
C
2 dB
C
3 dB
1.31
C
2 dB
2
C
1 dB
4
C
0.25 dB

The asymptotes and the actal curves of 1 log 20 + a je are shown in Fig.9.5

(d)
2
1 log 20 e e c b j + :

The plot of the factor
2
1 log 20 e e c b j + arising from the complex conjugate
pair of poles or zeros also have low and high frequency asymptotes.

The low frequency asymptote has zero slope since

b
c
for c b j
1
,
1
0 1 log 20 1 log 20
2
<< << = = + e e e e (9.12)

The high frequency asymptote is

c
for c b j
1
log 40 log 20 1 log 20
2 2
>> = = + e e e e e (9.13)

As seen from Eqn.9.13, the slope of the high frequency asymptote is 12 dB/octave or 40
dB/decade since each time the frequency e doubled the magnitude increases by

40 log2=12 dB

or as the frequency is increased ten times, the magnitude will increase by

40 log 10=40 dB.
Again, the slope is positive for zeros and negative for poles.

In order to determine the corner frequency, we consider the intersections of the low
and high frequency asymptotes, that is,

c
or c
1
0 log 20
2
= = e e (9.14)

j-domain Analysis

300
The actual value of the magnitude function
2
1 log 20 e e c b j + at the corner
frequency
c
1
= e can be determined as

c
b
c
c
c
b
j log 20 )
1
( 1 log 20
2
= + (9.15)

Notice that the asymptotic behaviour of the magnitude funcion does not depend on the value
of b. However, the actual response is a function of b, or since

e o
o
2 2
2 2
=
+
=
z z
z
c
b
(9.16)

It is a function of
2 2
z z
z
e o
o
+
= i.e., the ratio of the real part of complex conjugate zeros
(poles) to their distance from the origin. Also it is equal to the absolute value of
z
| cos or
p
| cos . The plot of the actual magnitude function for different values of and the asymptotes
are given in Fig.9.6.

j-domain Analysis

301

(a)

(b)

Figure 9.5 The asymptotes and the actal curves of 1 log 20 + a je
C

1
a
10
a
0.1
a
2
a
4
a
8
a
0.2
a
0.4
a
0.8
a
dB
-6dB
-20dB
-3dB
1
a
10
a
0.1
a
2
a
4
a
8
a
0.2
a
0.4
a
0.8
a
dB
6dB
20dB
3dB

j-domain Analysis

302

(a)

Figure 9.6 The magnitude plots of the factor (1+je-ce
2
) (a) zero, (b) pole
1
a
10
a
0.1
a
2
a
4
a
8
a
0.2
a
0.4
a
0.8
a
dB
12dB
40dB
6dB
dB
1
a
10
a
0.1
a
2
a
4
a
8
a
0.2
a
0.4
a
0.8
a
-12dB
-40dB
-6dB
=1 =0.5 =0.2
=0
=1 =0.5 =0.2
=0
j-domain Analysis

303
Plotting the Phase Terms of ) (e | :

Now we obtain the phase plot of G(je). We consider the plot of the phase angle
in degrees versus e of each term of G(je).

(a) Phase Angle of the real constant term K

Since K is a real constant, its phase angle is 0
0
or 180
0
depending on its sign for
all frequencies (Fig.9.7).

Figure 9.7 Phase angle of the real constant term K as 0
0
or 180
0

(b) The phase angle of first-order term je:

The phase angle due to an je factor is

Z je = 90
0
for all e (9.17)

Therefore the phase angle of je will also be a straight line parallel to the e axis with a value
of +90
0
for zeros and -90
0
for poles as shown in Fig.9.8.

Figure 9.8 Phase angle of the first-order term je, +90
0
for zeros and -90
0
for poles

|(e)
0.1
0.2 0.4 0.8 1 2 4 8 10
0.1
0.2 0.4 0.8 1 2 4 8 10
|(e)
0
0

180
0

0
0

e
e
K>0
K<0
0.1
0.2 0.4 0.8 1 2 4 8 10
0.1
0.2 0.4 0.8 1 2 4 8 10
|(e)
|(e)
0
0

0
0

90
0

-90
0

e
e
zero
pole
j-domain Analysis

304
(c) The phase angle due to the factor (1+je):

The phase angle due to the factor (1+je) will be

Z (1+je) =tan
-1
(ea) (9.18)

Note that for values of e<<1/a, the angle will be 45
0
for poles and +45
0
for zeros.
Furthermore, for values e>>1/a, the angle will be very close to 90
0
for poles and +90
0
for
zeros. In Table 9.2, the actual values of the phase angles for the factor (1+je) at frequencies
near e=1/a are given and in Fig.9.9, the phase plot of this factor is shown.

Table 9.2 The values of Z (1+je) =tan
-1
(ea) near e=1/a

Frequency
e
Phase angle
|
0 0
0

1/10a 26.6
0

1/3a 30
0

1/a 45
0

2/a 60
0

3/a 63.60
0

10/a 84.3
0

90
0

Figure 9.9 The phase angle plots of (1+jea)

1
a
10
a
0.1
a
2
a
4
a
8
a
0.2
a
0.4
a
0.8
a
| degrees
e
90
0

-90
0

45
0

-45
0

j-domain Analysis

305

(d) Now consider the phase angle of (1+jeb - ce
2
) (the second-order term).
We can see that for this factor, the phase angle will be very small for values of e,
b
and
c
1 1
<< << e e . For very large values of e,
c
1
>> e , the phase angle will be 180
0
.
At the corner frequency,
c
c
1
= e , the phase angle will be

Z
0
90 ) 1 1 ( = +
c
b
j (9.19)

Clearly, the phase plot of (1+jeb - ce
2
) is also a function of . In Fig.9.10, the actual
plot of the phase function is given. The totalphase plot can then be obtained from the
algebraic sum of the phase angles of each factor at every value of the frequency e.

Figure 9.10 The phase plot of (1+jeb - ce
2
)

1
a
10
a
0.1
a
2
a
4
a
8
a
0.2
a
0.4
a
0.8
a
90
0

-90
0

-180
0

180
0

|
0

j-domain Analysis

306
9.2 Filters

In the previous sections, it was shown that both the magnitude and the phase of an
electrical system function were functions of frequency. Hence, by utilizing the techniques
given in Section 9.1, one can analyze the sinusoidal response of a network as a function of
frequency. One can also define an inverse problem. Given a frequency response curve,

(a) obtain the corresponding network function,

(b) obtain the network that corresponds to this network function.

Such problems is called the synthesis or design of a network. A network which is specifically
designed to have a desired frequency response for magnitude and/or phase is usually referred
to as a filter network. In ost cases, it is not possible to find a network to meet the given
specifications exactly. Therefore, usually a degree of approximation is involved.

