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Series Theories of learning There are many different theories of how people Punishment, on the other hand, weakens a learn. What follows is a variety of them, and it is ecause a negative condition is introduced useful to consider their application to how your ced as a consequence of the behaviour and students learn and also how you teach in educational individual not to repeat the behaviour programmes. It is interesting to think about your egatively reinforced. Punishment creates own particular way of learning and to recognise that nditions which are designed to eliminate everyone does not learn the way you do. Burns, 1995, p 108). Laird (1985) considers of behaviourism has little or no relevance Burns (1995, p 99) conceives of learning as a However, Burns says that punishment relatively permanent change in behaviour with sed in everyday life although it only works behaviour including both observable activity and time and often only when the punishing internal processes such as thinking, attitudes and resent. emotions. It is clear that Burns includes motivation in this definition of learning. Burns considers that that much Competency Based Training is learning might not manifest itself in observable is theory, and although it is useful in behaviour until some time after the educational petitive tasks like multiplication tables and program has taken place. skills that require a great deal of practice, behaviour. Lee Dunn behaviour b or experien 27 June 2002 teaches the which was n First published in a set of co 2000 on the OCSLD behaviour ( website this aspect at:http://www.bro to education. okes.ac.uk/ is widely u services/ocsd/ for a short 2_learntch/ agency is p theories.html Burns notes based on th learning re those work higher orde r learning is not involved. The criticism of Sensory stimulation theory ch is that it is rigid and mechanical. Traditional sensory stimulation theory has as its basic premise that effective learning occurs when the senses estalt approaches are stimulated (Laird, 1985). Laird quotes research s here is on the importance of experience, that found that the vast majority of knowledge held oblem-solving and the development of by adults (75%) is learned through seeing. Hearing is urns 1995, p 112). Burns notes that this the next most effective (about 13%) and the other developed the concept that individuals senses touch, smell and taste account for 12% of needs and concerns at different times, what we know. ey have subjective interpretations in this approa Cognitive-G The emphasi meaning, pr insights (B theory has have different and that th different c

ontexts. By stimulating the senses, especially the visual sense, learning can be enhanced. However, this theory says earning theory that if multi-senses are stimulated, greater learning premise of this theory is that the takes place. Stimulation through the senses is personality consists of many elements... achieved through a greater variety of colours, volume y ... the intellect, emotions, the body levels, strong statements, facts presented visually, use desire), intuition and imagination (Laird, of a variety of techniques and media. 1) that all require activation if learning is to e. Reinforcement theory This theory was developed by the behaviourist school on theory (the humanist approach) of psychology, notably by B.F. Skinner (Laird 1985, and others have developed the theory of Burns 1995). Skinner believed that behaviour is a e learning. The basic premise of this theory function of its consequences. The learner will repeat rning will occur by the educator acting as a the desired behaviour if positive reinforcement (a , that is by establishing an atmosphere in pleasant consequence) follows the behaviour. ers feel comfortable to consider new ideas threatened by external factors (Laird Positive reinforcement, or rewards can include verbal reinforcement such as Thats great or Youre certainly on the right track through to more tangible eristics of this theory include: rewards such as a certificate at the end of the course that human beings have a natural or promotion to a higher level in an organisation. ness to learn some resistance to, and unpleasant Negative reinforcement also strengthens a behaviour uences of, giving up what is currently and refers to a situation when a negative condition is o be true stopped or avoided as a consequence of the significant learning involves changing Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development 2002 www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsd/ 1 ----------------------- Page 2----------------------ones concept of oneself ays has been explored over the last few y educational researchers. Kolb, one of the Facilitative teachers are: influential of these, found that individuals less protective of their constructs and beliefs

Holistic l The basic

individual specificall impulse (or 1985, p 12 be effectiv Facilitati Carl Rogers facilitativ is that lea facilitator which learn and are not 1985). Other charact a belief eager there is conseq held t the most

different w decades b the most begin with

their preferred style in the experiential than other teachers cycle (see above). Honey and Mumford (1986 more able to listen to learners, especially to their Gill & Beaty 1995 p 177), building on feelings , identified four learning styles: inclined to pay as much attention to their t (enjoys the experience itself), relationship with learners as to the content ctor (spends a great deal of time and effort of the course ecting) apt to accept feedback, both positive and t (good at making connections and negative and to use it as constructive insight into racting ideas from experience) themselves and their behaviour atist (enjoys the planning stage) Learners: strengths and weaknesses in each of these are encouraged to take responsibility for their ney and Mumford argue that learning is own learning when we think about our learning style so provide much of the input for the learning build on strengths and work towards which occurs through their insights and g weaknesses to improve the quality of experiences are encouraged to consider that the most valuable evaluation is self-evaluation and that arning learning needs to focus on factors that contribute arning is the approach that links the world to solving significant problems or achieving ng with the world of action through a significant results e process within small cooperative learning own as action learning sets (McGill & Experiential learning 5). The sets meet regularly to work on Kolb proposed a four-stage learning process with a l members real-life issues with the aim of model that is often referred to in describing with and from each other. The father of experiential learning (McGill & Beaty 1995). The arning, Reg Revans, has said that there can be process can begin at any of the stages and is ng without action and no (sober and continuous, ie there is no limit to the number of e) action without learning. cycles you can make in a learning situation. This theory asserts that without reflection we would gued that learning can be shown by the simply continue to repeat our mistakes. equation, where L is learning; P is

