Astro 305 Lecture Notes

Wayne Hu

Set 1: Radiative Transfer

Radiation Observables
From an empiricists point of view there are 4 observables for radiation Energy Flux Direction Frequency Polarization

Observables: Flux
.

Energy Flux dE F = dtdA Units: erg s1 cm2 Radiation can hit detector from all angles
dA detector
flux=energy/time/area

Observables: Surface Brightness

.

Direction: columate (e.g. pinhole) in an acceptance angle d normal to dA surface brightness dE S() = dtdAd Units: erg s1 cm2 sr1

dA detector

surface brightness= energy/time/area/solid-angle (normal to detector)

Observables: Specic intensity

.

Frequency: lter in a band of frequency d specic intensity dE I = dtdAdd which is the fundamental quantity for radiative processes Units: erg s1 cm2 sr1 Hz1

d filter bandwidth d

dA detector

specific intensity= energy/time/area/solid-angle/ frequency (normal to detector)

Astro-lingo: color is the difference between frequency bands

Observables: Polarization
.

Polarization: lter in linear (1,2) [or 45 degrees rotated (1,2) or circular (+,-) polarization states] Stokes parameters I = I1 + I2 Q = I1 I2 U = I1 I2 V = I+ I Units: erg s1 cm2 sr1 Hz1

d filter bandwidth d polarizer x2 dA detector

x1

Stokes parameter= energy/time/area/solid-angle/ frequency [sum+difference in polarization states]

Radiative Transfer
.

Radiative Transfer = change in I as radiation propagates Simple example: how does the specic intensity of sunlight change as it propagates to the earth Energy conservation says
.

r2

r1

2 2 F (r1 )4r1 = F (r2 )4r2

F r2

Radiative Transfer
But the angular size subtended by the sun r2 F = const S= And frequency doesnt change so that I = const

Radiative Transfer
More generally: I changes due to Scattering (directional change) Doppler or Red-shift (frequency change) Absorption Emission If frequency changes due to redshift (1 + z)1 , photon conservation implies I / 3 = const and so surface brightness S = I d scales as the redshift of (1 + z)4 (cosmological surface brightness dimming, conversely relativistic Doppler boost) Liouvilles theorem (conservation of I / 3 ) in absence of interactions; Boltzmann equation (radiative transfer equation)

Auxiliary Quantities
.

Specic intensity is dened as energy ux per unit area, per unit solid angle (normal to the area), per unit frequency So specic ux through a detector not oriented normal to source has a lowered cross section due to projection
.

I
dA

co

dA detector

F =

I cos d,

F =

dF

if I is constant in angle, no net energy ux F = 0 = F

Auxiliary Quantities
.

Angle averaged intensity J = d I 4

Specic energy density: start with energy detected dE = I dtdAdd

dE = I dt dA d d

dA

dV=cdtdA

Auxiliary Quantities
Light travels at c, dE is the energy in the volume dV = cdtdA I dE = dV dd c Specic energy density u () I /c Energy density: u= d dI /c = d4J /c

Auxiliary Quantities
.

Momentum q = E/c er Change in momentum per area: 1 dq = I cos ddr e dtdA c Pressure: the component normal to surface e3 er = cos If surface absorbs radiation p,abs 1 = c 1 F cos d = c

I
dA
er e3

os c

dA

I cos2 d

Auxiliary Quantities
If surface reects radiation p = 2p,abs 2 = c I cos2 d

Equation of state of isotropic radiation I = J 2 p = J c 4 p= 3c 4 cos d = J 3c 1 dJ = u 3

2

Radiative Processes
Spontaneous Emission: matter spontaneously emits a photon/radiation Absorption: radiation absorbed by matter Stimulated Emission: passing radiation stimulates matter to emit in the same frequency and direction. Stimulated emission is mathematically the same as negative absorption - both proportional to the incoming radiation Scattering: absorption followed immediately by emission Coherent or elastic: emission at the same frequency Isotropic: radiates equally in all directions All can be related to the matrix element for interaction interrelated by Einstein relations

Spontaneous Emission
j I
ds dA
spontaneous emission

Given a source isotropically radiating power into a band d at a rate power = dP volume The amount of energy radiated per unit solid angle is dEem d = P ddV dt 4

Spontaneous Emission
Generalize to a non-isotropically emitting source P j () 4 called the monocromatic emission coefcient Emission coefcient is alternately given per unit mass where is the mass density dEem =

= 4j /

ddmdt,

dm = dV

Spontaneous Emission
Effect on specic intensity across a path length ds dI dtdAdd = dEem = j dV dddt dI = j ds, Radiative transfer equation dI = j , ds
s

dV = dsdA

I (s) = I (s0 ) +
s0

j (s)ds

Absorption
I
ds dA
absorption

Travelling through a material a fraction of the radiation is absorbed per unit length dI = ds I where is called the absorption coefcient

Absorption
If material does not emit, solution is an exponential suppression ln I = ds + C
ds

I (s) = I (s0 )e

If < 0 (stimulated emission) then there is an exponential growth

<0 I
ds

dA
stimulated emission

Optical Depth
Useful to measure length in units of the typical path length to absorption or interaction 1 L= so that the total path length in units of L becomes ds = ds , L I (s) = I (s0 )e

Radiative transfer equation dI = I + j ds dI = I + S , S j / d where S is the source function.