In applications, there are several types of filters, namely, low-pass filter, high-pass
filter, band-pass filter, band-stop filter, notch filter, etc.

Ideal Filter:

First of all, we have to define ideal filter. An ideal filter is a filter with consant
magnitude characteristic within a specified frequency range or band.

Low-Pass Filter:

The fundamental ideal filter is the low-pass filter which is shown in Fig.9.11. The
magnitude characteristic of the low-pass filter is constant between e=0 to e=1/t where e=1/t
is the cut-off or corner frequency.

This type of filter is called ideal low-pass filter since it allows the low frequency
signals to pass whereas it stops the high frequency signals.

In practice, it is impossible to create an electrical network which satisfies the ideal
low-pass filter characteristic.

Figure 9.11 Ideal low-pass filter.

|G(je)|
e
0
e=1/t|
j-domain Analysis

307
However, we can find a network whose magnitude response is very close to that of an
ideal filter. One such network is shown in Fig.9.12. The network function of this network is

RC j j V
j V
j G
i
o
e e
e
e
+
= =
1
1
) (
) (
) ( (9.20)

The magnitude response and the phase response of this network are shown in Fig.9.12b and c.
From these characteristics, we can say that an RC network approximates the ideal low-pass
filter response (rather poorly).

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 9.12 (a) A network with low-pass filter chracteristics, (b) the magnitude of the
network function, (c) magnitude in dB.

R
C
v
i
(t)
+
-
v
o
(t)
+
-
|G(je)|
e
20log|G(je)|
e
j-domain Analysis

308
Other types of commonly used ideal filters having the specifications shown in Fig.9.13
are high-pass, band-pass and band-stop filters where e
C
, e
C1
and e
C2
are cut-off frequencies.

(a) High-pass filter

(b) Band-pass filter

(c) Band-stop filter

Figure 9.13 deal filters

Example 3

For the parallel RLC network given in Fig. 9.20, let R=1/6 ohms, C=8 F and L= 1 H.
Obtain the magnitude (in dB) and phase (in degree) plots of the transfer function
) (
) (
) (
0
s I
s V
s G
i
= versus log .

Solution:

The transfer function can be rewritten here again:

LC
s
RC
s
s
C
s I
s V
s G
i
1 1
1
) (
) (
) (
2
0
+ +
= =

Put the values of the parameters:

j-domain Analysis

309
) 1 4 )( 1 2 ( ) (
) (
) (
0
+ +
= =
s s
s
s I
s V
s G
i

Substitute s =j:

) 1 4 )( 1 2 ( ) (
) (
) (
0
+ +
= =
e e
e
e
e
e
j j
j
j I
j V
j G
i

Magnitude plot:

1 4 log 20 1 2 log 20 log 20 ) ( log 20 + + = e e e e j j j j G

The magnitude plots of each individual term of
) (
) (
) (
0
s I
s V
s G
i
= and their sum are given
in Fig.9.15.

Similarly, the phase plot of the individual terms of the transfer function and their
resultant is shown in Fig.9.16.

Figure 9.16 The magnitude logarithmic plot of the transfer function
1
10 2 4
8
e
dB
8
12
0
0.25 0.5
6 dB/oct
-6 dB/oct
-6 dB/oct
-6 dB/oct
6 dB/oct
je
(j2e+1) (j4e+1)
Exact curve
Resultant asymptote
j-domain Analysis

310

CHAPTER 9

QUESTIONS

1. For the resistive network shown in Fig.P.9.1, draw the phasor diagrams of the
resistance, the resistor voltage and the resistor current in complex plane for VR=2V and R=3
ohms.)

Figure P.9.1 resistive network

Solution:

The phasor of the voltage is

0
45
) (
j
R R
e V j V = e

and the phasor of the resistor is

R R
j
= =
0
0
Re

Using the terminal equation of the resistor, we obtain the current passing
through the resistor as

0 0
45 45
) (
j
R
j
R R
e I R e V j I = = e
where
R V I
R R
=

6 3 2 = =
R
I A

Lets draw all the phasors in the complex plane (see Fig.P.9.2).
v
R
(t)=V
R
cos(wt+45 )
+
-
i
R
(t)
R=3 ohms
j-domain Analysis

311

Figure P.9.2 Phasor diagrams of resistive network

Note that since the resistance is a real quantity, its phase angle is zero and therefore the phase
difference between the voltage and the current is also zero.

2. For the capacitive element shown in Fig.P.9.2a, the voltage applied across it is

v
C
(t)=3cos(2t+30)

Draw on the same complex plane

(a) Phasor of the voltage V
C
(j),
(b) Phasor of the impedance Z
C
(j),
(c) Phasor of the current I
C
(j).

(a) (b)

Figure P.9.2 The given capacitive circuit and the phasors of voltage, current and capacitive
impedance
Complex-plane
Im
Re
V
R
=2V
I
R
=6A
R=3 ohms
v
C
(t)
+
-
C=0.2 F
i
C
(t)
V
C
(j)
I
C
(j)
Z
C
(j)
3
1.2
2.5
30
0
120
0
Re

Im

0

j-domain Analysis

312

Solution :

(a)
0 30
30 3 3 ) (
0
= =
j
C
e j V e

(b)

0 90 90
90 5 . 2 5 . 2
4 . 0
1
4 . 0
1
2 . 0 2
1 1 1
) (
0 0
= = = =
= = =
j j
C
e e j j
C
j
C j
j Z
e e
e

(c) ) (
1
) (
) (
) (
) ( e e
e
e
e
e
e j V C j
C j
j V
j Z
j V
j I
C
C
C
C
C
= = =

0 120 30 90 30 30
120 2 . 1 2 . 1 2 . 1 2 . 1 3 2 . 0 2
0 0 0 0 0
= = = = =
j j j j j
e e e e j e j

The phasors are drawn in the same complex plane as shown in Fig.P.9.2b. As seen, the
phase difference between the voltage and the current in a capacitive element is 90
0
.

