SUBSTATION MONITORING AND CONTROL

Author Peter Johansen, www.jomitek.dk e-mail: pj@jomitek.dk

Capacitive voltage measurement This article concerns the subject of monitoring and controlling substations, primarily in the medium voltage power grid. The articles investigate measurement techniques and remote control options. The first part touches upon the subject of voltage measurement, while the second part covers the subject of current measurement. The third part describes remote control and substation control strategies.

Precision requirements for monitoring While the requirements for measurements on delivered power are rather strict, the precision related to generalized monitoring are less so. Often an error margin of up to 5% on the absolute measurements is acceptable. The measurements may provide vital information supporting decisions on service needs and grid control. The lower requirement level enables new measurement methods and uncalibrated installations.

Phase measurement If one wants to measure the direction of the energy flow between two points in a power grid, the phase of the current compared to the phase of the voltage must be known. The energy direction is of special interest in case of short circuits in a decentralized power grid. A directional short circuit indication can point towards the direction of failure immediately. The measurement of reactive power also requires concurrent voltage and current phase information. The reactive power may be found using figure 1, where is the angle between the current and the voltage.

Q = U RMS I RMS sin( )

Figure 1

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Therefore, it is important to ensure correspondence between the voltage and current phase measurements. Voltage is traditionally measured using voltage transformers. In this context, however, another principle and implementation will be described. The principle is based on capacitive voltage division.

Capacitive voltage measurement

Figure 2 An isolated metal sheet placed near a high voltage conductor will experience a voltage level determined by the conductor. It will act as a capacitor, where one side is the high voltage conductor and the other side is the metal sheet. If this capacitor is connected to a traditional capacitor which is related to earth potential, the configuration can be represented by the circuit of Figure 3.

Vout =

1 1 + Z cp / Z ce
1 2 f C

ZC =

Figure 3

Figure 4

By inserting the expression for the impedances, and using the fact that C ce >> C cp , the following relation can be found:

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Vout = V phase zero

Cp 1 , V phase zero Ce 1 + Ce / C p

As a remark, there is no frequency dependence in the produced output, Vout .

The frequency
It is often assumed that the fundamental frequency in the power grid, that being either 50 or 60 Hz, is very important in measuring setups. However, this is often not the case when we are looking at error situations or coupling situations in the network. Whenever fast intentional or unintentional changes in a power grid occurs the voltage and current may exhibit high frequency behavior in the form of sudden jumps and oscillations. From a measurement point of view these jumps may be crucial in order to detect correctly. In terms of voltage information these details can be easily measured using the capacitive voltage division principle, since it measures linearly (correctly) over a large frequency span. A traditional measurement transformer or the secondary side of a high voltage distribution transformer tends to eliminate the higher frequencies from the measurement.

The phase
Another important parameter to appreciate, when using the capacitive voltage divider, is the phase. Using an ideal capacitive division there will be no phase delay or distortion of any kind of the fundamental grid frequency, nor of any other frequencies. In practice an upper and lower bound applies however, ranging from approximately 1 Hz up to the MHz range, due to small resistive and inductive components. The capacitive voltage divider is thus technically far superior compared to the transformers, while being price competitive and relatively easy to install.

Practical capacities
The voltage in the distribution network of 10-36kV gives rise to certain isolation requirements. A number of different options exist for practical capacitive outlets. A straightforward type is the outlet on the elbow connectors. Their original purpose was simple voltage testing.

C =

A d

is the permittivity of the insulating material, A is the area of the piece and d is the distance between the pieces

Figure 5

Figure 6

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The capacitive outlet is typically made of two pieces of copper as shown in Figure 6. The typical capacity for the elbow connectors is 2.0 pF. This is a very small capacity, but if we earth this capacity with a 2nF capacity we will get a voltage division of approx. 1000. A phase-to-ground conductor voltage of 10 kV peak will thus produce an output of approximately 10 V. This voltage is easy to handle in measurement PLCs.

Safety considerations
A capacity of 2 pF can contain a very small electrical charge Q (= C U). This electrical charge is of no risk for the operating personnel at any realistic voltage level. Nevertheless, since an unconnected capacitive outlet will obtain high voltage levels, it is important to ensure appropriate containment and earthing of such outlets, since unwanted electrical discharges may otherwise occur.