Cross Section
I

dA
absorption

ds

Particle description of absorbers and light Absorption coefcient related to cross section for interaction Example: if medium is full of opaque disks each of area Given number density n, the covering fraction dAabs = dN = ndV = ndAds

Cross Section
Radiative transfer equation dAabs = dN = ndV = ndAds dI = nds I So for a particle description of the absorption coefcient = n.

Cross Section
Applies to a generalized version of (e.g. free electrons are point particles but Thomson cross section is nite), cross section for interaction, can depend on frequency. Mean free path of a photon L = 1/ = 1/n, where n is the spatial number density of interacting particles (c.f. consider Thomson scattering in air) But the total distance travelled by a photon is typically much greater than s = L - an individual photon propagates through the medium via scattering as a random walk

Scattering
I j
ds dA
scattering

Scattering can be viewed as absorption and emission where the emission is directly proportional to the absorption Isotropic scattering: fraction I absorbed and reradiated into 4 j = d I = J 4

Scattering
Thus the source function S = j / = J and at high optical depth, the specic intensity approaches its angle averaged value J But despite this simple interpretation, the radiative transfer equation is an integro-differential equation dI = I + J d dI d = I + I d 4 that depends on I not only in the observation direction but all directions.

Random Walk
L N

interactions

R
Each of N steps has length L in a random direction ri = Li r R = r1 + r2 . . . + rN Total distance R2 = R R = r1 r1 . . . + rN rN + 2 r1 r2 . . . Uncorrelated cross terms ri rj = ij L2

Random Walk
Average distance R
2

= N L or Rrms

= NL

How many scatterings before escaping a distance R? 2 N = R2 /L2 = for optically thick For optically thin 1, a typical photon does not scatter and so by denition a fraction will interact once, the rest zero and so the average N =
2 Quick estimate N = max( , )

Multiple Processes
Combining processes: differential elements add, e.g. total opacity is sum of individual opacities so highest opacity process is most important for blocking I But given multiple frequency or spatial channels, energy escapes in the channel with the lowest opacity Example: a transition line vs continuum scattering photons will wander in frequency out of line and escape through lower opacity scattering lines are often dark (sun) Scattering (s ) and absorption (a ) dI = a (I Sa ) s (I J ) ds

Multiple Processes
Collect terms dI = (a + s )I + (a Sa + s J ) ds Combined source function and absorption = a + s , j a Sa + s J S = = a + s

Mean free path L = 1/ = 1/(a + s ), typical length before absorption or scattering. Fraction that ends in absorption

a = , a + s

s = single scattering albedo a + s

Sa

S =

+ (1

)J

Formal Solution to Radiative Transfer

S I(0)
0 '

I()

Formal solution

I ( ) = I (0)e +
0

d S ( )e( )

Interpretation: initial specic intensity I attenuated by absorption and replaced by source function, attenuated by absorption from foreground matter

Formal Solution to Radiative Transfer

Special case S independent of take out of integral

I ( ) = I (0)e + S
0

d e( )

= I (0)e + S [1 e ] at low optical depth I unchanged, high optical depth I S Integration is along the path of the radiation (direction dependent); source function can depend on I in a different direction!

Fluid or Eddington Approximation

.

Often a good approximation that radiation is nearly isotropic: consider the fact that scattering, absorption and emission randomizes the direction of radiation Eddington (or uid) approximation: radiation has a dipole structure at most
.

dz ds=dz/cos

I=

+ ...

Plane parallel symmetry (e.g. star, Fourier expansion): specic intensity depends only on polar angle from normal to plane and vertical spatial coordinate z. Path length ds = dz/ cos = dz/.

Fluid or Eddington Approximation

Now approximate I as a linear function of (isotropic + dipole energy density + bulk momentum density: I = a + b [More generally: a Legendre polynomial expansion of I - e.g. CMB typically keeps 25-50 moments to solve for S and then 3000-6000 moments to describe I ] Angular moments of specic intensity: 1 J = 2 1 H = 2 1 K = 2
+1

I d
1 +1

(energy density) (momentum density) (pressure)

I d
1 +1 1 2

1 I d = J 3

Fluid or Eddington Approximation

Radiative transfer equation: dI dI = = (I S ) ds dz dI = (I S ), d = dz d Angular moments of specic intensity: zeroth moment (for simplicity assume S is isotropic)
1 2

d . . .

dH = (J S ) d In uid mechanics this is the Euler equation: local imbalance generates a ow

Fluid or Eddington Approximation

First moment
1 2

d . . .

dK 1 dJ = = H d 3 d This is the continuity equation, a ow generates a change in energy density Take derivative and combine dH 1 d2 J = = J S 2 3 d d Explicit equation for J (z) if S considered an external source Consider scattering + absorption/emission 1 d2 J = J [ Sa + (1 2 3 d = (Sa J )
)J ]

Fluid or Eddington Approximation

Explicitly solve with two boundary conditions: e.g. J (0) = J0 and J () = Sa . If Sa constant
3 J = Sa + [J0 Sa ]e So relaxation to source at 1/ 3 - modied since part of the optical depth is due to scattering