3. For an inductor given in Fig.P.9.3, the current passing through it is
) 45 3 cos( 4 ) (
0
+ = t t i
L
. Draw on the same complex plane,

(a) the phasor of the current ) ( e j I
L
,

(b) the phasor of the impedance ) ( e j Z
L
,

(c) the phasor of the voltage ) ( e j V
L
,

j-domain Analysis

313

(a) (b)

Figure P.9.3 The given inductive circuit and the phasors of voltage, current and inductive
impedance

Solution:

(a)
0 45
45 4 4 ) (
0
= =
j
L
e j I e amperes

(b)
0 90
90 5 . 1 5 . 1 5 . 1 5 . 0 3 ) (
0
= = = = =
j
L
e j j L j j Z e e

(c) ) ( ) ( ) ( e e e j I j Z j V
L L L
=

0 135 45 90 45 45
135 6 6 6 6 4 5 . 1
0 0 0 0 0
= = = = =
j j j j j
e e e e j e j

The phasors are drawn in the same complex plane as shown in Fig.P.9.3b. As seen, the
phase difference between the voltage and the current in an inductive element is 90
0
. Current
lags the voltage in an inductive network.

4. For a capacitive network given in Fig.P.9.4, the current passing through it is
) 45 3 cos( 4 ) (
0
+ = t t i . Draw on the same complex plane,

(a) the phasor of the current ) ( e j I ,
(b) the phasor of the input impedance ) ( e j Z ,
(c) the phasor of the voltage ) ( e j V ,
v
L
(t)
+
-
L=0.5 H
i
L
(t)
I
L
(j)
V
L
(j)
Z
L
(j)
4
6
1.5
45
0
135
0
Re

Im

0

j-domain Analysis

314

(a) (b)

Figure P.9.4 The given a capacitive circuit and the phasors of voltage, current and input
impedance

(a) Since the given current is a cosine function, we can write its phasor as

0 45
45 4 4 ) (
0
= =
j
e j I e amperes

(b) The input impedance is the series equivalent of resistive and capacitive
impedances:

0 43 . 18
1 1 2 2
43 . 18 54 . 10 54 . 10
)
3
1
( tan
3 . 0
10
)
10
3 . 0 / 1
( tan )
3 . 0
1
( 10
3 . 3 10
3 . 0
1
10
1 . 0 3
1
10
1 1
) (
0
= =
= = + =
= = =
= = + =

j
e
j j j
C
j R
C j
R j Z
e e
e

(c) ) ( ) ( ) ( e e e j I j Z j V
L L L
=

0 57 . 26 45 43 . 18
57 . 26 16 . 42 16 . 42 4 54 . 10
0 0 0
= = =
j j j
e e e

The phasor diagrams of current, impedance and voltage are seen in Fig.P.9.4b. Notice
that the phasor of a capacitive impedance has a negative phase angle. The current leads the
voltage in a capacitive network.

i(t)
C=0.1 F
R=10 ohms
v(t)
+
-
I(j)
V(j)
Z(j)
4
42.16
3.3
45
0
Re

Im

0

10
10.54
-18.43
0
26.57
0
j-domain Analysis

315

5. For an inductive network given in Fig.P.9.5, the current source is
) 60 3 cos( 2 ) (
0
+ = t t i . Draw on the same complex plane,

(a) the phasor of the current ) ( e j I ,
(b) the phasor of the input impedance ) ( e j Z ,
(c) the phasor of the voltage ) ( e j V ,

(a) (b)

Figure P.9.5 The given an inductive circuit and the phasors of voltage, current and input
impedance

(a) Since the given current is a cosine function, we can write its phasor as

0 60
60 2 2 ) (
0
= =
j
e j I e amperes

(c) The input impedance is the parallel equivalent of resistive and inductive
impedances:

0 13 . 53
13 . 53 39 . 2 39 . 2
92 . 1 44 . 1
3 4
12
1 3 4
1 3 4
) (
0
= =
= + =
+
=
+

=
+
=
j
e
j
j
j
j
j
L j R
L j R
j Z
e
e
e

(c) ) ( ) ( ) ( e e e j I j Z j V =

0 0
13 . 113 78 . 4 ) 60 13 . 53 ( 2 39 . 2 = + =

The phasor diagrams of current, impedance and voltage are seen in Fig.P.9.5b. Notice
that the phasor of an inductive imedance has a positive phase angle. The current lags the
voltage in an inductive network.

v(t)
+
-
L=1 H
i(t)
R=4
ohms
I(j)
V(j)
Z(j)
2.39
4.78
2
53.13
0
113.13
0
Re

Im

0

60
0
j-domain Analysis

316
6. For the network given in Fig.P.6, draw phasor diagram of V
1
(j), V
2
(j) and
V
3
(j),and obtain graphically the port voltage V(j) (=1 rad/sec, current is in ampere, the
voltages are in volts and impedances are in ohms).

(a) (b)

Figure P.9.6 (a) The series RLC network and (b) the port voltage as the vector addition of
all components voltages

Solution:

Since the network is a series circuit, the current Ii passes through all of the elements,
so the voltages are

3 , 2 , 1 ) ( ) ( ) ( = = i for j I j Z j V
i i
e e e
Hence
V j V 2 1 2 ) (
1
= = e

jV j j V = = 1 ) (
2
e

V j j j V 3 1 3 ) (
3
= = e

We can find the port voltage by KVL:

Volts j j j j V j V j V j V 2 2 3 2 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
3 2 1
+ = + = + + = e e e e

Since, the phasors can be considered as vectors in complex plane, we can obtain the port
voltage graphically as seen in Fig.P.9.7. In this example, the frequency of the input source is
constant.

B
V
3
= j3
Re

Im

0

V
2
= - j
V
1
=2
V
2
+V
3
= j2
V
1
+ V
2
+V
3
=2+j2
+
-
A
Z
1
(je)
=2
V(je)
I(je)=1Z0
0

Z
2
(je)
= -j
Z
3
(je)
=j3
+ +
+
-
-
-
V
1
(j)
V
2
(j)
V
3
(j)
j-domain Analysis

317

7. For the RC network given in Fig.P.9.7, the frequency of the input voltage source is
changing from zero to infinity. Draw the phasors of the output voltage for on the same
complex plane and fit a curve to the tips of the vectors of the output voltages for frequencies
of e=0, 1/RC, 2/RC and . What shows the loci obtained?

Figure P.7 An RC network

Solution:

Since the input voltage is a basic cosine function, its phasor is

0
0 ) ( V j V
i
= e

The output voltage is the voltage across the capacitor, so we can calculate it by usinf voltage
divider rule:

V
C j
R
C j
j V
o

+
=
e
e
e
1
1
) (

) ( ) tan 0 (
1
1
1
1 0
2 2 2
e | e
e
e
o
V RC
C R
V
V
RC j
= (
+
=
+
=

For =0,
0
0 ) ( V j V
o
= e
Hence,

0
0 = =
o o
and V V | (I)

For =1/RC, ) ( ) ( 45
2
1
1
1
1
1
) (
0
0
e | e e j V
V
V
j
V
RC
RC
j
j V
o o
= =
+
=
+
=
Hence
v
o
(t) 1/C
R
v
i
(t)=Vcost
+
-
+
-
j-domain Analysis

318

0
45
2
= =
o o
and
V
V | (II)

For =,
0
90 0 ) ( = e j V
o
(III)

Now, we can plot all the phasors in (I), (II) and (III) on the same complex plane as
seen in Fig.P.9.8.