Electrical fields
Some vendors of elbow connectors accept that earthing of the capacitive outlet is done without the original earthing encapsulation, while other vendors are more reluctant. A shielded connection should therefore always be used as show in Figure 7.

Figure 7

Figure 8, Bushing with integrated capacitor (Fab. ABB) photo from lab. test

Integrated capacity in the bushing

Another excellent place for the capacitive coupling to the high voltage conductor is in the bushing (see Figure 8).

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Capacitive insulators
In some cases it is not possible to get access to elbow connectors. Instead one may use insulators with an integrated capacitor. These insulators may be connected directly to an open phase conductor or directly to the high voltage side of the distribution transformer.

Figure 9 Capacitive insulator

Figure 10, Measuring amplifiers for measurement at very high frequencies

The capacity in these insulators are often much higher than the elbow connectors, in the area of 50-100pF. This implies a higher charge to handle, but an additional earthing ensuring the safety makes this alternative quite useful. The capacitive insulators are often made of a ceramic capacity which can exhibit some unlinearity. For ordinary control purposes this is without significance.

New measurement options

The capacitive measurement method gives new options for measuring the harmonics i.e. up to the 50th which is at 2500Hz. Using adequate calibration a very high precision is obtainable. When measuring partial discharge (PD), capacitive voltage division is very useful as the signals of interest have frequencies in the MHz range.

PART 2. CURRENT MEASUREMENT Current is traditionally measured using current transformers. In this context, however, another principle and implementation will be described.

Measurement methods
Using a traditional current measurement transformer (i.e. having a conversion of 100A:1A or 1000A:1A) gives a precise measurement of the current amplitude at 50 Hz. The measurement

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of phase is a vital issue, as this is subject to phase delay variation at 50 Hz and other frequencies when using a transformer.

Current measurement transformers

A number of good measurement transformers are available, where the high voltage conductor is the primary winding, and the secondary winding is a Rogowski coil. These measurement transformers display a reasonably flat frequency characteristic up to several kHz. Unfortunately it is usually not possible to get data about such characteristics from the vendors for frequencies other than 50/60 Hz. Through detailed tests of some of these transformers, it is found that the result is heavily influenced by how the conductor is placed with respect to the centre of the coil. Additionally the frequency characteristic is found to vary depending on the load impedance. The frequency characteristic is interesting, since it is of major importance when measuring current transients. The transients typically contain a broad spectrum of frequencies. If the sensitivity of the transformer increases at higher frequencies, which is often the case, there is a risk that it will indicate a current higher than a certain short circuit level, introducing a risk of producing false alarms. An example of an integrated current transformer is shown in the bushing in Figure. 8 .

New current measurement methods

All current measurement transformers have a certain size and must be in series with the conducting cable or placed around the conducting cable. This might be expensive and not very practical for a number of reasons. It is worth considering the use of magnetic field sensors to measure the current of cables.

H-field measurements
A current carrying conductor will always give rise to a magnetic field as shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11

Figure 12, H-field from 3 phase conductors

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As can be seen in the formula of Figure 11, the H-field in a certain distance from the center of the conductor is proportional to the current in the conductor. This proportionality implies that the output of a magnetic field measurement can be directly related to the current using an appropriate scaling. H-fields can be measured by semiconductor components. Another alternative is using optical sensors, but these are prone to sensitivity drifts due to vibration, have isolation issues due to conducting moisture depositing on the optical fibers, and actual setups often need calibration for each installation. Semiconductor sensors can measure the magnetic field strength with a high resolution and can therefore be placed at relatively large distances from the high voltage conductor. In principle the semiconductor sensors have a potential close to earth potential, meaning that they must be placed at a decent isolation distance. H-fields cannot be blocked, however they may be slightly dampened in cases where circulating currents are induced in conducting materials (eddy currents). This leads to the requirement that sensor systems must be calibrated on a type basis. Note that this is a onetime calibration, which applies to all future installations on a given type of equipment.

Shielded cables
Whether measurements are performed on shielded or unshielded cables is in general not significant, however, in case of a short circuit between shield and conductor, the current running through the shield will be of equal magnitude but opposite direction of the current of the conductor. This results in no magnetic field outside the cable, giving rise to unwanted sensor readings. Therefore it should always be evaluated if an additional earthing should be established or if other arrangements are necessary.