learning cited in Mc Kolbs work Activis Refle refl Theoris abst Pragm There are styles. Ho enhanced that we can minimisin learning. Action le Action le of learni reflectiv groups kn Beaty 199 individua learning action le no learni deliberat Revans ar following

programme d knowledge (eg traditional instruction) and Q is questioning insight. L = P + Q Revans, a long with many others who have used, researche d and taught about this approach, argued that acti on learning is ideal for finding solutions to problems that do not have a right answer because the neces sary questioning insight can be facilitated by people le arning with and from each other in action learning s ets. Figure: Kolbs experiential learning cycle ing (andragogy) nowles (1978, 1990) is the theorist who Kolbs research found that people learn in concept of adult learning to the fore. with the likelihood of developing one mode d that adulthood has arrived when people learning more than another. As shown adult ways and believe themselves to be experiential learning cycle model above, they should be treated as adults. He at adult learning was special in a number of through concrete experience example: through observation and reflection through abstract conceptualisation earners bring a great deal of experience to through active experimentation arning environment. Educators can use this resource Differences in learning styles s expect to have a high degree of influence As already discussed, the idea that people learn in hat they are to be educated for, and how 2 OCSLD 2002 Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development 2002 ----------------------- Page 3----------------------they are to be educated xercise is about to begin, one individual may the active participation of learners should be ret the exercise in such a way that leads to a an e interp four ways He of in the learning is: Adult learn Malcolm K brought the has argue behave in adults. Then taught th ways. For

adult l the le as a adult on w

encouraged in designing and implementing ing of excitement, while the other person educational programs rprets the exercise in such a way that leads to the adults need to be able to see applications for g of embarrassment. It is self evident that the new learning the individual interprets the situation and the adult learners expect to have a high degree of uent emotion that arises, will affect the kind of influence on how learning will be evaluated on the individual is to take (Burns, 1995, p 16). adults expect their responses to be acted upon considers that such appraisals, coupled with when asked for feedback on the progress of the ls such as fear or anxiety can lead some program ners to emotionally disengage from the source of omfort that is the learning experience. Burns (1995, p.233) says: coupled with labels such as excitement or However,

feel inte feelin way subseq acti Burns labe lear disc when chall

enge the learner is led to take actions that focus By adulthood people are self-directing. task. the concept that lies at the heart of andragogy... andragogy is therefore student-centred, consider learning theories? experience-based, problem-oriented and short paper has summarised a range of learning collaborative very much in the spirit of the ries that can be applied in educational contexts. humanist approach to learning and education... hing and learning activities can be designed and the whole educational activity turns on the emented to take principles of learning into student. t. Also, it is interesting to think about

This is

on the Why This theo Teac impl accoun indi

vidual differences among learners and to work Adulthood as a social construction rds including activities that have variety and Pogson and Tennant (1995) provide a perspective of rest for all the learners in educational programs. adulthood as a social construction. They say that the concept of a lifes course varies for different individuals and different cultures; therefore trainers rences and adult educators should be wary of definitive ks, J. (1995). Training and Development Competence: views of adults and their behaviour. actical guide, London: Kogan Page. Burns would probably support this view as he s, R. (1995). The adult learner at work, Sydney: discusses the notion that definitions of the adult are ss and Professional Publishing. not clear and says the same is true of adult education. He discusses the petrol tank view of

towa inte

Refe Broo a pr Burn Busine Burns, S.

(1995). Rapid changes require enhancement school education: fill the tank full at the only garage lt learning HRMonthly June, pp 16- 17. before the freeway, then away we go on lifes journey (1995, p 227). He goes on to discuss that problems les, M.S. (1978). The Adult Learner: a Neglected can arise when people have not had their tank filled ies 2nd edition, Houston: Gulf Publishing completely at school and he extends the metaphor to any, Book Division. suggest that there should be service stations along the length of the highway of life. M.S. (1990). The Adult Learner: a Neglected ies 4th edition, Houston: Gulf Publishing The question could be asked when is maturity y, Book Division complete? Is there no further development after a certain stage in life? d, D. (1985). Approaches to training and development, ing, Mass: Addison-Wesley.

of adu Know Spec Comp Knowles, Spec Compan Lair Read The Oxford

Centre for Staff Some authors think that while children at approxand Learni ng Development imately the same age are at approximately the same ll, I. & Beaty, L. (1995) Action Learning, second okes University Campus stage of development, the same cannot be said of ion: a guide for professional, management and 0BP adults. Adults would vary in levels of knowledge ational development London: Kogan Page. 484610 and also in their life experiences. McGi Oxford Bro Gipsy Lane edit Oxford OX3 educ Tel: 01865 There could be said Fax: 01865 484622 to be tremendous variation in adult experience. on, P. & Tennant, M. (1995) Understanding Email: ts in Foley, G. ed. Understanding adult education s.ac.uk An adults emotional response can affect learning aining, St Leonards: Allen & Unwin, pp.20-30. s.ac.uk/services/ Some adults can approach formal educational settings ocsd/ with anxiety and feelings of high or low self-efficacy. Adul ocsld@brooke and tr Web: www.brooke Pogs

Date modif ied: 22 Februar y 2002 Their approach to new learning contexts can be influenced by how they appraise or evaluate the new Other pape rs in this series are available at experience. http://www .brookes.ac.uk/ services/o csd/4_resource/ 4_resource .html For example: given two adults in a classroom where Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development 2002 www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsd/ 3