Figure P.8 Loci of the output voltage for =0, =1/RC, and =.

The loci shown in Fig.P.8 shows the phasors as both magnitude and the phase angle on
the same plot. This plot is very useful for the systems to be analysed in complex domain.

8. For the network given in Question 7, plot the magnitue and the phase of the output
voltage versus .

Solution:

The output voltage can be written here again as follows:

) tan 0 (
1
1
1
) (
1
2 2 2
0
RC
C R
V
V
RC j
j V
o
e
e
e
e

+
=
+
=
where

2 2 2
1
) (
C R
V
j V
o
e
e
+
=
and
) ( tan ) (
1
RC
o
e e |

=

Now, we can plot both the magnitude and the phase versus as seen in Fig.P.9:
Re

Im

0

V
o
( j1/RC)= V /\2Z-45
0
V
o
(j0)=V Z0
0
-45
0
j-domain Analysis

319

Figure P.9 Plot of magnitude and phase of the output voltage versus .

The frequency
RC
f
t 2
1
= where the magnitude is
0
45 ) (
2
) ( = = e | e
o o
phase and
V
j V is called the cut-off frequency.

The plots shown in Fig.P.9 are also very useful to analyse the electrical systems in
complex domain.

9. For the network given in Question 7, plot the magnitude and the phase versus on the
semi-log paper.

Solution:

The output voltage can be written here again as follows:

) tan 0 (
1
1
1
) (
1 0
2 2 2
0
RC
C R
V
V
RC j
j V e
e
e
e

+
=
+
=
where

2 2 2
1
) (
C R
V
j V
o
e
e
+
=
and
) ( tan ) (
1
RC
o
e e |

=

Now, we can write the magnitude of the output voltage as

RC j V j V
o
e e + = 1 log 20 log 20 ) ( log 20

We have two terms; one is the constant term
V
V/\2
=1/RC
|V
o
(j)|

()

0
0

-45
0

-90
0

0
j-domain Analysis

320

V log 20

where we can assume that 1 >> V and the first order term

RC je + 1 log 20

We can plot V log 20 as seen in Fig.P.10a which is a straight line with zero slope.

For plotting the first order term RC je + 1 log 20 we have to think both low frequency and
the high frequency behaviours separately.

For low frequency behaviour:

RC
for RC j
1
0 1 log 20 1 log 20 << = ~ + e e

which may be represented by a straight line having zero slope.

For high frequency behaviour:

RC
for RC RC j
1
log 20 1 log 20 >> ~ + e e e

which may be represented by a straight line having a slope of 10dB/decade or 6 dB/octave as
seen in Fig.P.10b. The two straight lines one showing the low frequency beaviour and the
other high frequency behaviour are called, respectively, the low and high frequency
asymptotes. They intersect each other at the frequency
RC
c
1
= e called the corner (or break
away) or cut-off frequency. The deviation of RC je + 1 log 20 at
RC
c
1
= e is 3dB. This
frequency is half power frequency since at this frequency the power of the output fall to half
of its full power. Because the actual curve passes 3 dB lower than the zero level, the corner
frequency can also be called 3 dB frequency in applications. The overall plot of the
asymptotes and the actual magnitude curve is shown in Fig.P.10c.
j-domain Analysis

321

) ( log 20 e j V
o

(a)

(b)
) ( log 20 e j V
o

(c)

Figure P.10 Semi-log plot of the magnitude (a) the constant term, (b) the first-order term,
(c) the overall curve.

The phase curve can also be drawn on the semi-log paper as seen in Fig.P.11.
1
RC
10
RC
0.1
RC
2
RC
4
RC
8
RC
0.2
RC
0.4
RC
0.8
RC
dB
1
RC
10
RC
0.1
RC
2
RC
4
RC
8
RC
0.2
RC
0.4
RC
0.8
RC
dB
-6dB
-20dB
-3dB
20logV
1
RC
10
RC
0.1
RC
2
RC
4
RC
8
RC
0.2
RC
0.4
RC
0.8
RC
dB
-6dB
-3dB
20logV
-3dB

j-domain Analysis

322

Figure P.11 The phase plot on semi-log paper of the network in Fig.P.7.

10. Find the Thevenins equivalent of the network given in Fig.P.12 for terminals A and B
and find the voltage across the load component between A and B.

Figure P.12

Solution:

Lets obtain the Thevenins equivalent of the network seen from the terminals
A-B to the left by simplification steps.

Step 1:

Transform the current source and the parallel impedance Z
1
into a voltage source and a
series impedance Z
1
. Lets calculate the voltage source:

5 . 0 0 5 . 0 ) ( ) ( '
0
1
j j j I Z j V = = = e e

1
RC
10
RC
0.1
RC
2
RC
4
RC
8
RC
0.2
RC
0.4
RC
0.8
RC
()
-45
0
-90
0
0
0

I(je)
=0.5 Z0
0
+
-
V
0
(s) Z
Load
=1
Z
1
=j
Z
2
=-j2
Z
3
=j
A
B
j-domain Analysis

323

Step 2:

Combine the series impedances Z
1
and Z
2
into Z:

j j j Z Z Z = = + = 2 '
2 1

Step 3:

Transform the voltage source V and the series impedance Z into a current source I
and a parallel impedance Z. Lets calculate the current source:

0
0 5 . 0
5 . 0
'
'
' ' =
= =
j
j
Z
V
I

Step 4:

Combine the parallel impedances Z and Z
3
into Z:

) (
0
1
'
'
' '
3
3
circuit open
j j
j j
Z Z
Z Z
Z = =
+

=
+
=

Therefore

5 . 0 =
AB
V Z0
0

V(je)
=j0.5

+
-
V
0
(s) Z
Load
=1
Z
1
=j
Z
2
=-j2
Z
3
=j
A
B
+
V(je)
=j0.5

+
-
V
0
(s) Z
Load
=1
Z=-j
Z
3
=j
A
B
+
I(je)
=-0.5

+
-
V
0
(s) Z
Load
=1
Z=-j
Z
3
=j
A
B
+
I(je)
=-0.5

+
-
V
0
(s) Z
Load
=1
A
B
+
j-domain Analysis

324

11. Find the resonant frequency for the following series RLC network (Fig.P.9.13). Draw
the phasor diagram of the input impedance at resonance.