3-phase measurements
In many cases cables are placed with all three phase conductors in close proximity of one another. This implies that the H-fields from the individual conductors are superimposed (mixed), see Figure 12.

Installation requirements
Industry feedback and experience reveals that it is essential for sensor systems to be (1) easy to mount/install, (2) require no site-based setup in terms of calibration, and (3) should not in terms of the location of equipment interfere with other potential service needs, i.e. the system should preferably not encircle the conductors. Especially in compact switchgear, there is not much room for measuring equipment, but using the presented technique the solution is straightforward a semiconductor based sensor placed behind the cables and at a distance that meets all isolation requirements.

The ultimate sensor system

A sensor system which covers both advanced and basic monitoring needs in the medium voltage grid must be capable of reporting the following parameters: Current, voltage, power,

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var (reactive power), and direction of energy flow, and give alarms, including directional indication, in case of short circuits. Finally it must all be reported home to the controlling SCADA system. Such a system has been developed. The companies ABB in Norway and Eaton/Holec in Holland have been very cooperative in supplying equipment for type calibration and tests of such a sensor system. The resulting product is highly adaptable to various physical measurement setups, and has been shown to produce robust results with a precision of 1-3% in normal operation (up to 5% in special cases) on individual current measurements, with a phase precision of 1-2 degrees. Focusing on compact switchgear, it is indicated in Figure 12 that the distance between the vertically mounted cables and the back side of the compartment is fixed, which allows for a high accuracy without the need for calibration.

Sensor data processing The rest of the job is a matter of only computer calculations maybe not the most simple mathematics but this is no problem as long as it all functions and the measuring system is stable towards all thinkable and unthinkable situations. The stability when encountering short circuit situations is very important. It has been decided that a short circuit less than two 50Hz periods should not produce an alarm. This simple definition prevents alarms in case of intentional couplings in the power grid.

PART 3. SUBSTATION AUTOMATION In the preceding 2 parts of this article the topics of measurement techniques for voltage and current have been covered. In this article we are looking at the substation automation where the analogue measures are integrated with the digital control and the communicating towards the central remote control system.

Why Substation Control ?

To bring a cost-effective and stable delivery of power to the network, there are 2 important parameters that need focus: Actual overall network status and reaction time in case of abnormal operation. These 2 important parameters may be fulfilled by expanding the remote supervision and remote control of medium voltage substations. During normal operation it is now possible to make sure that no individual power lines are exceeding any limits and in case of abnormal operation a very fast recovery for most of the customers is possible due to fast feedback of alarms and the option of remote control of the breakers.

Typical Substation Devices The typical substation

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The typical substation intended for automation could be a station having 3 cable sections and one transformer section. To get full advantage of automation, the switch gear must be controlled by motors. The Substation must have a low voltage supply of 12-24VDC. Often a battery backup is attached to the 24V supply, which ensures that the station can be controlled in case of a breakdown of the low voltage AC supply.

The analogue signals

For each section the following analogue signals are relevant: Voltage, Current (amplitude and phase). From those analogue signals some interesting signals may be derived: Power, Reactive power, Energy direction, Short Circuit Direction.

Digital outputs
The digital relay outputs have to control the motor relays for the breakers. It might be somewhat different from one equipment to another, but it usually fits with 2 outputs per section: Breaker in & Breaker out. In a 4-section switchgear the requirement is in total 8 digital outputs.

Digital inputs
For each section it must be possible to read the breaker position. This is implemented in different ways from the suppliers of switchgear. In general 4 digital inputs are needed per section: Breaker in, Breaker out, Earth in and Earth out / Control ready.. For the complete switchgear this becomes 4x4 + 8 extra in total 24 digital inputs.

Figure 13, CombisensorPLC having 8 digital Figure 14, RTU using cage clamps, here it is from outputs and 24 digital inputs, connected to the vendor Weidmller. clamps.

Control signals and clamps

The digital inputs into the RTU (Remote Terminal Unit) only have to sense a voltage of 24V or 0V. Opto couplers are often used in the input stage in RTUs and they require just a few mA.