Figure P.9.13 The series RLC network

12. For the series resonant network in Fig.P.9.13, draw phasors of all the components
when v(t)=3cos2t.

13. Assume that the output voltage of the network given in Fig.P.13 is the voltage of the
inductor.

(a) Obtain the transfer function V
L
(s)/V(s),
(b) Plot the frequency response curves of V
L
(je) versus e,

14. Plot the loci (i.e., phasors for V
L
(je)) for e=0, e=0.3, e=1, e=2, e=10, e=100, and
e= on the same complex plane and pass a curve through the tips of the phasor arrows.

15. Find the Thevenins equivalent of the network given in Fig.P.14.

Figure P.14
v(t)
+
-
L=0.9 H
C=0.1 F
R=10 ohms
C
1
=1 F
R=1ohm
C
2
=2 F
L
2
=2 H
L
1
=1 H
I=-j6
=4
j-domain Analysis

325

16. Find the Nortons equivalent of the network given in Fig.P.15.

Figure P.15

17. Determine the filter type of the network given in Fig.P.16 by plotting the magnitude
and phase versus . The transfer function is taken to be
) (
) (
e
e
j V
j V
i
o
.

Figure P.16

) (
) (
e
e
j V
j V
i
o
.
V(je)
=5+j

+
-
L=0.5 H
R
L
=10 ohms
R
i
=10 ohms
C=0.1 F
e=2
+
-
L=0.5 H
R
L
=10 ohms
C
1
=1 F C
2
=1 F
v(t)=Vcos et
v
o
(t)
+
-
j-domain Analysis

326

Figure P.17

) (
) (
e
e
j I
j I
i
o
.

Figure P.18

) (
) (
e
e
j V
j V
i
o
.

Figure P.19
C
v
i
(t)
+
-
v
o
(t)
+
-
L
i
i
(t)
R
i
o
(t)
R
C
v
i
(t)
+
-
v
o
(t)
+
-
R
j-domain Analysis

327
) (
) (
e
e
j V
j V
i
o
.

Figure P.20

) (
) (
e
e
j V
j V
i
o
.

Figure P.21

23. For the network given i Fig.P.22, find the complex power given to the network and
determine the power factor (PF).

Figure P.22
L
v
i
(t)
+
-
v
o
(t)
+
-
R
R
L
v
i
(t)
+
-
v
o
(t)
+
-
R
1
=2 ohms
L=1 H
v
i
(t)=1.5cos10t
+
-
C=0.1 F
R
2
=4 ohms
j-domain Analysis

328

24. An electrical system has a system function given below:

2
1
) (
+
=
s
s G

(a) Sketch magnitude versus log-frequency curve,
(b) Sketch the phase versus log-frequency curve,
(c) Give the values of the magnitude curve for =0.1, 0.5, and 5 rad/s.


4 5
1
) (
2
+ +
=
s s
s G

(c) Give the values of the magnitude curve for =0.1, 1, and 4 rad/s.


10
1
) (
+
+
=
s
s
s G

(c) Give the values of the magnitude curve for =0.1, 1, and 4 rad/s.


10
10
) (
+
=
s
s
s G

(b) Sketch the phase versus log-frequency curve.

28. Consider the circuit shown in Fig.P.23.

(a) Find the system transfer function G(s)=V
o
(s)/I
i
(s).
(b) Plot the poles and zeros of this system on the comlex s-plane.
(c) Plot ) ( e j G versus frequency using proper scaling.
(d) Plot 20log ) ( e j G versus frequency using proper scaling.
(e) Plot Z ) ( e j G versus frequency using proper scaling.
(f) Which kind of filter does G(s) approximate.
j-domain Analysis

329

Figure P.23

29. Plot 20log|G(je)| versus log-frequency using proper scaling for

(a)
) 1 (
) 1 ( 4
) (
2
+ +
+
=
s s s
s
s G
(b)
) 50 10 )( 10 (
) 100 ( 100
) (
2
2
+ + +
+
=
s s s
s
s G
30. Find the simplest expression for G(s) that corresponds to the magnitude plot given in
Fig.P.24. Notice that the values of e
1
and e
2
are to be determined.

Figure P.24

L=1 H
C
2
=0.27 F
C
3
=0.27 F
C
1
=1.73 F
R=1 ohm
i
i
(t) v
o
(t)
+
-
e
e
1

e
2

5
6 dB/octave
12 dB/octave
10
25
dB
CHAPTER 10 Three-Phase Systems

327

CHAPTER 10

Three Phase Systems

Contents

CHAPTER 10 ......................................................................................................................... 327
Three Phase Systems ........................................................................................................... 327
10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 328
10.2 General Three-Phase System ................................................................................. 328
10.3 Special Load Connections ...................................................................................... 337
QUESTIONS ...................................................................................................................... 338


328

10.1 Introduction

A very wide application of je-domain analysis is in the poly-phase or commonly
known as three-phase systems which are the most widely used power distribution systems in
the world. A poly-phase system can be defined as a system in which the electrical power is
generated by n number of sinusoidal sources or the same magnitude but differing from each
other by a phase angle of
n
t
u
2
= , where n is the number of phases of the system. Thus for
n=3, the system is called a three-phase system. Because of their common use and importance,
we shall discuss only three-phase systems throughout tis chapter. Depending on the leading
configuration, a three-phase system can be balanced (equal load in each phase) or unbalanced.

10.2 General Three-Phase System

A three-phase generator is shown in Fig.10.1. The terminals aa, bb and cc are three
electrically independent terminal pairs. Mechanically, in an elementary generator, they are
terminal pairs of three sets of coils which are laced 120 electrical degrees apart from each
other. Selecting aa coil as reference, the induced voltage (sometimes called the e.m.f.
electromotive force) in each coil can be expressed as

(a) (b)

Figure 10.1 (a) Three-phase generator, (b) its graph.
a a
b
b
c
c
a
a
b
b
c
c

329
t V t V
m aa
e cos ) (
'
= (10.1a)
) 120 cos( ) (
0
'
= t V t V
m bb
e (10.1b)
) 120 cos( ) (
0
'
+ = t V t V
m cc
e (10.1c)

A three-phase generator, therefore, can be considered as thee single-phase sinusoidal
voltage sources whose terminal graphs are shown in Fig.10.1b and therminal equations are
given in Eqn.10.1. Using phasor representation, we can write

0
'
0 ) (
eff aa
V j V = e (10.2a)

0
'
120 ) ( =
eff bb
V j V e (10.2b)

0
'
120 ) (
eff cc
V j V = e (10.2c)

where V
eff
=V
m
/\2 is the rms value. In power distribution systems, it is customary to use
effective values instead of peak values.

The phasor diagram of all three voltages are shown in Fig.10.2.

Fgure 10.2 Phasor diagram of voltages of three-phase generator.

In practice, the coils of a three-phase generator are connected to each other so that the
result will be either a three-terminal or a four-terminal generator.

Delta (A) connection:

The three-terminal connection, which is also called delta (A) connection is obtained by
connecting the three coils to form a triangle shown in Fig.10.3a. The sequence of connection
of the coils is important. If cils aa, bb and cc are connected terminals A and B, B and C,
and C and A respectively, the sequence is called positive. (Positive sequence is also called
ABC sequence in USA and RST sequence in Europe). Otherwise if coils aa, cc and bb are
connected between the same sequence of terminals, then the seqence is called negative
sequence as shown in Fig.10.3b. Unless otherwise sated, we shall use positive sequence.

120
0
120
0
120
0
V
aa
V
bb
V
cc

330

(a) (b)

Figure 10.3 Delta (A) connection of three-phase generator (a) positive sequence, (b)
negative sequence

For positive sequence connection, the phasors of the voltages between the terminals
are

0
0
eff AB
V V = (10.3a)

eff eff BC
V a V V
2 0
120 = = (10.3b)

eff eff CA
aV V V = =
0
120 (10.3c)

where

2
3
2
1
120 1
0
j a + = = (10.4)

2
3
2
1
120 1
0 2
j a = = (10.5)
Now, since
0 1
2
= + + a a (10.6)
we have

0 = + +
CA BC AB
V V V (10.7)

Furthermore, from Eqn.10.3, we have

eff CA BC AB
V V V V = = = (10.8)

The voltages between terminals given in Eqn.10.3 are also called phase voltages. For
A connection, the line voltages (i.e., the voltages between lines) are equal to phase voltages.
Notice that V
ij
(I
ij
) is the terminal voltage (current) corresponding to an edge directed from
the i
th
terminal to j
th
terminal.

A
B
C
V
aa
+

V
bb
V
cc
+

+

A
B
C
V
aa
+

V
bb
V
cc
+

+


331
Star (wye ot Y) connection:

The four-terminal connection which is also called star (wye or Y) connection is
obtained by connecting terminals a, b, and c together to form a terminal N called the
neutral point of the systems. The other three terminals, a, b, and c of the coils from the three
terminals A, B, and C of the generator respectively as shown Fig.10.4. This will be a positive
sequence connection. (The negative sequence is obtained by connecting a to A, b to C and c to
B). The phasor representations are

0
'
0
eff aa AN
V V V = = (10.9a)

0
'
120 = =
eff bb BN
V V V (10.9b)

0
'
120
eff cc CN
V V V = = (10.9c)

The voltages V
AN
, V
BN
and V
CN
are the phase voltages, while the voltages V
AB
, V
BC
and
V
CA
are called the line voltages.

For Y connection, the line voltages can be expressed in terms of phase voltages as
follows:

0 0 0
30 3 120 ( ) 0 (
eff eff eff BN AN AB
V V V V V V = = = (10.10a)

0 0 0
90 3 120 ( ) 120 ( = = =
eff eff eff CN BN BC
V V V V V V (10.10b)

0 0 0
150 3 0 ( ) 120 (
eff eff eff AN CN CA
V V V V V V = = = (10.10c)

From these equations, we see that the magnitude of the line voltages are

eff CA BC AB
V V V V = = = 3 (10.11)

Figure 10.4 Positive sequence star connection of three-phase generator

+

+

+

V
aa
V
bb
V
cc
A
B
C
N

332
These results can also be obtained graphically from Fig.10.5.

Figure 10.5 Phasor diagram of line and phase voltages of Y connection

Theoretically, there must be no cnstraint in connecting a three-phase generator to an
electrical system. However, in practice the load circuits are also cnnected to form a delta (A)
or star (Y). First of these connections is achieved by connecting three 2-terminal loads in a
triangular form. Such a connection is called a delta load or delta connected load. On the other
hand if we connect one terminal of each of the three 2-terminal loads together to form a
neutral terminal N, then the remaining three terminals form a star or Y connected load. These
restrictions on the load connection do not produce any dfficulties in practice but avoids lots of
complications in the formulation and solution of systems. If the delta or star connected loads
have the same impedances for each phase, then the load is called a balanced load, otherwise it
is sad to be unbalanced load.

There are four possible ways of connecting a generator to the load. In the following,
we shall consider each type of cnnections separately.

(1) A-A Connection:

Consider the network shown in Fig.10.6, where the load and the generators are
connected in delta with Z
AA
, Z
BB
and Z
CC
denoting the line losses. Applying the mesh
formulation method to the network, we can write

(
(
(
(
(
(
+ +
+ +
+ +
=
(
(
(
3
2
1
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' ' '
0 I
I
I
Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z
V
V
A C C B B A C B B A
C B C B CC BB BB
B A BB B A BB AA
BA
AB
(10.12)

V
AB
=\3 Veff Z30
0

-V
BN
V
AN
= V
eff
Z 0
0

V
BN
=V
eff
Z 120
0

-V
AN
V
CN
=V
eff
Z 120
0

V
CA
=\3 Veff Z150
0

V
BC
=\3 Veff Z-90
0

-V
CN


333
Now, solving Eqn.10.12 for I
1
, I
2
and I
3
, we can obtain the line and load currents respectively
as

1 '
I I
AA
= (10.13a)

2 1 '
I I I
BB
+ = (10.13b)

2 '
I I
CC
= (10.13c)
and

3 1 ' '
I I I
B A
= (10.14a)

3 2 ' '
I I I
C B
= (10.14b)

3 ' '
I I
A C
= (10.14c)

By using Eqn.10.13 and 10.14, the load voltages, the line voltages and the power losses on the
transmission lines can easily be evaluated.