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The digital outputs have to signal some control-relays or contactors for the electrical motors that runs the breaker functions in the switchgear. The requirements for the wire diameters for the inputs as well as the outputs are negligible. Connectors and clamps have to meet a construction that withstands some harsh environmental conditions for many years. Cage clamps are the best since they will give the connection to the conductor a gas-tight connection.

Communication One substation one address

Internally in a substation a number of different devices for supervision and control might need to communicate to the the remote control system. Some examples are mentioned in this text. To make the installation process and management easy and reliable, all communication lines must be combined through just one box. This box will have just one address for the communication. The remote control will see the complete substation as one unit. A local sensor can be the one shown in figure 15 and 16.

Figure 15, Xiria switchgear with motor control and with sensor position illustrated

Figure 16, Compact Sensor in ABB SafePlus section

Communication
A number of communication options are available: Direct cable connection, Radio Modem, GPRS, Optical fibre. The protocols used are Modbus, IEC 60870-101/104.

Local control
During installation and maintenance of automation equipment, it is important to have the option for a local control in the station. This tool must be able to give full control and give live readouts as if it was communication to the SCADA system or even better. An example of a local control is the Windows program shown in figure 17. This program contains all the functions needed for a local control. The program consist of just a single .exefile that might be used on a laptop PC brought into the substation by the technician.

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Figure 17, Software for local installation and control of substation.

Practical implementation Sensors

For new switchgears it is possible to use the ABB combisensor (Figure 8), where the Jomitek Compactsensor may be used in both new and old switchgears and only require a very simple installation. The Combisensor is placed inside the bushing and therefore this requires to be mounted in the factory. ABB delivers RTU equipment which gives up to 9 analogue channels for this sensor. For this type of sensor, Jomitek delivers a CombisensorPLC, which has 18 analogue inputs in total. The Jomitek box can interface in total 3 sections having each 3 current sensors and 3 voltage sensors, giving 18 analogue inputs. The CompactSensor from Jomitek is an integrated sensor and PLC unit, with a simple interface. It includes a small measurement box which through a thin cable communicates directly to either the communication modem or into the box having the digital I/Os. The CompactSensor is available for a number of switchgear types.

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Figure 18, The CompaktSensor in a Xiria switchgear. The capacitive voltage is measured at phase R.

Figure 19, Short Circuit Indicator for ABB Combisensor

A simple Short Circuit Indicator

In many small substations a simple indication of short circuits is sufficient. For ABB switchgears with the ABB Combisensor installed, Jomitek offers such a simple indicator.

Substation Control in the future

By using Smarttransformers, with built in automatic voltage control, and the Wind turbines with automatic reactive power control, the power grid will be affected by more switching noise from these sources. It is of great interest to get a local observation of the harmonic noise, especially the 3rd, 5th, 7th etc harmonic of the 50 Hz frequency. The requirement is often measurement of up the 50th harmonic ie. 2.500Hz. Using the capacitive measurement of the voltage, these measurements are easily done. The first equipment with frequency measurement built in directly into the sensors are the CompactSensors.

Figure 20, Frequency analysis from the CompactSensor

Using the capacitive method for the measurement of voltage, it is possible to measure even very high frequency signals. This opens for measurement of Partial Discharges (PD) in the substation where the sensor is placed.

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The ultimate sensor

The ultimate sensor is a sensor which is integrated into the elbow connector. Tyco/Raychem is the first vendor that will be able to offer such a connector. It is based on the new shielded and silicone isolated elbow connector RSTI-58 (800A, 24kV) and the connector type RSES(400A, 24kV). The output signal from this connector-sensor will be the same as the output signal from the other sensors mentioned in this article. Serial communication gives data for current, voltage, energy direction, short circuit direction, power and reactive power. If required, it will also have the option for frequency analysis.

Figure 21, The new intelligent connector from Tyco-Raychem.

Figure 22, The ultimate sensor mounted on Raychem RSES connector.

About the author: Peter Johansen is the founder of the 10-year-old company Jomitek located in Denmark. Jomitek specializes in measuring electrical and magnetic fields. More information is available at www.jomitek.dk

Reference: Practical Implementation of distribution automation by Jesper Bak-Jensen, HEF Net A/S og Hans Jrgen Jrgensen,DEFU.

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