Figure 10.6 A-A Connection

(2) Y-Y Connection:

Depending on whether we use a neutral line or not, we have two cases of interest. First
consider the three-wire system as shown in Fig.10.7. In this case, we have two meshes where
the equations corressponding to these meshes can be written as

(
+ + +
+ + +
=
(
2
1
' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
I
I
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
V V
V V
N C NA A CC AA N A AA
N A AA N B N A BB AA
AN CN
BN AN
(10.15)

A
B
C
V
AB
+

V
CA
V
BC
+

+

A
C
B
Z
AA
Z
BB
Z
CC
Z
AB
Z
AC
Z
BC
I
1
I
3
I
2

334
From which the mesh currents I
1
and I
2
can be determined. Thus from Fig.10.7, we can obtain
the phase currents as

2 1 ' ' '
I I I I
AA N A
= = (10.16a)

1 ' ' '
I I I
BB N B
= = (10.16b)

2 ' ' '
I I I
CC N C
= = (10.16c)

Figure 10.7 Y-Y Connection: Three wire system

If the neutral terminal of the geneato and the neutral terminal of the load are connected
together through a neutral impedance Z
NN
, then one can obtain a 3-phase four wire system.
Suc a system is shown in Fig.10.8. The 3-phase four wire system are used very extensively in
the low voltage domestic power distribution systems. Now writig the mesh equatins for the
system, we have

(
(
(
(
(
(
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
=
(
(
(
3
2
1
' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
0
0
I
I
I
Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
V
V V
V V
N B NN BB N B BB
N B BB N B N A BB AA N A AA
N A AA N C N A CC AA
BN
BN AN
AN CN

(10.17)

When solved for I
1
, I
2
and I
3
, we obtain

1 2 ' ' '
I I I I
AA N A
= = (10.18a)

2 3 ' ' '
I I I I
BB N B
= = (10.18b)

1 ' ' '
I I I
CC N C
= = (10.18c)
A
B
C
V
CN
+

V
BN
V
AN
+

+

A
C
B
Z
AA
Z
BB
Z
CC
Z
AN
Z
CN
Z
BN
I
1
I
2
N

N


335

Figure 10.8 Y-Y Connection: Four wire system

(3) A-Y Connection:

Consider the network shown in Fig.10.9, where the generators are connected in A and
the loads are connected in Y. The mesh equations for this system can be writte as

(
+ + +
+ + +
(
2
1
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' ' '
' '
I
I
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z N ZB Z Z Z
V
V
N C N B CC BB N B BB
N B BB N A BB AA
BC
AB
(10.19)

which when solved for I
1
and I
2
, we obtain

1 ' ' '
I I I
AA N A
= = (10.20a)
1 2 ' ' '
I I I I
BB N B
= = (10.20b)
2 ' ' '
I I I
CC N C
= = (10.20c)

Figure 10.9 A-Y Connection

A
B
C
V
CN
+

V
BN
V
AN
+

+

A
C
B
Z
AA
Z
BB
Z
CC
Z
AN
Z
CN
Z
BN
I
1
I
2
N

N

I
3
A
B
C
V
AB
+

V
CA
V
BC
+

+

A
C
B
Z
AA
Z
BB
Z
CC
I
1
I
2
Z
AN
Z
CN Z
BN
N


336
(4) Y-A Connection:

Consider the network shown in Fig.10.10, where the generators are connected in Y
and the loads are connected in A. We can write the mesh equations for this system as

(
(
(
(
(
(
+ +
+ +
+ +
=
(
(
(
3
2
1
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' ' '
0 I
I
I
Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z
V V
V V
C A C B B A C B B A
C B C B CC BB BB
B A BB B A BB AA
CN BN
BN AN

(10.21)

The solution of which yields the line and load currents respectively:

1 '
I I
BB
= (10.22a)

1 2 '
I I I
AA
= (10.22b)

2 '
I I
CC
= (10.22c)

and

3 1 ' '
I I I
B A
= (10.22a)

3 2 ' '
I I I
C B
= (10.22b)

3 ' '
I I
A C
= (10.22c)

Figure 10.10 Y-A Connection

A
B
C
V
AN
+

V
CN
V
BN +

+

A
C
B
Z
AA
Z
BB
Z
CC
Z
AB
Z
AC
Z
BC
I
1
I
3
I
2
N


337
10.3 Special Load Connections

So far, we had investigated the three-phase systems from rather a general point of
view. We will now consider vertain special cases. Since in practice, the distances from N to
N, A to A, B to B and C to C are the same, and uniform lines are used, we can assume that

L NN CC BB AA
Z Z Z Z Z = = = =
' ' ' '

where Z
L
is the line impedance. Furthermore, we can also assume that the transmission line is
perfect, that is, it is not lossy, and hence Z
L
=0. A three-phase system where Z
L
=0 is referred
to as the system with no line losses. On the other hand, if all the load impedances are equal,
tha is if for A connected load

A
= = = Z Z Z Z
A C C B B A ' ' ' ' ' '

ant for Y conected load

Y N C N B N A
Z Z Z Z = = =
' ' ' ' ' '

then the system is referred to as the balanced system. In this case, we can analyse these
special cases again. Hovewer, they are easy to analyse. Therefore, we can leave them as
homework.


338
QUESTIONS

1. Three-phase line voltages of 440 V are impressed on a balanced delta-connected load
which consists of 8 ohms resistance in series with 6 ohms inductive reactance per phase. Find
the volt-amperes per phase, the reactive vot-amperes per phase, and the total average power.

2. Given six coils each having an induced voltage of 63.5 volts. Adjacent coil oltages are
60 apart. In how many ways, you can connet these coils to form a balanced three-phase wye
system of voltages if all coils must be used for each system and if the magnitude of the line
voltages of each sstem must be diffirent? What are the line voltages for each wye system?

3. Three-phase line voltages of 230 volts are imressed on a balanced wye load having 16
ohms resstance and 12 ohms inductive reactance in series in each phase. Fid the line current
and the total power. If the three impedances are reconnected i delta and placed across the
same line voltages, what ae the line and phase currents and total power?

4. A balanced wye load consists of 3 ohms resistance and 4 ohms capacitive reactance in
series per phase. Balanced three-phase voltages of 100 volts each, are impressed across the
lines at the load. If the load is connected to a geneator through three lines of equal impedance,
each line containing a resistance of 1 ohm and an inductive reactance of 4 ohms, find the
voltage at the generator terminals.

5. The total power supplied to two balanced three-phase loads in parallel is 12 kW at 0.8
power-factor capacitive. One of the loads takes 10 kVA at 0.8 power factor load. The second
load is a delta-connected balanced load. Find the resistance and reactance per phase of the
delta load if the line voltage is 230 volts. If the unknown load wre wye-connected, what
would be the resistace and reactance per phase?

6. A three-phase, 5 hp, 220 volt induction motor (balanced load) has an efficiency of 86
per cent and operates at 86.6 per cent capacitive power factor. It is parallelled with a three-
phase resistance furnace consisting of three 36 ohm resistances connected in delta. Find the
kilovolt-amperes demanded by the combnation, the power factor, and the line current.

7. A balanced three-phase load requires 10 kVA at 0.5 capactive power factor. Find the
kVA size of a condenser bank which may be parallelled with the load to bring the power
factor of the combination to 0.866 capacitive, and also to 0.866 inductive.

8. The motor M in Fig.P.10.1 has 2300 volts balanced three-phase volages impressed at
its terminals and takes 120 VA at 0.6 inductive power factor. Calculate the line voltages,
power input, and the power factor at terminals A, B, C.

9. refer to Fig.P.10.2, V ab, Vbc and V ca represent the voltages of a three-phase sysem,
te magnitude of each being 200 volts, and their sequence is ab-bc-ca. Two balanced
three-phase loads indicated by the circles are connected to the terminals ac as shown in
Fig.P.10.2. in addition to the two balanced loads, a single-phase, 4 kW, unity-power factor
load indicated by the rectangle is laced across the be terinals as indicated.

(a) Find the reading of W
aa-ab
and W
cc-cb


339
(b) If reactive vot-ampere meters replaced W
aa-ab
and W
cc-cb
find their respective
readings.

(c) Find the combined vector power factor of the total composite load.

10. Show that the total power in a A-A connected system can be measured using two
wattmeters.

Figure P.10.1

Figure P.10.2

C
B
A
0.5
0.5
0.5
j2
j2
j2
0.5
0.5
0.5
j2
j2
j2
-j1000 -j1000
-j1000
-j1000 -j1000
-j1000
-j250 -j250
-j250
3-Phase
Motor
3kW
0.5 PF
Load
a
b
c
+
+
-
-
-
+
V
ab
V
bc
V
ca
4kW
0.8 PF
Load
4kW
1 PF
Load
W
aa -ab
W
cc -cb
APPENDIX Complex Numbers

340

APPENDIX

Complex Numbers

Contents

APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................ 340
Complex Numbers .................................................................................................................. 340
A. Complex Numbers ...................................................................................................... 341
A.1 Rectangular Representation .................................................................................... 343
A.2 Polar Representation .............................................................................................. 343
A.3 Exponential Representation .................................................................................... 344
A.4 Exponential Form of Sinusoidal Functions ............................................................ 345


341

A. Complex Numbers

Complex numbers play an important role in the analysis and design of the dynamical
systems. There are two fundamental in the analysis and design processes. One of tem is the
time-domain approach, the other is the complex-domain approach. Therefore, we need to use
complex numbers in the second aproach.

A complex number may arise when we try to solve the following equation

0 1
2
x (1)

1
2
x

1 x (2)

As you imagine that we can not continue further to obtain a real solution. We can
introduce a new number called an imaginary number as

1 j (3)

Then the solution of Eqn.1 becomes

j x (4)

We call the new number j as the unit of imaginary number.

As in the case of above example, we may encounter a more complex solutions as in
the following

0 1
2
x x (5)

In this case, the solution is

2
3
2
1
2 , 1
x (6)

We can write Eqn.6 as

2
3 1
2
1
2 , 1
x (7)


342
If we substitute 1 j , we can write Eqn.7 as follows

2
3
2
1
2 , 1
j x (8)

As you see, the solution in Eqn.8 has two parts. First part is 1/2 that is a real number and the
second part
2
3
j is an imaginary number. We call these numbers as complex numbers.

In general, a complex number is a number of the form

x=a + jb (9)

where a and b are realnumbers, j is the unit of the imaginary number. We can represent the
two parts of the complex number given in Eqn.9 as

a=Re{x} (10a)

b=Im{x} (10b)

Since a complex number has two parts, we can consider it as a point in the complex
plane which is a two-dimensional plane as seen in Fig.A.1. The complex plane can be defined
by two orthogonal axis. The horizontal axis is called the Real axis and the vertical axis is
called Imaginary axis.

Figure A.1 The complex plane

There are three commonly used representations for a complex number, namely

(1) Rectangular representation,

(2) Polar representation,

(3) Exponential representation.

In the following sections, we consider each representation in detail.

Im
Re
Complex-plane
0

343

A.1 Rectangular Representation

The rectangular (also called Cartesian) representation of a complex number is

x = a + jb (11)

It is shown in Fig.A.2.

Figure A.2 Rectangular representation of a complex number

A complex number is a point in the complex plane and can be depicted as a vector
(arrow) starting from the origin towards the point.

The properties of complex numbers in rectangular representation can be given in the
following.

Let
1 1 1
jb a x and
2 2 2
jb a x be two complex numbers

(a)
2 1
x x if and only if
2 1
a a and
2 1
b b

(b) ) ( ) (
2 1 2 1 2 1
b b j a a x x

(c) ) ( ) (
1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
b a b a j b b a a x x

(d) jb a x x
*
where x or
*
x denotes complex conjugate.

A.2 Polar Representation

This representation is the description of a point by a direction angle and a distance. We
can illustrate the polar reresentation of a complex number as seen in Fig.A.3.

The polar form of a complex number can be expressed as

x = X
m
(12)

Im
Re
Complex-plane
0
x=a + jb
b
a
Complex-plane

344

Figure A.3 Polar representation of a complex number

When a complex number is given in rectangular form or polar form, we can obtain the
other form by using the following identities.

Given
x = a + jb (Rectangular form)

then

2 2
b a X
m
(13)
and

a
b
1
tan (14)

If x = X
m

Then
cos
m
X a (15a)

sin
m
X b (15b)

Hence, substituting Eqn.15 into Eqn.11,

sin cos
m m
jX X x (16)

A.3 Exponential Representation

The exponential representation of a complex number makes use of the Eulers
formula:

sin cos j e
j
(17)

As you notice from Eqn.16 that a complex number can be written as

) sin (cos j X x
m
(18)
We can substitute Eqn.17 into Eqn.18:

Im
Re 0
x=X
m

b=Xm sin
a=Xm cos


345

j
m
e X x (19)

Eqn.19 is the exponential representation of a complex number.

A.4 Exponential Form of Sinusoidal Functions

Eulers formula is a very useful form of representing
j
e function. By using it, we can
easily represent the sinusoidal functions in terms of the exponential function as

j
e e
j j
2
sin (20a)

2
cos
j j
e e
(20b)

Homework:

Prove Eqn.20.

The properties of complex numbers in polar and exponential representation can be
given in the following.

Let
1 1 m
X x
1
and
2 2 m
X x
2
(or
1
1 1
j
m
e X x and
2
2 2
j
m
e X x ) be two
complex numbers

(a)
2 1
x x if and only if
2 1 m m
X X and
2 1

(b)
2 1 2 1 m m
X X x x (
1
+
2
) (or =
) (
2 1
2 1
j
m m
e X X )

(c)
2
1
2
1
m
m
X
X
x
x
(
1
-
2
) (or =
) (
2
1
2 1
j
m
m
e
X
X
)

(d)
m
X x x
*
- (or =
j
m
e X ) where x or
*
x denotes complex conjugate.

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PREFACE

(t), is shown in Fig.3.15 and defined as follows:

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